R.S. Zaharna

American University, School Of Communication, Faculty Member

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Muqtedar Khan

University of Delaware

Greg Simons

Daffodil International University(DIU)

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Georgia State University

Martin van Bruinessen

Universiteit Utrecht

David Seamon

Kansas State University

Armando Marques-Guedes

UNL - New University of Lisbon

Noe Cornago

University of the Basque Country, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea

Francisco Rodriguez Jimenez

Universidad de Extremadura

Shahira S Fahmy

American University in Cairo

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University of Genova

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Books by R.S. Zaharna

R.S. Zaharna, “Obama, U.S. Public Diplomacy and the Islamic World,” World Politics Review, March 16, 2009, pp. 18-23.

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Simulation Based Approach to Cross Cultural Training for Higher Order Cultural Awareness

This paper describes a simulation training approach based on an intelligent agent infrastructure ... more This paper describes a simulation training approach based on an intelligent agent infrastructure that models the consequences of soldier interactions with local populations not just during the interaction itself but over the longer course of time as local observation and opinion of the interactions propagate through local society. Thus, the training approach fosters an awareness that cultural interactions function on multiple levels, from the more immediate interaction to more distal and abstract cultural dynamics, while providing context-specific modeling of possible longer-term effects within a particular culture. We developed profiles of different characters within the local culture. These include four age groups (children, young adults, adults, and older adults) of both genders and having varying degrees of influence. There are also two soldier profiles representing individuals who have more or less appreciation for how cultural awareness plays out in interactions with local populations. From interviews with pre-deployment soldiers at Fort Polk (most of whom had previous deployments to Iraq or Afghanistan) we devised " culturally alert " and " culturally blind " soldiers. Culturally alert soldiers view culture as a tactical and strategic component of the unfamiliar terrain and are alert to cultural cues in order to safely and effectively navigate that terrain. They understand the components of interaction with men and women of Arab cultures, are constantly using their cultural radar, and make decisions about actions based on a long view rather than simply focusing on the immediate event. Culturally blind soldiers are unaware of the importance of cultural cues as navigational aides in the unfamiliar cultural terrain. They are " flying blind, " and are vulnerable to inadvertently causing harm to themselves and civilians in the unfamiliar terrain. The opinion transmission model derives from classical works on rumor and recent work on rumors in Iraq. The nature and probability of transmission varies for each type of individual and is influenced by the probability of different types meeting each other and exchanging information. The pairing of opinion provider and recipient also influences the likelihood of further transmission in original or changed form, and the urgency of transmission. Both the agents and the transmission model are modeled using the Cybele agent infrastructure (www.opencybele.org) which provides an event-driven run time environment for agents. The described effort (funded by the Office of the Secretary of Defense as an SBIR Phase I proposal), lays the foundation for further work which will encompass a greater number of agents and more sophisticated scenarios that support more open-ended interactions.

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R.S. Zaharna and Juan Cristobal Villalobos, “A Public Relations Tour of Embassy Row: The Latin Diplomatic Experience,” Public Relations Quarterly 45 (2000), pp.33-37

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Public Diplomacy through the Looking Glass: Obama, US Public Diplomacy and the Islamic World

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R.S. Zaharna, Ahmed Ibrahim Hammad, and Jane Masri, “Palestinian Public Relations – Inside and Out,” in Sriramesh and D. Vercic (Eds.), The Handbook of Global Public Relations: Theory, Research, and Practice, Vol. 2 (London: Routledge, 2009), pp. 220-242.

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R.S. Zaharna, A. Fisher and A. Arsenault, “Introduction: The Connective Mindshift,” in R.S. Zaharna, A. Arsenault & A. Fisher (Eds.), The Connective Mindshift: Relational, Network and Collaborative Approaches to Public Diplomacy, (New York: Routledge, 2013), pp. 1-14.

Introduction to Relational, Network and Collaborative Approaches to Public Diplomacy. Discusses t... more Introduction to Relational, Network and Collaborative Approaches to Public Diplomacy. Discusses the message-media foundation in public diplomacy, then traces the emergence and evolution of relational turn in public diplomacy. Highlights features of relational public diplomacy. Concludes with significance of the individual chapter contributions.

