Lihimi Siliminsili ni yi shɛli na

{{Yeltɔɣ'
| yeltɔɣ' = Siliminsili
| image = [[file:Anglospeak (subnational version).svg|frameless]]
| country = 
| iso1 = en
| iso2 = eng
| iso3 = eng
}}
{{E-Class}} 

'''Silimiinsili''' (''English language'')<ref>Naden, Tony. 2014. [https://www.webonary.org/dagbani/download/ ''Dagbani dictionary'']. Webonary.</ref>Silimiinsili nyɛla West Germanic balli shɛli din be Indo-European balli daŋ ni ka bɛ booni ninvuɣ' shɛba ban yɛri lala balli ŋɔ Anglophones, di daa pilli la England zaŋ n-ti Great Britain.{{sfn|The Routes of English}}{{sfn|Crystal|2003a|p=6}}{{sfn|Wardhaugh|2010|p=55}}Ninvuɣ' so yuli bɛ ni zaŋ n-ti balli ŋɔ nyɛ Angles, Germani ninvuɣ shɛba ban daa yi labi Britain ninvuɣ' yino.

Silimiinsili nyɛla bal' shɛli niriba pam ni yɛri dunia zaa, di daa na nyɛla balli shɛli British Empire mini United States nima ni tuui yɛra.<ref>Salome, Rosemary (2022). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_gNREAAAQBAJ&dq=%22its+global+spread+began+with+the+british+empire,+which+at+its+height%22&pg=PA6 The Rise of English as a Global Language]''. Oxford University Press, pp. 6-7.</ref> Silimiinsili nyɛ din pahiri ata balli shɛŋa niriba pam ni yɛra bahindila Mandarin Chinese  mini Spanish nyaaŋa;{{sfn|Ethnologue|2010}} Di ni lahi nyɛ balli shɛli din pahiri ayi niriba ni bɔhim balli shɛŋa ni duniya zaa ka ban bɔhin li ŋɔ gari balli ŋɔ bilichininima.

Silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli bee di nyɛla din pahi balli shɛŋa ni tiŋgbana pam ni saɣi n-ti ka yɛra kamani [[India]], Ireland n-ti pahi [[Canada]]). Tiŋgbani shɛŋa ni di ni nyɛ balli shɛli bɛ ni yɛri gari ballli kam kamani United States mini United Kingdom.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|pp=108–109}} Di nyɛla din pahi balla zaŋ n-ti United Nations, European Union n-ti pahi tiŋduya tiŋgbani shɛŋa. Di lahi nyɛla din leei ''de facto lingua franca'' zaŋ n-ti tabibi, tiŋduya dabiligu niŋbu, binyɛra laasabu malibu, diɛma diɛmbu shee n-ti pahi pohim zuɣu .<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/18/books/review/the-rise-of-english-rosemary-salomone.html|title=How the English Language Conquered the World|last=Chua|first=Amy|website=[[The New York Times]]|date=18 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301222132/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/18/books/review/the-rise-of-english-rosemary-salomone.html|archive-date=1 March 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> Ninvuɣ shɛba ban yɛri silimiinsili Germanic balli ni nyɛla kɔbigi puuni vaabu pisopɔin ka lahabali daa yina wuhira ni ninvuɣ shɛba ban yɛri silimiinsili duniya zaa kalinli nyɛla din gari 2&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Two thousand million?|journal=English Today|volume=24|issue=1|pages=3–6|language=en-US|doi=10.1017/S0266078408000023|last1=Crystal|first1=David|year=2008|s2cid=145597019|doi-access=free | issn=0266-0784 }}</ref> Silimiinsili kurili nyɛla din laɣim West Germanic bachinima kumsim.<ref name="Wolff">{{cite book |last=Finkenstaedt |first=Thomas |author2=Dieter Wolff |title=Ordered profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon |publisher=C. Winter |year=1973 |isbn=978-3-533-02253-4}}</ref>{{sfn|Bammesberger|1992|p=30}}{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=39}} 
== Classification ==
[[File:Europe germanic-languages 2.PNG|thumb|
'''[[Anglic languages]]'''
{{legend|#FFA500|English}}
{{legend|#FF8C00|[[Scots language|Scots]]}}
within the '''[[Anglo-Frisian languages]]''', which also include
{{legend|#FFD700|[[Frisian languages|Frisian]] ([[West Frisian language|West]], [[North Frisian language|North]], [[Saterland Frisian language|Saterland]]);}} within the '''[[North Sea Germanic languages]]''', which also include
{{legend|#7FFF00|[[Low German]]/Saxon;}}
within the '''[[West Germanic languages]]''', which also include
{{legend|#FFFF00|[[Dutch language|Dutch]] in Europe and [[Afrikaans]] in Africa}}
......  [[German language|German]] ([[High German|High]]):
{{legend|#00FF00|[[Central German|Central]]; in [[Luxembourg|Lux.]]: [[Luxembourgish]]}}
{{legend|#008000|[[Upper German|Upper]]}}
...... [[Yiddish]]]]
[[File:West Germanic languages (simplified).svg|thumb|A family tree of the [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]] language family]]
Silimiinsili nyɛla Indo-Europenima balli ka nyɛ din yina West Germanic laɣingu zaŋ n-ti Germanic balla.{{sfn|Bammesberger|1992|pp=29–30}} Silimiinsili kurili  din daa piligi Germanic balli ni mini "linguistic continuum"  nyɛla balli shɛŋa din leei Anglic balli  din be British Isles ka di gba leei Frisian balla puuni shɛli mini Low German /Low Saxon. Frisian balla ŋɔ mini Anglic balla nyɛ din leei Anglo-Frisian balla ka nyɛ din ŋmani siliminsili. Low German/Low Saxon gba nyɛla din ŋmani silimiinsili,  Frisian balla mini Low German nyɛla bɛ ni laɣim shɛli leei North Sea Germanic balla amaa di laɣimbu ŋɔ nyɛla shɛba ni na ŋmɛri shɛli nangbankpeeni .{{sfn|Bammesberger|1992|p=30}} Silimiinsili kurili nyɛ din leei "Middle English"  ka di gba leei Modern English.{{sfn|Robinson|1992}} Bachinima kumsim zaŋ n-ti Old mini Middle English gba nyɛla din leei Anglic balla kamani Scots {{sfn|Romaine|1982|pp=56–65}} ka Fingallian Mini Yola balli zaŋ n-ti Ireland gba nyɛ din ŋmani taba.{{sfn|Barry|1982|pp=86–87}}

