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Mark Battersby

Capilano University, Philosophy, Emeritus

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Mark Battersby is Professor Emeritus at Capilano University, where he taught for over 40 years. He has also taught critical thinking at the University of British Columbia, Simon Fraser University and Stanford University, as well as presenting numerous workshops. He was founder of the British Columbia Association for Critical Thinking Research and Instruction and led a Ministry curriculum reform initiative based on learning outcomes. He has facilitated Philosophy Cafes since for over 10 years. He has written numerous articles on critical thinking, and is the author of Is That a Fact: A Field Guide to Scientific and Statistical Information (Broadview, 2nd Ed , 2016), and, with Sharon Bailin, Reason in the Balance: An Inquiry Approach to Critical Thinking (2nd Ed. Hackett, 2016). Both texts have been translated into Chinese. In 2018 Windsor Studies in Argumentation published Inquiry: A New Paradigm for Critical Thinking, a collection of his and Bailin's papers on their approach to critical thinking. He and Bailin are currently collaborating on CRITHINKEDU, a major European project to infuse critical thinking into higher education and has rewritten Reason in the Balance to make it culturally appropriate for Chinese students.
Address: Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

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Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), Delhi

University of Oxford

Mario Callegaro

Michael Jablonski

Georgia State University

Matthew Simonson

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Syracuse University

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Papers by Mark Battersby

The Rhetoric of Numbers: Statistical Inference as Argumentation

Commentary on Gratton

Assessing Expert Claims: Critical Thinking and the Appeal to Authority

Paideusis, Nov 11, 2020

Ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d'auteur. L'utilisation des services d'Érudit (y ... more

A Commentary on Tracy Bowell’s “Whataboutisms, Arguments and Argumentative Harm”

Commentary on: Robert H. Ennis' "Critical thinking across the curriculum (CTAC)

So, What's a Learning Outcome Anyway?

This report defines and explains the importance of the learning outcomes approach. According to t... more This report defines and explains the importance of the learning outcomes approach. According to the paper, this approach bases curriculum design, content, delivery and assessment on the application and integration of knowledge, skills and values a comprehensiveness that is not achieved with a competency approach. The report also discusses learning outcomes in terms of: (1) assessment, stressing the need for "authentic assessment," which simulates real world situations; (2) generic abilities, including research and learning strategies, critical thinking, and communication; (3) the various disciplines, including the impact of outcomes on the transfer process for receiving and sending institutions; and (4) faculty concerns over the imposition of a business or industrial model on higher education. The learning outcomes approach may be contrasted against traditional academic approaches by its emphasis on determining curriculum on the basis of: (1) what students need to know, as determined by student and societal needs; (2) what students should be able to do; and (3) what generic abilities should be developed and assessed. The report suggests that learning outcomes should be the based on broad analysis of the long-term needs and social responsibilities of students, which in turn forms the basis for determining curricula. (VF) *