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Battles to Bridges: US Strategic Communication and Public Diplomacy after 9/11

R.S. Zaharna, Battles to Bridges: US Strategic Communication & Public Diplomacy after 9/11 (Pal... more R.S. Zaharna,
Battles to Bridges: US Strategic Communication & Public Diplomacy after 9/11
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)

Table of Contents

Introduction

Part I: Crisis Public Diplomacy

Chapter 1 America’s Communication Problem
From Global Sympathy 1
To Anti-American Hostility 7
Beyond Image and Numbers – The Bigger Picture 14

Chapter 2 Battle for Hearts and Minds
Public Diplomacy Wake-up Call 28
The Battle 31
Public Diplomacy Challenges 55

Chapter 3 Search for Answers
Reports and Recommendations 65
Lingering Issues and Blind Spots 73
Battle Continues 83

Part II: Changing Dynamics

Chapter 4 Changing Dynamics and Strategic Vision
US Public Diplomacy in Retrospect 91
Traditional Diplomacy to Public Diplomacy 102
Public Diplomacy to “New Public Diplomacy” 106
Global Communication Era 114

Chapter 5 Soft Power Differential
Soft Power Dilemma 120
Mass Communication – Wielding Soft Power 123
Network Communication – Creating Soft Power 126
Soft Power Differential 146

Chapter 6 Communication, Culture & Identity in Public Diplomacy
Culture in International Relations & Public Diplomacy 152
Explicit & Implicit Culture in US Public Diplomacy 156
Cultural Underpinnings of US Public Diplomacy 161
Challenges of Identity & Culture in Public Diplomacy 172

Part III
Expanding the Vision of Strategic US Public Diplomacy

Chapter 7 Strategy & Tactics: Conceptual Frameworks
From Either/or to Both 181
Information Framework 183
Relational Framework 195
Expanding the Conceptual Vision 205

Chapter 8 Grand Strategy: From Battles to Bridges
Grand Strategy, Strategy & Tactics 210
US Public Diplomacy Grand Strategy 214
Assessing the Viability of the Grand Strategy 219
Redefining Strategic Goals 225

Epilogue Obama Administration and US Public Diplomacy

Endnotes 234

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Papers by R.S. Zaharna

All Thumbs at Communication

Boundary Spanners of Humanity

Chapter 1 examines how U.S. public diplomacy’s repeated failures to reach global publics exposed ... more Chapter 1 examines how U.S. public diplomacy’s repeated failures to reach global publics exposed in real time the fallacy of a singular notion of “communication.” The chapter reveals how the dominant view of communication, far from being universal, is a template based on a distinctly Western, individual-level notion of communication as separate senders and receivers. The dominance of the template has overshadowed critical dynamics of relational and holistic understandings of the communication experience found in many of the world’s intellectual heritages. In a radical break from national and culture-based models of communication that simply insert different behavior patterns into the individual-level template, the chapter sketches three relations-based logics of communication. Each logic—the Individual, the Relational, and the Holistic—contains distinctive elements that help create a comprehensive vision of the human communication experience. The chapter concludes with key take-away...

Boundary Spanners of Humanity

Boundary Spanners of Humanity tackles the growing severity of global problems and our strained ab... more Boundary Spanners of Humanity tackles the growing severity of global problems and our strained ability to collaborate by critically re-examining two pivotal tools: communication and public diplomacy. R. S. Zaharna, a leading scholar of public diplomacy and international strategic communication, exposes the limitations of intercultural communication and state-based public diplomacy and proposes a pan-human vision of communication that can revolutionize how we communicate globally. The book reveals how dominant views of communication and public diplomacy are based on a 19th-century mindset of separateness that clashes with today’s global connectivity and human diversity. In a radical break from outdated models that divide humanity into cultural categories, Zaharna introduces a vision of humanity-centered public diplomacy featuring three complementary logics of communication. Used together, these communication logics are key to leveraging diversity, navigating connectivity, and enhanci...