== Taarihi ==
{{Main|History of English}}

=== Overview of history ===
Walinginsim shɛli din daa be silimiinsili balli ni nyɛ bɛ ni daa booni shɛli silimiinsili kurili bee "Anglo-Saxon", di nyɛla din yina laɣingu zaŋ n-ti North Sea Germanic balli ni ka daa zaŋ li kpɛ Britain 5th century saha. Silimiinsili kurili balli ŋɔ nyɛla bɛ ni daa taɣi shɛli bela 8th mini 9th centuries. "middle English" nyɛla bɛ ni daa piligi shɛli 11th century, di daa piligimi Norman Conquest zaŋ n-ti England nyaaŋa ka bɛ daa zaŋ French kurili pahi silimiinsili zuɣu.<ref name="Ian Short 2007">{{cite book | last=Short | first=Ian | title=A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World | chapter=Language and Literature | publisher=Boydell and Brewer Limited | date=2002-01-01 | isbn=978-1-84615-046-3 | doi=10.1017/9781846150463.011 | pages=191–214}}</ref>{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|p=30}}

Saha ŋɔ silimiinsili nyɛla bɛ ni daa piligi shɛli 15th century ka daa piligi li ŋɔ ni "Great Vowel shift", di nyaaŋa ka daa nyari di bachinima Latin mini Greek bachinima ni. Bɛ daa sabi balli ŋɔ niŋ King James Bible mini William Shakespeare tuma nima ni.{{sfn|How English evolved into a global language|2010}}<ref>{{britannica URL|topic/English-language/Historical-background|English language: Historical background}}</ref> Ninvuɣ shɛba ban sabiri paari binyɛra zuɣu nyɛla ban sabiri silimiinsili.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Upward |first1=Christopher |title=The History of English Spelling |last2=Davidson |first2=George |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-405-19024-4 |location=Oxford |page=84}}</ref>
=== Three circles of English-speaking countries ===
[[File:English as main language in London 2021.svg|thumb|Percentage of [[London]] residents for whom English was their primary language as of 2021]]
[[File:Kachru's three circles of English.svg|thumb|alt=Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English|[[Braj Kachru]]'s ''Three Circles of English'']]
Indianima balli bɔhinda Braj Kachru nyɛla ŋun daa waligi tiŋgbani shɛŋa ban yɛri silimiinsili "three circle models".{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=2}} 