III. Conductive Reasoning

V. Application of the Approach

Maccritic: A program for practice in textual analysis and criticism

Springer eBooks, Nov 13, 2005

Ironically. humans are not simply the only "logical" animal. they are also the only "illogical" a... more Ironically. humans are not simply the only "logical" animal. they are also the only "illogical" animal. They are the only animal that uses meanings-ideas. concepts. analogies. metaphors. models, theories, and explanations-to make sense of things, to understand , predict. and control things. They are also the only animal that uses meamngs to negate, contradict, and deceive itself, to misconceive, distort, and stereotype, to become dogmatic, prejudiced anc~narrowminded. Humans are the only animal whose thinking can be characterized in terms .like clear, precise, accurate. relevant, consistent, profound. and fair; they are also the only animal whose thinking is often imprecise. vague, inaccurate, irrelevant. superficial. trMal, and biased. Critical thinking makes sense in the light of this paradoxical dichotomy. Humans ought not simply trust their instincts. They ought not believe unquestioningly what spontaneously occurs to them. They ought not accept as true everything taught as true. They ought not assume their experience is unbiased. They need to form. they are not born with., intellectually sound standards for belief. for truth, for validity. They need to cultivate habits and traits which integrate these standards into their lives. 4 We can iinprove student performance only by improVing their thinking. We can improve their thinking only by creating opportunities and incentives for them to think. We can proVide them with opportunities and incentives to think only if those who teach are given time to thoughtfully redesign their instruction. We can create time to thoughtfully redesign instruction only ifwe ease the compulsion to cover huge amounts of subject matter. We can reduce the obsession to cover huge amounts of subject matter only if the curriculum is restructured to focus on basic concepts. understandings. and abUities. We can restructure the curriculum to focus on basic concepts. understandings. and abUities only if faculty understand why such lil focus is essential to the kind of higher order learning that engenders rational and responsible citizens. workers. and persons, people for whom adaptabUity is a way of life. In education the whole is greater than the sum.ofthe parts. We need to forge connections that shape the parts to form a coherent educational whole. To achieve this there is nothing more important than a clear conception of education embedded in curriculum, inserVice. and instruction. No significant reform of education can take place unless we face up to the didactic lower order conception of education that informs daily practice. Present instruction as structured implies an equation between parroting information and acquiring knowledge. Faculty at every level of education often feel compelled to cover information even though they know their students do not signifi€antly understand and Wlli soon forget It. Behind this practice is a network of uncritically held assumptions that need to be made explicit and refuted. namely: 1) that students willieant how to think if only they know what to think. 2) that knowledge can be given directly to students without their having to think it through for themselves. 3) that to become educated is to store up content analogous to a data bank. 4) that quiet classes with little student talk are t;ypically reflective of students learning. 5) that students can gain significant knowledge •without seeking or valuing it. 6) that material should be presented from the point of view of the authority. the one who knows. 7) that superficial learning can later be deepened. 8) that coverage is more important than depth. 9) that students who can correctly answer questions. provide definitions. and apply formulae demonstrate substantial understanding. and 10) that students learn best by working alonf in silence. 5 One who understands and values education as higher order learning holds a very different set of assumptions, namely: 1) that students can learn what to thmk only as they learn how to think. 2) that knowledge is acquired only through thmking. 3) that educated persons are those who have learned how to gather. analyze. synthesize. apply. and assess Information for themselves. 4) that classes with much student talk. focused on live Issues. is a better sign of learning than quiet classes. focused on a passive acceptance of what the Instructor says. 5) that students gain significant knowledge only by valuing it. 6) that mformatlon should be presented so as to be understandable from the pomt of view of the learner. and this requires that It be related to the learner's experiences. 7) that superficlalleaming Is often mislearning that stands as an obstacle to deeper understanding. 8) that depth Is more Important than coverage. 9) that students can often provide correct answer. repeat definitions. and apply formulas while yet not understanding those answers. definitions. or formulas. and 10) that students learn best by working together with other students. with a good deal of experience In mutually supportive debate and empathic exchange of Ideas.

Should critical thinking courses include the critique of religious beliefs

Over the last few years, there have been five best sellers critical of religion and religious bel... more Over the last few years, there have been five best sellers critical of religion and religious belief. It seems that there is great interest in questions about religious belief. Ironically, critical thinking texts seldom examine the topic. This paper will evaluate eight arguments to exempt religious belief from rational critique. I conclude that the topic of religious belief should not be exempt from critical thinking classes. KEYWORDS: critical thinking, critical thinking texts, ethics of belief, rationality of religious belief, scope of critical thinking.

Inoculating Students Against Conspiracy Theories: The Case of Covid-19

Springer eBooks, 2022

Posing a significant danger to society are conspiracy theories, particularly those regarding the ... more Posing a significant danger to society are conspiracy theories, particularly those regarding the Covid-19 pandemic. This paper argues for the crucial role of critical thinking education in 'inoculating' students against conspiracy theories and outlines an approach for building their defenses against these, and other, conspiracy theories. There are numerous epistemic, social, and psychological factors which play a role in the attraction of conspiracy theories and which need to be addressed in critical thinking education. Epistemic factors include myside bias, the ignorance of epistemic criteria, a lack of understanding of source credibility, and the particular epistemic traps of conspiracy theories. Social factors, including the structure of the information environment and psychological factors, including the desire for control, defensive bias, and cultural cognition also play a role. The paper describes how critical thinking education can address the epistemic shortcomings and errors which facilitate conspiracy belief and can provide students with the resources for inquiring in a rigorous and systematic way and for making reasoned judgment. It also outlines how the social and psychological factors can be addressed by creating a community of inquiry in the class that can counter these influences and foster a spirit of inquiry. Keywords Epistemic issues • Community of inquiry • Conspiracy theories • Covid-19 pandemic • Critical thinking education • Social and psychological factors The original version of the chapter has been revised. A correction to this chapter can be found at