Issue Theme: The Use of Social Media in U.S. Public Diplomacy

The rise of social media is revolutionizing how state and non-state actors communicate with publi... more The rise of social media is revolutionizing how state and non-state actors communicate with publics in the international community. While governments across the globe are scrambling to adjust, U.S. public diplomacy has emerged as a clear leader in the field according to a new report (Hanson 2012). This special issue explores the various dimensions of the use and impact of social media on U.S. public diplomacy and the public diplomacy of other state and non-state actors directed at the U.S. public. We take a necessarily broad view of both public diplomacy and social media. In a certain respect because media is inherently a tool for humans to communication, all media is social. Given media’s tendency to amplify the impact of human communication, today’s new social media tools are exhibiting the same combustive social impact as earlier varieties. In Small Media, Big Revolution, Sreberny-Mohammadi & Mohammadi (1994) explain how the circulation of cassette recordings helped lay a foundat...

Individual Logic

Boundary Spanners of Humanity, 2022

Chapter 3 travels back to the agora (Ἀγορά‎), or public square, of ancient Athens and Aristotle’s... more Chapter 3 travels back to the agora (Ἀγορά‎), or public square, of ancient Athens and Aristotle’s legacy of rhetoric as a window into the Individual or Expressive logic. The chapter explores the interlocking premises of individuals as bounded, separate, and autonomous entities and the communication imperative of agency, control, and expression. In the Individual logic, expression is an existential imperative. Expression becomes synonymous with communication as the primary way for the separate individual to be known to others, to connect with others, and to maintain autonomy. The chapter highlights the central role of the Communicator in defining communication. Communication dynamics of the Individual logic spotlight Communicator attributes and agency, message, medium, audience, goal orientation, and measurability. The chapter concludes with notes for the Boundary Spanners on individualism and individuality, identity and expression, and sharing and preserving intellectual heritages.

Holistic Logic

Boundary Spanners of Humanity, 2022

Chapter 5 draws upon the creation myths and cosmograms of the ancient world as a window into the ... more Chapter 5 draws upon the creation myths and cosmograms of the ancient world as a window into the communication dynamics of the Holistic logic. The chapter opens by surveying sacred cosmic circles that ancient societies used to convey their relational assumptions of an all-encompassing, indivisible relational universe. Because the relational universe provides meaning for the communication experience, maintaining the integrity and continuity of the whole is a communication imperative. The communication dynamics of the Holistic logic assume relational interaction and embodied communication. Examples from ancient cosmograms, including the Sri Yantra and Yin-Yang, are used to illustrate the interactive dynamics of the Holistic logic: expanding relations, finding commonality, preserving diversity, developing contextual sensitivity, creating interaction synchrony and synergy, and adopting a cooperative orientation. The chapter concludes with notes for Boundary Spanners on hierarchy and ide...

Relational Logic

Boundary Spanners of Humanity, 2022

Chapter 4 ventures back to the ancient Near East to explore the diplomatic bonding practices amon... more Chapter 4 ventures back to the ancient Near East to explore the diplomatic bonding practices among a brotherhood of the kings. Their reciprocal exchange of gifts, greetings, and brides, known as Amarna diplomacy, provides a window into the Relational logic. The Relational logic focuses on the level of the paired relationship and views the communication experience through the prism of the relational bond. Emotion serves as the key thread running throughout the communication dynamics that seek to define and strengthen relational bonds. Drawing on examples from ancient Amarna diplomacy and contemporary public diplomacy, the chapter presents the communication dynamics associated with the Relational logic: contact points, nonverbal behaviors, emotional expression, perspective-taking, reciprocity, and symbolism. The chapter concludes with insights from neuroscience and the communication functions of emotions in shaping relational identities, forging relational bonds, and fostering intuiti...