Kachru yɛigu zaŋ jandi taarihi zaŋ n-ti silimiinsili wuligi kpɛ tiŋgbani koŋkoba. Lala "three circle model" ŋɔ nyɛla din taɣiri saha kam.{{sfn|Kachru|2006|p=196}}

Tiŋgbana shɛŋa ban nyɛ bilichini zaŋ n-ti silimiinsili balli nyɛ United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland n-ti pahi New Zealand, ni ka niriba pam yɛri silimiinsili ka South Africa niriba pirigili gba nyɛ ban yɛri silimiinsili. Tiŋgbani shɛŋa din nyɛ bilichininima zaŋ n-ti silimiinsili balli nyɛ din doli na ŋɔ [[United States]] (kamani 231&nbsp;million),{{sfn|Ryan|2013|loc=Table 1}} United Kingdom (60&nbsp;million),{{sfn|Office for National Statistics|2013|loc=Key Points}}{{sfn|National Records of Scotland|2013}}{{sfn|Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency|2012|loc=Table KS207NI: Main Language}} [[Canada]] (19&nbsp;million),{{sfn|Statistics Canada|2014}} [[Australia]] (kamani 17&nbsp;million),{{sfn|Australian Bureau of Statistics|2013}} [[South Africa]] (4.8&nbsp;million),{{sfn|Statistics South Africa|2012|loc=Table 2.5 Population by first language spoken and province (number)}} Ireland(4.2&nbsp;million) n-ti pahi [[New Zealand]] (3.7&nbsp;million).{{sfn|Statistics New Zealand|2014}} Lala tiŋgbana ŋɔ ni, bihibihi nyɛla ban bɔhindi silimiinsili bɛ lammba sani mini bɛ ʒilɛli ni nima sani.{{sfn|Bao|2006|p=377}} Silimiinsili balli ŋɔ nyɛla din wuligi yina lala tiŋgbana ŋɔ ni.{{sfn|Kachru|2006|p=196}}

Vihigu nyɛla din wuhi ni tiŋgbani shɛŋa ban gba yɛri silimiinsili ŋɔ pam pahi ayi nyɛla ban gba paai 470&nbsp;million zaŋ chaŋ 1&nbsp;billion.{{sfn|Crystal|2003b|pp=108–109}} Balli bɔhindi baŋda David Crystal nyɛla ŋun yɛli ni ninvuɣ shɛba ban pa silimiinsili balli bilichinima zaŋ n-ti ninvuɣ shɛba ban nyɛ silimiinsili balli bilichinima nyɛla 3:1.{{sfn|Crystal|2003a|p=69}}  Kachru "three-circles model" ŋɔ wuhiya ni "outer circle" tiŋgbana nyɛ  [[Philippines]],{{sfn|Rubino|2006}} [[Jamaica]],{{sfn|Patrick|2006a}} [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Singapore]],{{sfn|Lim|Ansaldo|2006}} [[Malaysia]] n-ti pahi [[Nigeria]]{{sfn|Connell|2006}}{{sfn|Schneider|2007}} Lala tiŋgbana ŋɔ pirigili nyɛla ban bɔhim silimiinsili ka tooi nyɛ ban yɛri li bɛ shikuruti ni, yiŋ, daabiligu shee.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=5}}

=== Pluricentric English ===
{{Pie chart
|caption=Pie chart showing the percentage of native English speakers living in "inner circle" English-speaking countries.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}{{when|date=June 2024}} Native speakers are now substantially outnumbered worldwide by second-language speakers of English (not counted in this chart).
|other=yes
|value1={{#expr:231/359*100 round 1}}
|label1=US
|color1=#BF0A30
|value2={{#expr:60/359*100 round 1}}
|label2=UK
|color2=#003399
|value3={{#expr:19/359*100 round 1}}
|label3=Canada
|color3=#FF0000
|value4={{#expr:17/359*100 round 1}}
|label4=Australia
|color4=#008751
|value5={{#expr:4.8/359*100 round 1}}
|label5=South Africa
|color5=#FCB514
|value6={{#expr:3.8/359*100 round 1}}
|label6=Ireland
|color6=#008000
|value7={{#expr:3.7/359*100 round 1}}
|label7=New Zealand
|color7=#000000
}}
Silimiinsili nyɛla din ka yɛligu shee ka di wuhiri ni ka tiŋgbani yini koŋko zali di yunsibu zalikpana.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=2}}{{sfn|Romaine|1999}}{{sfn|Baugh|Cable|2002}}{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|pp=8–9}} Niriba tooi mali silimiinsili wuligiri lahabali ka yɛri li tamdi di bolibu zalikpana zuɣu.{{sfn|Trudgill|2006}} Amaa lahabalitiriba gba nyɛla ban sabiri bɛ lahabali tamdi silimiinsili zalikpana zuɣu ka di wuhiri ni lala zalikpana ŋɔ nyɛla din be tiŋgbani kam amaa ka tiŋgbani yini koŋko.{{sfn|Ammon|2008|pp=1537–1539}}