Enhancing Rationality: Heuristics, Biases, and The Critical Thinking Project

Informal Logic, Jul 14, 2016

This paper develops four related claims: 1. Critical thinking should focus more on decision makin... more This paper develops four related claims: 1. Critical thinking should focus more on decision making, 2. the heuristics and bias literature developed by cognitive psychologists and behavioral economists provides many insights into human irrationality which can be useful in critical thinking instruction, 3. unfortunately the "rational choice" norms used by behavioral economists to identify "biased" decision making narrowly equate rational decision making with the efficient pursuit of individual satisfaction; deviations from these norms should not be treated as an irrational bias, 4. a richer, procedural theory of rational decision making should be the basis for critical thinking instruction in decision making. Résumé: Cet article développe quatre affirmations connexes: 1. La pensée critique devrait se concentrer davantage sur la prise de décision, 2. la littérature sur l'heuristique et les préjugés développée par les psychologues cognitifs et les économistes comportementaux fournit de nombreuses idées éclairées sur l'irrationalité humaine qui peuvent être utiles dans l'enseignement de la pensée critique, 3. malheureusement, les normes de «choix rationnel» utilisés par les économistes comportementaux pour identifier la prise de décision "partiale" assimilent étroitement la prise de décision rationnelle avec la poursuite efficace de la satisfaction individuelle; les déviations par rapport à ces normes ne devraient pas être traitées comme un parti pris irrationnel, 4. une théorie procédurale plus riche de la prise de décision rationnelle devrait être la base de l'enseignement de la pensée critique dans la prise de décision.

Critical Thinking as Applied Epistemology: Relocating Critical Thinking in the Philosophical Landscape

Informal Logic, 1989

Reason in the Balance : An Inquiry Approach to Critical Thinking

Critical Thinking

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education, Oct 27, 2020

<p>There are numerous definitions of critical thinking, but the core concept has been said ... more <p>There are numerous definitions of critical thinking, but the core concept has been said to be careful, reasoned, goal-directed thinking. There are also many conceptualizations of critical thinking, which are generally more detailed than brief definitions, and there are different views about what the goal(s) of critical thinking instruction should be. Whether critical thinking is a good thing is a matter of debate. Approaches to teaching critical thinking vary, partly, according to whether they focus on general principles of critical thinking or on subject-matter content or on a combination of both. A meta-analysis research report published in 2015 concluded that, subject to certain qualifications, a variety of critical thinking skills and dispositions can develop in students through instruction at all educational levels. Critical thinking instruction has been influenced by research in cognitive psychology that has suggested strategies for countering factors (e.g., biases) that the research has found to produce irrational beliefs. Methods of assessing critical thinking ability include teacher-designed tests and standardized tests. A research report published in 2014 on assessing critical thinking in higher education describes challenges involved in designing standardized critical thinking tests and proposes a framework for a "next-generation" assessment. The challenges include achieving a balance between the assessment's real-world relevance and its psychometric quality, and designing an assessment useful for instructional purposes and for comparisons of programs and institutions. The proposed framework is based partly on a review of existing frameworks of critical thinking in higher education. It has two analytical dimensions and two synthetic dimensions, and a dimension on understanding causation and explanation. Surveys show that employers value employees with strong critical thinking ability; this fact has significant implications for students, teachers, and administrators at all levels of education.</p>

Original Publication of Essays

IV. Aspects of the Approach

VIII. Enhancing Rationality

Commentary on Marrero Avendano

II. The Approach

The Rhetoric of Numbers: Statistical Inference as Argumentation

Commentary on Gratton

Assessing Expert Claims: Critical Thinking and the Appeal to Authority

Paideusis, Nov 11, 2020

Ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d'auteur. L'utilisation des services d'Érudit (y ... more

A Commentary on Tracy Bowell’s “Whataboutisms, Arguments and Argumentative Harm”

Commentary on: Robert H. Ennis' "Critical thinking across the curriculum (CTAC)

So, What's a Learning Outcome Anyway?