Mapping out a Spectrum of Public Diplomacy Initiatives: Information and Relational Communication Frameworks

Going for the jugular in public diplomacy: How adversarial publics using social media are challenging state legitimacy

Public Relations Review, 2016

Abstract Traditionally, nations have viewed other nations as their primary competitors in public ... more Abstract Traditionally, nations have viewed other nations as their primary competitors in public diplomacy (PD). In a quest to increase their effectiveness, states are applying relationship management and pursuing a more relational PD approach with publics. However, present understanding of relationships may be one-sided, focusing primarily on the state's relationship-building activities and overlooking the public's agency in defining relations. This paper uses relationalism as an analytical lens to construct a 4-quadrant model of public diplomacy based on the relational dynamics between a state and publics. The model reveals a parallel evolution of communication technology and public diplomacy initiatives that move from assumptions of no relations with publics, to favorable relations, to adversarial relations. A case study from Turkey is used to illustrate how diverse groups can use social media to form unlikely alliances to become a fluid, adversarial public capable of ‘going for the jugular’ and challenging state legitimacy. Aggressive separation tactics by the state to counter adversarial publics can inadvertently create a ‘relational paradox’ that leaves the two parties more politically divided and yet more relationally intertwined. The study implications stress the need for states to monitor their relational dynamic with publics as a precursor for developing reflective strategies.

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The battle for hearts and minds

BMJ, 2009

In his series of photographs "The Battle for Hearts and Minds," Bosnian artist Nebojsa Serić Shob... more In his series of photographs "The Battle for Hearts and Minds," Bosnian artist Nebojsa Serić Shoba-known as "Shoba"-interrogates war as an extension of global capitalism. In these images the oft-cited rhetoric of freedom and heroic sacrifice in the global "war on terror" is shown for what it is, an empty mantra masking the real goals at the heart of recent western military interventions. Combat-ready soldiers in the field of battle appear encumbered by shopping bags bearing the designer logos of top European and American brand names and shopping emporiums. Arguably, as frontline troops in the U.S.-led wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the soldiers in these images serve the hegemonic interests of the multinational corporations standing to benefit from increased access to natural resources, markets, and cheap, expendable labor. In their absurdity, the multinational forces depicted in these images represent the blunt suppression of national sovereignty, their violence deployed in order to pry open new terrain for economic conquest. Utilizing an almost classical Dadaist approach to photomontage, Shoba employs a barbed humor to render given assumptions and ubiquitous, yet carefully chosen, photojournalistic images of battle meaningless. In a way these images mimic contemporary modes of representation in advertising. While the original images of combat were appropriated from online news sources, the proliferation of similar images depicting soldiers in the field of battle highlights a visual stage-managing of war. Soldiers appear engaged in acts of defense or aggression, but rarely appear dead, injured, or in the act of killing enemy combatants or civilians (bar the recent release of video footage though the WikiLeaks Web site). The sanitization

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Relational, Networked and Collaborative Approaches to Public Diplomacy: The Connective Mindshift

Australian Journal of International Affairs, 2014

domestic politics is fair-minded, often finding a fresh perspective on some familiar episodes. Ev... more domestic politics is fair-minded, often finding a fresh perspective on some familiar episodes. Every historian will bring his or her own emphases or interests to such a large and complex story. For some years, Beaumont has been a leading participant in a worldwide debate about memory. The nation’s experience of military history is all about memory: revered institutions have names like the Australian War Memorial and the Shrine of Remembrance, and phrases such as ‘Lest we forget’ and ‘We will remember them’ are chanted like religious mantras. But how has our memory of war been constructed? How much of what we remember, and what we choose to forget, has been shaped by those who served, how much by those at home who mourned their loss, how much by succeeding generations and how much by governments seeking either to lead or to respond to public sentiment? Beaumont is an expert in this field, and she brings insights from international debates on the subject to the story of, in the words of the subtitle, ‘Australians in the Great War’. Running through the book, alongside the narratives of military, political, diplomatic and social developments, is a narrative of the construction of memory. Beaumont draws attention, for example, to the sites chosen by the men of the five Australian Imperial Force divisions for their respective memorials— choices, sometimes surprising, which tell us something about how and why they wanted to be remembered. Broken Nation is a great achievement, a magnum opus from a distinguished historian of Australia’s military, diplomatic and social history. This is the book for those who want a single volume to guide them through the approaching centenary of Australia’s experience of the Great War. It deserves to be both a scholarly and a commercial success.