Americanima nyɛla ban tooi wumdi British yɛlitɔɣa ka British nima gba nyɛ ban tooi wumdi Americanima yɛltɔɣa. Ninvuɣ shɛba zaa ban yɛri silimiinsili nyɛla ban tooi wumdi duniya zaa ladio mini telivisa zuɣu silimiinsili yɛltɔɣa.{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=122}} {{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|pp=5–6}}

Taarihi zaŋ jandi silimiinsili yɛriba tiŋgbana nyɛla din be Britain sambani ka nyɛ ban sɔŋ tiŋgbani shɛŋa ka bɛ gba baŋ silimiinsili balli tiŋgbana kamani South Africa, Australia n-ti pahi New Zealand.{{sfn|Deumert|2006|p=130}} Ninvuɣ shɛba ban chaŋ kpɛ United States ka pa British bilichinima nyɛla ban gba bɔhim silimiinsili. Saha ŋɔ United States salo ban gari bɛ kalinli pirigili nyɛla ban yɛri silimiinsili koŋko .{{sfn|Ryan|2013|loc=Table 1}}{{sfn|Deumert|2006|p=131}}

*[[Australia#Language|Australia]] nyɛla ban ka balli yini koŋko.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ward |first=Rowena |date=2019 |title='National' and 'Official' Languages Across the Independent Asia-Pacific |journal=Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies |volume=16 |issue=1/2 |pages=83–4 |doi=10.5130/pjmis.v16i1-2.6510 | doi-access=free |quote=The use of English in Australia is one example of both a de facto national and official language: it is widely used and is the language of government and the courts, but has never been legally designated as the country's official language.}}</ref>
*Canada, silimiinsili mini French nyɛ bɛ ni yɛri balli shɛŋa .<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.gc.ca/web/article-eng.do?m=/index&nid=480459|title=40 Years of the Official Languages Act|publisher=Department of Justice Canada|access-date=March 24, 2013}}{{Dead link|date=June 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/O-3.01/page-1.html|title=Official Languages Act - 1985, c. 31 (4th Supp.)|work=Act current to July 11th, 2010|publisher=Department of Justice|access-date=August 15, 2010|archive-date=January 5, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105194649/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/O-3.01/page-1.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli koŋko tiŋgbani shɛŋa ni amaa Quebec's nima zaa nyɛla ban yɛri French.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/tdm/cs/C-11| title = Charter of the French language| last = | first = | date = 26 March 2024| website = Légis Québec| publisher = Québec Official Publisher| access-date = 5 June 2024| quote = French is the official language of Québec. Only French has that status.}}</ref>
*Silimiinsili nyɛ balli shɛli din pahi ayi Irelandnima ni yɛri balli shɛŋa pam ni ka Irish nyɛ tuuli balli shɛli bɛ ni yɛra ni.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/cons/en/html#part2| title = Article 8 of the Constitution of Ireland| last = | first = | date = January 2020| website = Irish Statute Book| publisher =| access-date = 5 June 2024| quote = 1 The Irish language as the national language is the first official language. 2 The English language is recognised as a second official language.}}</ref>
*New Zealand nyɛ luɣishɛli niriba pam ni yɛri silimiinsili tiŋgbani shɛli, di balla ayi shɛŋa din pahi ka sokam yɛri nyɛ [[Maori Language Act 1987|Māori]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Maori Language Act 1987 |url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1987/0176/latest/DLM124116.html |accessdate=18 December 2011 }}</ref> mini New Zealand buɣisibu balli.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://tvnz.co.nz/view/page/488120/696482 |title=Recognition for sign language |date=6 April 2006 |work=[[Television New Zealand]] |access-date=30 October 2011}}</ref> 
*United Kingdom nima nyɛla ban ka balli yini shɛli bɛ ni saɣi n-ti ka sokam yɛra.  Wales mini Northern Ireland, silimiinsili nyɛ balli shɛli bɛ ni yɛri pahiri Welsh<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Huws |first1=Catrin Fflur |title=The Welsh Language Act 1993: A Measure of Success? |journal=Language Policy |date=June 2006 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=141–160 |doi=10.1007/s10993-006-9000-0 }}</ref> mini Irish. <ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-10-26 |title=Irish language and Ulster Scots bill clears final hurdle in Parliament |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-63402597 |access-date=2022-10-27}}</ref> Scotland mini England gba nyɛla ban ka balli yini shɛli sokam ni saɣi n-ti ka yɛra.
*United States gba nyɛla ban ka balli yini shɛli sokam ni saɣi n-ti ka yɛra ni bɛ tiŋ'kara ni .<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.usa.gov/official-language-of-us| title = Official language of the United States| last = | first = | date = 27 December 2023| website = USAGov| publisher = | access-date = 5 June 2024| quote = The United States does not have an official language. English is the most widely used language in the U.S., and some states designate it as their official language.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Faingold |first=Eduardo D. |date=2018 |title=Language Rights and the Law in the United States and Its Territories |publisher=Lexington Books |page=8 |quote=The United States has never had an official language and attempts to declare English its official language have been unsuccessful in the U.S. Congress.}}</ref> Silimiinsili nyɛla balli yini shɛli sokam ni saɣi n-ti shɛli bee ka bɛ yɛra tiŋgbani maa yaɣa pihita ni ayi ni.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/#people-and-society| title = United States| last = | first = | date = 29 May 2024| website = The World Factbook| publisher = Central Intelligence Agency| access-date = 5 June 2024| quote = Note: data represent the language spoken at home; the US has no official national language, but English has acquired official status in 32 of the 50 states; Hawaiian is an official language in the state of Hawaii, and 20 indigenous languages are official in Alaska.}}</ref> 