This report defines and explains the importance of the learning outcomes approach. According to t... more This report defines and explains the importance of the learning outcomes approach. According to the paper, this approach bases curriculum design, content, delivery and assessment on the application and integration of knowledge, skills and values a comprehensiveness that is not achieved with a competency approach. The report also discusses learning outcomes in terms of: (1) assessment, stressing the need for "authentic assessment," which simulates real world situations; (2) generic abilities, including research and learning strategies, critical thinking, and communication; (3) the various disciplines, including the impact of outcomes on the transfer process for receiving and sending institutions; and (4) faculty concerns over the imposition of a business or industrial model on higher education. The learning outcomes approach may be contrasted against traditional academic approaches by its emphasis on determining curriculum on the basis of: (1) what students need to know, as determined by student and societal needs; (2) what students should be able to do; and (3) what generic abilities should be developed and assessed. The report suggests that learning outcomes should be the based on broad analysis of the long-term needs and social responsibilities of students, which in turn forms the basis for determining curricula. (VF) *

III. Conductive Reasoning

V. Application of the Approach

Maccritic: A program for practice in textual analysis and criticism

Springer eBooks, Nov 13, 2005

Ironically. humans are not simply the only "logical" animal. they are also the only "illogical" a... more Ironically. humans are not simply the only "logical" animal. they are also the only "illogical" animal. They are the only animal that uses meanings-ideas. concepts. analogies. metaphors. models, theories, and explanations-to make sense of things, to understand , predict. and control things. They are also the only animal that uses meamngs to negate, contradict, and deceive itself, to misconceive, distort, and stereotype, to become dogmatic, prejudiced anc~narrowminded. Humans are the only animal whose thinking can be characterized in terms .like clear, precise, accurate. relevant, consistent, profound. and fair; they are also the only animal whose thinking is often imprecise. vague, inaccurate, irrelevant. superficial. trMal, and biased. Critical thinking makes sense in the light of this paradoxical dichotomy. Humans ought not simply trust their instincts. They ought not believe unquestioningly what spontaneously occurs to them. They ought not accept as true everything taught as true. They ought not assume their experience is unbiased. They need to form. they are not born with., intellectually sound standards for belief. for truth, for validity. They need to cultivate habits and traits which integrate these standards into their lives. 4 We can iinprove student performance only by improVing their thinking. We can improve their thinking only by creating opportunities and incentives for them to think. We can proVide them with opportunities and incentives to think only if those who teach are given time to thoughtfully redesign their instruction. We can create time to thoughtfully redesign instruction only ifwe ease the compulsion to cover huge amounts of subject matter. We can reduce the obsession to cover huge amounts of subject matter only if the curriculum is restructured to focus on basic concepts. understandings. and abUities. We can restructure the curriculum to focus on basic concepts. understandings. and abUities only if faculty understand why such lil focus is essential to the kind of higher order learning that engenders rational and responsible citizens. workers. and persons, people for whom adaptabUity is a way of life. In education the whole is greater than the sum.ofthe parts. We need to forge connections that shape the parts to form a coherent educational whole. To achieve this there is nothing more important than a clear conception of education embedded in curriculum, inserVice. and instruction. No significant reform of education can take place unless we face up to the didactic lower order conception of education that informs daily practice. Present instruction as structured implies an equation between parroting information and acquiring knowledge. Faculty at every level of education often feel compelled to cover information even though they know their students do not signifi€antly understand and Wlli soon forget It. Behind this practice is a network of uncritically held assumptions that need to be made explicit and refuted. namely: 1) that students willieant how to think if only they know what to think. 2) that knowledge can be given directly to students without their having to think it through for themselves. 3) that to become educated is to store up content analogous to a data bank. 4) that quiet classes with little student talk are t;ypically reflective of students learning. 5) that students can gain significant knowledge •without seeking or valuing it. 6) that material should be presented from the point of view of the authority. the one who knows. 7) that superficial learning can later be deepened. 8) that coverage is more important than depth. 9) that students who can correctly answer questions. provide definitions. and apply formulae demonstrate substantial understanding. and 10) that students learn best by working alonf in silence. 5 One who understands and values education as higher order learning holds a very different set of assumptions, namely: 1) that students can learn what to thmk only as they learn how to think. 2) that knowledge is acquired only through thmking. 3) that educated persons are those who have learned how to gather. analyze. synthesize. apply. and assess Information for themselves. 4) that classes with much student talk. focused on live Issues. is a better sign of learning than quiet classes. focused on a passive acceptance of what the Instructor says. 5) that students gain significant knowledge only by valuing it. 6) that mformatlon should be presented so as to be understandable from the pomt of view of the learner. and this requires that It be related to the learner's experiences. 7) that superficlalleaming Is often mislearning that stands as an obstacle to deeper understanding. 8) that depth Is more Important than coverage. 9) that students can often provide correct answer. repeat definitions. and apply formulas while yet not understanding those answers. definitions. or formulas. and 10) that students learn best by working together with other students. with a good deal of experience In mutually supportive debate and empathic exchange of Ideas.