Revisiting public diplomacy in a postpandemic world: The need for a humanity-centered communication logic

Communication and the Public, 2022

Professor R. S. Zaharna is a leading scholar in international communication and public diplomacy.... more Professor R. S. Zaharna is a leading scholar in international communication and public diplomacy. She has witnessed the rapid development of public diplomacy since 2001 and has been committed to researching different communication logics in public diplomacy. In recent years, she has begun to explore the boundaries of public diplomacy theory, aiming to expand the conceptual scope of public diplomacy, advocating a relational shift in conventional public diplomacy studies, and reflecting on the limitations of the actor-centered approach in international communication. In this interview, Professor Zaharna shared her definition of public diplomacy and discussed how relations, connectivity, and interactivity will be indispensable in public diplomacy research and practice. She also analyzed the limitations of the actor-centered public diplomacy research and explained three communication logics in humanity-centered diplomacy. For her, humanity-centered public diplomacy responds to the needs...

The teacher as researcher: The relationship between research anxiety and learning style in a research methodology course

College student journal, 1997

Die Filmkritik hat sich zu einer eigenen Disziplin entwickelt, die Terminologie der neuesten Theo... more

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Grand Strategy: From Battles to Bridges

Battles to Bridges, 2010

This chapter focuses on the distinctions between an overarching grand strategy of public diplomac... more This chapter focuses on the distinctions between an overarching grand strategy of public diplomacy and the strategy and tactics of individual public diplomacy initiatives. Failure to distinguish between these different levels may have been the first critical shortcoming of post-9/11 U.S. public diplomacy. Despite the chorus of calls for“a strategy,” U.S. public diplomacy already had a grand strategy in place. Not only was there an overarching grand strategy, but that strategy appeared to run counter to the underlying communication dynamics in the international arena. The failure to recognize and analyze the viability of this grand strategy may be the second and single most important factor that undermined all of U.S. public diplomacy’s efforts in the post-9/11 period. This chapter identifies and analyzes U.S. public diplomacy’s information battle grand strategy and proposes a new grand strategy of building communication bridges. The chapter concludes by redefining the grand strategic goals of U.S. public diplomacy in a global communication era.

R.S. Zaharna, “Obama, U.S. Public Diplomacy and the Islamic World,” World Politics Review, March 16, 2009, pp. 18-23.

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Simulation Based Approach to Cross Cultural Training for Higher Order Cultural Awareness

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R.S. Zaharna and Juan Cristobal Villalobos, “A Public Relations Tour of Embassy Row: The Latin Diplomatic Experience,” Public Relations Quarterly 45 (2000), pp.33-37

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Public Diplomacy through the Looking Glass: Obama, US Public Diplomacy and the Islamic World

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Battles to Bridges: US Strategic Communication and Public Diplomacy after 9/11

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All Thumbs at Communication

Boundary Spanners of Humanity

Issue Theme: The Use of Social Media in U.S. Public Diplomacy

Individual Logic

Boundary Spanners of Humanity, 2022

Holistic Logic

Boundary Spanners of Humanity, 2022

Relational Logic

Boundary Spanners of Humanity, 2022

Mapping out a Spectrum of Public Diplomacy Initiatives: Information and Relational Communication Frameworks

Going for the jugular in public diplomacy: How adversarial publics using social media are challenging state legitimacy

Public Relations Review, 2016

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The battle for hearts and minds

BMJ, 2009

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Relational, Networked and Collaborative Approaches to Public Diplomacy: The Connective Mindshift

Australian Journal of International Affairs, 2014

Revisiting public diplomacy in a postpandemic world: The need for a humanity-centered communication logic

Communication and the Public, 2022

The teacher as researcher: The relationship between research anxiety and learning style in a research methodology course

College student journal, 1997

Die Filmkritik hat sich zu einer eigenen Disziplin entwickelt, die Terminologie der neuesten Theo... more

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Grand Strategy: From Battles to Bridges

Battles to Bridges, 2010

Beyond the Individualism-Collectivism Divide to Relationalism: Explicating Cultural Assumptions in the Concept of “Relationships”