=== English as a global language ===
{{Main|English as a lingua franca}}
{{See also|Foreign-language influences in English|Study of global communication}}
[[File:Countries in which English Language is a Mandatory or an Optional Subject.svg|thumb|Countries in which English language is a mandatory or an optional subject<ref>{{cite web |title=Countries in which English Language is a Mandatory or an Optional Subject |url=https://www.uwinnipeg.ca/global-english-education/countries-in-which-english-is-mandatory-or-optional-subject.html |publisher=The University of Winnipeg |access-date=30 October 2022 |archive-date=31 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031000038/https://www.uwinnipeg.ca/global-english-education/countries-in-which-english-is-mandatory-or-optional-subject.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{legend|#00a2e8|English is a mandatory subject}}{{legend|#ffc90e|English is an optional subject}}{{legend|#ababab|No data}}]]
[[File:English Proficiency Index by country as of 2014.svg|thumb|English Proficiency Index by country as of 2014<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html|title=World Factbook CIA|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322184415/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html|archive-date=22 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{legend|#225500|Very high proficiency (80–100%)}}	 
{{legend|#44aa00|High proficiency (60–80%)}}	  
{{legend|#66ff00|Moderate proficiency (40–60%)}}	 
{{legend|#99ff55|Low proficiency (20–40%)}}	  
{{legend|#ccffaa|Very low proficiency (0.1–20%)}}	 
{{legend|#c0c0c0|No data}}]]

Silimiinsili balli nyɛla balli shɛli zaŋ n-ti silimin bilichinima.{{sfn|Romaine|1999|p=5}}{{sfn|Svartvik|Leech|2006|p=1}} Silimiinsili nyɛla din wuligi kpɛ tiŋgbani kam ka niriba pam tooi yɛri bɛ tiŋgbana ni mini tiŋduya fiila dibu ni. Niriba pam nyɛla ban bɔhim silimiinsili balli ŋɔ.{{sfn|Kachru|2006|p=195}} Niriba pam ban yɛri silimiinsili Afirika nyɛla ban pahi "Afro-Saxon" balli ni ka di nyɛ din zaŋ Afirika tiŋgbana laɣim taba ka bɛ zaa  wumdi taba yɛltɔɣa.{{sfn|Mazrui|Mazrui|1998}}