Should critical thinking courses include the critique of religious beliefs

Over the last few years, there have been five best sellers critical of religion and religious bel... more Over the last few years, there have been five best sellers critical of religion and religious belief. It seems that there is great interest in questions about religious belief. Ironically, critical thinking texts seldom examine the topic. This paper will evaluate eight arguments to exempt religious belief from rational critique. I conclude that the topic of religious belief should not be exempt from critical thinking classes. KEYWORDS: critical thinking, critical thinking texts, ethics of belief, rationality of religious belief, scope of critical thinking.

Inoculating Students Against Conspiracy Theories: The Case of Covid-19

Springer eBooks, 2022

Posing a significant danger to society are conspiracy theories, particularly those regarding the ... more Posing a significant danger to society are conspiracy theories, particularly those regarding the Covid-19 pandemic. This paper argues for the crucial role of critical thinking education in 'inoculating' students against conspiracy theories and outlines an approach for building their defenses against these, and other, conspiracy theories. There are numerous epistemic, social, and psychological factors which play a role in the attraction of conspiracy theories and which need to be addressed in critical thinking education. Epistemic factors include myside bias, the ignorance of epistemic criteria, a lack of understanding of source credibility, and the particular epistemic traps of conspiracy theories. Social factors, including the structure of the information environment and psychological factors, including the desire for control, defensive bias, and cultural cognition also play a role. The paper describes how critical thinking education can address the epistemic shortcomings and errors which facilitate conspiracy belief and can provide students with the resources for inquiring in a rigorous and systematic way and for making reasoned judgment. It also outlines how the social and psychological factors can be addressed by creating a community of inquiry in the class that can counter these influences and foster a spirit of inquiry. Keywords Epistemic issues • Community of inquiry • Conspiracy theories • Covid-19 pandemic • Critical thinking education • Social and psychological factors The original version of the chapter has been revised. A correction to this chapter can be found at

Enhancing Rationality: Heuristics, Biases, and The Critical Thinking Project

Informal Logic, Jul 14, 2016

This paper develops four related claims: 1. Critical thinking should focus more on decision makin... more This paper develops four related claims: 1. Critical thinking should focus more on decision making, 2. the heuristics and bias literature developed by cognitive psychologists and behavioral economists provides many insights into human irrationality which can be useful in critical thinking instruction, 3. unfortunately the "rational choice" norms used by behavioral economists to identify "biased" decision making narrowly equate rational decision making with the efficient pursuit of individual satisfaction; deviations from these norms should not be treated as an irrational bias, 4. a richer, procedural theory of rational decision making should be the basis for critical thinking instruction in decision making. Résumé: Cet article développe quatre affirmations connexes: 1. La pensée critique devrait se concentrer davantage sur la prise de décision, 2. la littérature sur l'heuristique et les préjugés développée par les psychologues cognitifs et les économistes comportementaux fournit de nombreuses idées éclairées sur l'irrationalité humaine qui peuvent être utiles dans l'enseignement de la pensée critique, 3. malheureusement, les normes de «choix rationnel» utilisés par les économistes comportementaux pour identifier la prise de décision "partiale" assimilent étroitement la prise de décision rationnelle avec la poursuite efficace de la satisfaction individuelle; les déviations par rapport à ces normes ne devraient pas être traitées comme un parti pris irrationnel, 4. une théorie procédurale plus riche de la prise de décision rationnelle devrait être la base de l'enseignement de la pensée critique dans la prise de décision.

