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‎LICENSE

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The instructions and text in this tutorial (the "software") are licensed
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under the zlib License.
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(C) 2016-2018 Akuli
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(C) 2016-2021 Akuli
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This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied
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warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages

‎README.md

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# Python programming tutorial
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# Python programming tutorial for beginners
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This is a concise Python 3 programming tutorial for people who think
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that reading is boring. I try to show everything with simple code
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the past using some other language you may want to read [the official
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tutorial](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/) instead.
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You can use Python 3.3 or any newer Python with this tutorial. **Don't
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use Python 2.** If you write a Python 2 program now someone will need to
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convert it to Python 3 later, so it's best to just write Python 3 to
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begin with. Python 3 code will work just fine in Python 4, so you don't
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need to worry about that. Python 2 also has horrible
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[Unicode](http://www.unicode.org/standard/WhatIsUnicode.html) problems,
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so it's difficult to write Python 2 code that works correctly with
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non-English characters (like π and ♫).
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You can use Python 3.5 or any newer Python with this tutorial. **Don't
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use Python 2 because it's no longer supported.**
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## List of contents
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working on a large project, and your code would be really repetitive
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without these things.
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You can experient with these things freely, but please **don't use these
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You can experiment with these things freely, but please **don't use these
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techniques just because you know how to use them.** Prefer the simple
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techniques from the Basics part instead when possible. Simple is better
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than complex.
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## Authors
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I'm Akuli and I have written most of this tutorial, but these people
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have helped me with it:
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- [SpiritualForest](https://github.com/SpiritualForest): Lots of typing
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error fixes.
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- [theelous3](https://github.com/theelous3): Small improvements and fixes.
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I'm Akuli and I have written most of this tutorial, but other people have helped me with it.
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See [github's contributors page](https://github.com/Akuli/python-tutorial/graphs/contributors) for details.
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***
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‎advanced/datatypes.md

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>>>
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```
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Dictionaries have an `update` method that adds everything from another
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dictionary into it. So we can merge dictionaries like this:
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Usually it's easiest to do this:
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```python
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>>> merged = {}
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>>> merged.update({'a': 1, 'b': 2})
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>>> merged.update({'c': 3})
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>>> merged
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{'c': 3, 'b': 2, 'a': 1}
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>>>
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```
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Or we can [write a function](../basics/defining-functions.md) like this:
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```python
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>>> def merge_dicts(dictlist):
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... result = {}
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... for dictionary in dictlist:
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... result.update(dictionary)
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... return result
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...
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>>> merge_dicts([{'a': 1, 'b': 2}, {'c': 3}])
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{'c': 3, 'b': 2, 'a': 1}
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>>>
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>>> dict1 = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
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>>> dict2 = {'c': 3}
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>>> {**dict1, **dict2}
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{'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
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```
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Kind of like counting things, merging dictionaries is also a commonly
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needed thing and there's a class just for it in the `collections`
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module. It's called ChainMap:
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Dictionaries also have an `update` method that adds everything from another
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dictionary into it, and you can use that too. This was the most common way to
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do it before Python supported `{**dict1, **dict2}`.
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```python
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>>> import collections
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>>> merged = collections.ChainMap({'a': 1, 'b': 2}, {'c': 3})
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>>> merged = {}
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>>> merged.update({'a': 1, 'b': 2})
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>>> merged.update({'c': 3})
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>>> merged
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ChainMap({'b': 2, 'a': 1}, {'c': 3})
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>>>
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```
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Our `merged` is kind of like the Counter object we created earlier. It's
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not a dictionary, but it behaves like a dictionary.
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```python
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>>> for key, value in merged.items():
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... print(key, value)
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...
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c 3
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b 2
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a 1
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>>> dict(merged)
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{'c': 3, 'b': 2, 'a': 1}
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>>>
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```
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Starting with Python 3.5 it's possible to merge dictionaries like this.
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**Don't do this unless you are sure that no-one will need to run your
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code on Python versions older than 3.5.**
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```python
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>>> first = {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
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>>> second = {'c': 3, 'd': 4}
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>>> {**first, **second}
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{'d': 4, 'c': 3, 'a': 1, 'b': 2}
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{'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
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>>>
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```
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‎basics/answers.md

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print("Access denied.")
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```
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Again, this is not a good way to ask a real password from the user.
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Again, this is not a good way to ask a real password from the user.
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## Handy stuff: Strings
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print(message, "!!!")
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print(message, "!!!")
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```
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3. In the code below, `palindrome_input[::-1]` is the string `palindrome_input` reversed.
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For example, if `palindrome_input` is `"hello"`, then `palindrome_input[::-1]` is `"olleh"`.
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```python
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palindrome_input = input("Enter a string: ")
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if palindrome_input == palindrome_input[::-1]:
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print("This string is a palindrome")
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else:
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print("This string is not a palindrome")
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```
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## Lists and tuples
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1. Look carefully. The `namelist` is written in `()` instead of `[]`,
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print(converted_numbers)
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```
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5. ``` python
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row_count = int(input("Type the number of rows needed:"))
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for column_count in range(1, row_count+1):
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# Print numbers from 1 to column_count
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for number in range(1, column_count+1):
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print(number, end=" ")
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print() # creates a new line for the next row
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```
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If the user enters 5, we want to do a row with 1 column, then 2 columns, and so on until 5 columns.
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That would be `for column_count in range(1, 6)`, because the end of the range is excluded.
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In general, we need to specify `row_count + 1` so that it actually ends at `row_count`.
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The second loop is similar.
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Usually `print(number)` puts a newline character at the end of the line, so that the next print goes to the next line.
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To get all numbers on the same line, we use a space instead of a newline character,
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but we still need `print()` to add a newline character once we have printed the entire row.
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6. ```python
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row_count=int(input("Type the number of rows needed:"))
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for line_number in range(1, row_count+1):
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for number in range(line_number, row_count+1):
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print(number, end=' ')
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print()
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```
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Just like in the previous exercise, if the user enters 5, the first `for` loop gives the line numbers `1, 2, 3, 4, 5`.<br>
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For example, on line 2, we should print numbers from 2 to 5, as in `range(2, 6)`, or in general, `range(line_number, row_count+1)`.
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## Trey Hunner: zip and enumerate
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1. Read some lines with `input` into a list and then enumerate it.