Maŋsulinsi deebu British Empire sani bin din gbaai yuuni 1950s mini yuuni 1960s, lala tiŋgbana ŋɔ nyɛla ban daa bi zaɣisi silimiinsili amaa ka daa kuli tuɣi silimiinsili ŋɔ bɔhimbu mini zaŋ tum tuma maŋsulinsi deebu nyaaŋa.{{sfn|Mufwene|2006|p=614}}{{sfn|Northrup|2013|pp=81–86}}{{sfn|Mesthrie|2010|p=594}}Ŋmahinli kamani Indianima nyɛla ban daa baŋ silimiinsili saha shɛli gbaŋpiɛlla ni daa gbubi ba hali ni zuŋɔ silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli sokam ni saɣi n-ti ka yɛri India.{{sfn|Annamalai|2006}} Silimiinsili lahi nyɛ balli shɛli din niŋ bayana pohim zuɣu mini sabibu ni ka silimiinsili balli buku shɛŋa Indianima ni sabi zaŋ wuhi salo nyɛ din dɔ buta zuɣu duniya zaa bahindila US mini UK.{{sfn|Sailaja|2009|pages=2–9}} Din pahira, ka silimiinsili nyɛ tuuli balli zaŋ n-ti India amaa ka salo pam nyɛ ban yɛri li ka kɔbigi puuni vaabu dibaa anu nyɛ ban ni tooi yɛlli viɛnyɛla India.<ref>{{cite news|title=Indiaspeak: English is our 2nd language – The Times of India|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indiaspeak-English-is-our-2nd-language/articleshow/5680962.cms?referral=PM|website=The Times of India |date=14 March 2010 |access-date=5 January 2016|archive-date=22 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422224021/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Indiaspeak-English-is-our-2nd-language/articleshow/5680962.cms?referral=PM|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://ihds.umd.edu/IHDS_files/HumanDevelopmentinIndia.pdf |title=Human Development in India: Challenges for a Society in Transition |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=5 January 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211124532/http://www.ihds.umd.edu/IHDS_files/HumanDevelopmentinIndia.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2015 |isbn= 978-0-19-806512-8}}</ref> David Crystal nyɛla ŋun daa yɛlli yɛltɔɣa yuuni 2004 wuhiri ni ti yi zaŋ ninvuɣ shɛba ban nyɛ silimiinsili bilichinima mini ban pa di bilichinima ka yɛri silimiinsili  India kalinli yi laɣim taba nyɛla din gari tiŋgbani kam duniya zaa,{{sfn|Crystal|2004}} amaa ninvuɣ shɛba ban nyɛ ban ni tooi yɛlli silimiinsili India kalinli nyɛla niriba ni bɛ tooi mi shɛli ka baŋdiba pam nyɛ ban yɛlli ni United States nyɛla din mali ninvuɣ shɛba ban yɛri silimiinsili gari India.{{sfn|Graddol|2010}}

Saha ŋɔ silimiinsili, nyɛla bɛ ni buɣisiri shɛli saha shɛŋa duniya zaa tuuli "lingua franca",{{sfn|Graddol|2006}}{{sfn|Meierkord|2006|p=165}} di ni lahi nyɛ tuuli duniya zaa balli.{{sfn|Brutt-Griffler|2006|pp=690–91}}{{sfn|Northrup|2013}} Silimiinsili nyɛ balli shɛli lahabalitiriba ni sabiri shɛli wuhiri salo, di ni ka bɛ lahi tooi mali sabiri niŋdi bukunima wuhiri salo, tiŋduya fiila dibu, tabibi yɛltɔɣa zaŋ wuhi salo ni gba silimiinsili ni ka bɛ tooi sabiri li n-ti pahi tiŋduya dabiligu shee di ni ka bɛ yɛra.{{sfn|Northrup|2013}} Silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli tiŋgbani kam din be duniya zaa ni yɛra.{{sfn|Wojcik|2006|p=139}} Seaspeak mini Airspeak nyɛla tiŋduya balla zaŋ n-ti ninvuɣ shɛba ban chani kom ni {{sfn|International Maritime Organization|2011}} mini aleepili ni bee pohim zuɣu.{{sfn|International Civil Aviation Organization|2011}} Silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli niriba ni daa bɛ tooi yunsiri shɛli French mini German tabibi vihisi ni amaa silimiinsili ka bɛ pa mali niŋdi bɛ binshɛɣu kam saha ŋɔ.{{sfn|Gordin|2015}} Di nyɛla balli shɛli niriba pam ni daa bɛ yɛri French yuuni 1919.{{sfn|Phillipson|2004|p=47}} Saha shɛli bɛ ni daa piligi [[United Nations]] saha shɛli duniya zaa tɔbu din pahiri ayi ni daa naai, silimiinsili nyɛla din daa na bi niŋ bayana{{sfn|ConradRubal-Lopez|1996|p=261}} amaa saha ŋɔ di ni pa nyɛ balli shɛli duniya zaa ni yɛra tiŋduya daabilim shee.{{sfn|Richter|2012|p=29}} Di nyɛla din pahi United Nations balla ayobu shɛŋa sokam ni yɛra la puuni.{{sfn|United Nations|2010}} 