Critical Thinking as Applied Epistemology: Relocating Critical Thinking in the Philosophical Landscape

Informal Logic, 1989

Reason in the Balance : An Inquiry Approach to Critical Thinking

Critical Thinking

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education, Oct 27, 2020

<p>There are numerous definitions of critical thinking, but the core concept has been said ... more <p>There are numerous definitions of critical thinking, but the core concept has been said to be careful, reasoned, goal-directed thinking. There are also many conceptualizations of critical thinking, which are generally more detailed than brief definitions, and there are different views about what the goal(s) of critical thinking instruction should be. Whether critical thinking is a good thing is a matter of debate. Approaches to teaching critical thinking vary, partly, according to whether they focus on general principles of critical thinking or on subject-matter content or on a combination of both. A meta-analysis research report published in 2015 concluded that, subject to certain qualifications, a variety of critical thinking skills and dispositions can develop in students through instruction at all educational levels. Critical thinking instruction has been influenced by research in cognitive psychology that has suggested strategies for countering factors (e.g., biases) that the research has found to produce irrational beliefs. Methods of assessing critical thinking ability include teacher-designed tests and standardized tests. A research report published in 2014 on assessing critical thinking in higher education describes challenges involved in designing standardized critical thinking tests and proposes a framework for a "next-generation" assessment. The challenges include achieving a balance between the assessment's real-world relevance and its psychometric quality, and designing an assessment useful for instructional purposes and for comparisons of programs and institutions. The proposed framework is based partly on a review of existing frameworks of critical thinking in higher education. It has two analytical dimensions and two synthetic dimensions, and a dimension on understanding causation and explanation. Surveys show that employers value employees with strong critical thinking ability; this fact has significant implications for students, teachers, and administrators at all levels of education.</p>

Original Publication of Essays

IV. Aspects of the Approach

VIII. Enhancing Rationality

Commentary on Marrero Avendano

II. The Approach

Practical Rationality: Critical Questions for Rational Decision Making

not published, 2023

The rejection of evidence based, rational decision making by the American President and his cabin... more The rejection of evidence based, rational decision making by the American President and his cabinet and the popularity of concepts like “post-truth” and “fake news” underlines the great need for the promotion of critical thinking in our schools. To be maximally effective the approach to critical thinking must go beyond the focus of early critical thinking texts which were limited to argument analysis (and small arguments at that) and avoidance of fallacies (the Logical Self Defense Approach). Such an approach leaves students without guidance in how to make positive judgments about what to believe and do. The broader approach to critical thinking can be thought of as instruction in applied rationality. There are two aspects to applied rationality, epistemic rationality (what to believe) and practical rationality (what to do). While epistemic rationality is treated in most critical thinking texts, rational decision-making gets little attention. This paper addresses that issue by developing a model of rational decision-making appropriate for critical thinking courses and texts.

Practical Rationality: Critical Questions for Rational Decision Making

not published, 2023

The rejection of evidence based, rational decision making by the American President and his cabin... more The rejection of evidence based, rational decision making by the American President and his cabinet and the popularity of concepts like “post-truth” and “fake news” underlines the great need for the promotion of critical thinking in our schools. To be maximally effective the approach to critical thinking must go beyond the focus of early critical thinking texts which were limited to argument analysis (and small arguments at that) and avoidance of fallacies (the Logical Self Defense Approach). Such an approach leaves students without guidance in how to make positive judgments about what to believe and do. The broader approach to critical thinking can be thought of as instruction in applied rationality. There are two aspects to applied rationality, epistemic rationality (what to believe) and practical rationality (what to do). While epistemic rationality is treated in most critical thinking texts, rational decision-making gets little attention. This paper addresses that issue by developing a model of rational decision-making appropriate for critical thinking courses and texts.