‎basics/docstrings.md

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```
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That sucked! We have no idea about what it does based on this. All we
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know is that it takes a `thing` argument.
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know is that it takes a `stuff` argument.
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This is when documentation strings or docstrings come in. All we need to
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You might be wondering what `__weakref__` is. You don't need to care
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about it, and I think it would be better if `help()` would hide it.
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## Popular Docstring Formats
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There are different styles for writing docstrings. If you are contributing to
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another Python project, make sure to use the same style as rest of that project
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is using.
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If you are starting a new project, then you can use whichever style you
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want, but don't "reinvent the wheel"; use an existing style instead instead of
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making up your own. Here are some examples of popular docstring styles to choose
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from:
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### Sphinx Style
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[Sphinx](https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/) is the Python documentation tool
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that [the official Python documentation](https://docs.python.org/3/) uses.
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By default, sphinx expects you to write docstrings like this:
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```python
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class Vehicles:
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"""
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The Vehicles object contains lots of vehicles.
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:param arg: The arg is used for ...
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:type arg: str
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:ivar arg: This is where we store arg
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:vartype arg: str
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"""
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def __init__(self, arg):
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self.arg = arg
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def cars(self, distance, destination):
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"""We can't travel a certain distance in vehicles without fuels, so here's the fuels
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:param distance: The amount of distance traveled
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:type amount: int
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:param bool destinationReached: Should the fuels be refilled to cover required distance?
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:raises: :class:`RuntimeError`: Out of fuel
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:returns: A Car mileage
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:rtype: Cars
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"""
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...
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```
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### Google Style
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Google Style is meant to be easier to read and use without a tool like sphinx.
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Sphinx can be configured to use that with
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[sphinx.ext.napoleon](https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/usage/extensions/napoleon.html).
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```python
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class Vehicles:
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"""
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The Vehicles object contains lots of vehicles.
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Args:
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arg (str): The arg is used for...
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Attributes:
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arg (str): This is where we store arg.
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"""
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def __init__(self, arg):
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self.arg = arg
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def cars(self, distance, destination):
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"""We can't travel distance in vehicles without fuels, so here is the fuels
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Args:
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distance (int): The amount of distance traveled
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destination (bool): Should the fuels refilled to cover the distance?
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Raises:
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RuntimeError: Out of fuel
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Returns:
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cars: A car mileage
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"""
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...
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```
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### Numpy Style
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[Numpy](https://numpy.org/) is a large and popular Python library,
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and numpy developers have their own docstring style.
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```python
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class Vehicles:
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"""
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The Vehicles object contains lots of vehicles.
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Parameters
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----------
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arg : str
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The arg is used for ...
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*args
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The variable arguments are used for ...
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**kwargs
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The keyword arguments are used for ...
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Attributes
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----------
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arg : str
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This is where we store arg.
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"""
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def __init__(self, arg):
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self.arg = arg
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def cars(self, distance, destination):
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"""We can't travel distance in vehicles without fuels, so here is the fuels
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Parameters
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----------
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distance : int
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The amount of distance traveled
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destination : bool
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Should the fuels refilled to cover the distance?
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Raises
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------
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RuntimeError
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Out of fuel
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Returns
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-------
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cars
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A car mileage
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"""
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pass
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```
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## When should we use docstrings?
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Always use docstrings when writing code that other people will import.
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The `help()` function is awesome, so it's important to make sure it's
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actually helpful.
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I recommend using docstrings when writing code that other people will import.
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The `help()` function is awesome, so it's good to make sure it's actually helpful.
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If your code is not meant to be imported, docstrings are usually a good
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- A `"""triple-quoted string"""` string in the beginning of a function,
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class or file is a docstring. It shows up in `help()`.
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- Docstrings are not comments.
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- Usually it's a good idea to add docstrings everywhere
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- Usually it's a good idea to add docstrings everywhere.
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***
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‎basics/editor-setup.md

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# Setting up an editor for programming
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An editor is a program that lets us write longer programs than we can
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write on the `>>>` prompt. Then we can save the programs to files and
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write on the `>>>` prompt. With an editor we can save the programs to files and
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run them as many times as we want without writing them again.
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When programmers say "editor" they don't mean programs like Microsoft
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Word or LibreOffice/OpenOffice Writer. These programs are for writing
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text documents, not for programming. **Programming editors don't support
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things like bigger font sizes for titles or underlining bits of text**,
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but instead they have features that are actually useful for programming,
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like automatically displaying different things with different colors.
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like automatically displaying different things with different colors,
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but also highlighting mistakes in the code, and coloring syntax.
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If you are on Windows or Mac OSX you have probably noticed that your
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Python came with an editor called IDLE. We are not going to use it

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