Communication Theory, 2015

While the basic concept of “relationship” is pivotal to research and theory across a spectrum of ... more While the basic concept of “relationship” is pivotal to research and theory across a spectrum of communication studies, cultural assumptions about this basic concept may vary significantly, and yet escape scholars' awareness. This study exposes assumptions buried in foundational U.S.-based Organization-Public Relationship (OPR) scholarship to illustrate how differing assumptions about “relationships” correspond to understandings of communication processes and goals. “Relationalism” is introduced as an analytical lens to provide insights beyond the dichotomous relational patterns of individualism-collectivism, explore global perspectives, and help explicate a graduated range of relational assumptions that challenge OPR theoretical premises. Relational assumptions identified in OPR scholarship have heuristic value for communication areas that have “relationships” as a pivotal concept.

Tools of engagement

Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 2006

ABSTRACT “U.S. Public Diplomacy: State Department Efforts to Engage Muslim Audiences Lack Certain... more

Strategic Stakeholder Engagement in Public Diplomacy

SSRN Electronic Journal, 2011

Strategic stakeholder engagement," as a term, concept, or practice has yet to gain wide currency ... more Strategic stakeholder engagement," as a term, concept, or practice has yet to gain wide currency within public diplomacy. That gap, however, may soon close as the international arena transitions from the information age, dominated by the mass media and message-driven strategies, to the global communication era dominated by the social media and relational and network strategies. Earlier models of public diplomacy were based on a one-way flow of information that was detached and impersonal, which are now becoming obsolete. For public diplomats, strategic stakeholder engagement represents a twofold challenge of identifying the "who" (stakeholders) and the "what" (engagement). This seeks to address those challenges, drawing upon multiple perspective, including business, public relations, development communication, and traditional diplomacy. The paper includes illustrative examples of information, relational and networking public diplomacy initiatives from around the globe. As the international arena transitions from the information age, dominated by the mass media and message-driven strategies, to the global communication era dominated by the social media and relational and network strategies, 2 "strategic stakeholder engagement" as a concept and practice is sure to gain currency. For public diplomats, who must put the concept in practice, strategic stakeholder engagement represents a twofold challenge. The first challenge is identifying the "who." Who is a strategic stakeholder in public diplomacy? Within the literature, the term stakeholder suggests both internal and external audiences. As internal of domestic audiences, stakeholders are agents that share a political entity"s goals and may serve to augment the reach and effectiveness of a public diplomacy

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Battles to Bridges

Arab rhetoric

Review of Communication, 2003

Given the continuing turmoil in the Middle East, works that help us understand the complexity of ... more Given the continuing turmoil in the Middle East, works that help us understand the complexity of this region are a welcome addition to western scholarship. These two works illustrate how scholars from very different backgrounds can explore a similar phenomenon, namely Arab rhetoric, and reach very different interpretations. The works also highlight how culture influences subject matter as well as researcher. Both Wedeen and Bengio begin with the same premise: one can better understand the political, social, and cultural realities of a regime by analyzing its political discourse. Wedeen examines the political discourse of Syria’s former leader Hafez al-Asad, while Bengio does the same for Iraq’s leader Saddam Hussein. As neighbors in the Middle East, Syria and Iraq share a similar culture and society. Politically, both embraced the Ba’ath political ideology of Arab nationalism and socialism that spread within the region during the late fifties. However, as is characteristic of many Arab countries and even villages, the Iraqi people have their own national “personality” which is quite distinct from the Syrian “personality.” What is peculiar about the works of Wedeen and Bengio is the degree of divergence of their interpretations. Wedeen looks at the political rhetoric in Syria as a phenomenon cast within the context of contemporary Syrian society, Arab culture, and nation building. From this perspective, Wedeen traces how Asad created a symbolic rhetorical formula that defines politically correct THE REVIEW OF COMMUNICATION 3.1 (January 2003): 35–40  2003 National Communication Association

The ontological function of interpersonal communication: A cross‐cultural analysis of Americans and Palestinians

Howard Journal of Communications, 1991

Ethnic diversity in the public relations industry

Howard Journal of Communications, 1995

The dramatic demographic changes in the United States forecasting an ethnically diverse American ... more

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