Tiŋduya laɣinsi kamani [[European Free Trade Association]], [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN),{{sfn|Crystal|2003a}} mini [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) nyɛla ban yɛri silimiinsili bɛ laɣinsi hali ni ninvuɣ shɛba ban be di ni maa gba yi pa silimiinsili bilichinima. Ka European Union (EU) nyɛ ban tiri niriba soli ka bɛ piiri tiŋgbani maa ni balli yini yɛra bɛ laɣinsi ni.{{sfn|Ammon|2006|p=321}}

== Fonoloji ==
Siliminsili bachinima ni booni shɛm mini di ni kumdi shɛm malila waliginsim zuliya kam zilinli zuɣu, amaa ka di lee bi tooi chirimdi di alizam dibu. Bachinima bolibu taɣirila bachinima kumsi (i.e. yɛltɔɣa kumsim din tiri di gbunni waliginsim), ni bachinima ŋmebu kumsim bɔlibu.{{sfn|Wolfram|2006|pp=334–335}} Lahabali ŋɔ buɣisirila bachinima ni kumdi shɛm United Kingdom mini [[United States]].

Bachinima dalima din tum tuma gbunni ŋɔ yimina "[[International Phonetic Alphabet]]" (IPA) ni.{{sfn|Carr|Honeybone|2007}}{{sfn|Bermúdez-Otero|McMahon|2006}}{{sfn|MacMahon|2006}}

=== Konsonantinima ===
Siliminsili konsonantinima bachinima ŋmebu pam malila bachi pishi ni anahi (bee pshi ni ayɔbu /x/ n-ti pahi (/ʔ/)){{nbsp}}. Konsonantinima nambu din doli ŋɔ na nyɛla California Silimisili ni saɣiti shɛli,{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|pages=41–42}} n-ti pahi RP ni zani ti shɛli.{{sfn|König|1994|page=534}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Konsonantinima bachinima ŋmebu
! colspan="2" | !! colspan="2" | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]] !! colspan="2" | [[Labiodental consonant|Labiodental]] !! colspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]] !! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] !! colspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br />alveolar]] !! colspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] !! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]] !! colspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|m}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|n}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|ŋ}}*
| colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Plosive]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|p}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|b}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|t}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|d}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|k}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|ɡ}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | ({{IPAlink|ʔ}}) || style="border-left: 0;" |
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Affricate]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|tʃ}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|dʒ}}
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|f}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|v}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|θ}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|ð}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|s}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|z}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|ʃ}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|ʒ}}
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | ({{IPAlink|x}}) || style="border-left: 0;" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPAlink|h}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
! <small>[[Central consonant|Central]]</small>
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|ɹ}}**
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|j}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|w}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! <small>[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]</small>
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPAlink|l}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
|}
<small>* The sound {{IPA|/ŋ/}} can only occur as a coda.</small> 

<small>** Conventionally transcribed {{IPA|/r/}}</small>

Teebuli maa puuni, binyɛra kamani (zanibu bihi) yi ti laɣim taba, kamani {{IPA|/p b/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ dʒ/}}, ni {{IPA|/s z/}}, tuuli dini maa m-mali yaa ka di paya maa nyɛ zaɣ'gbariŋ. Bachinima kamani {{IPA|/p tʃ s/}} boonimi n-darigiri jila ka vuhim mi ʒiri bachi gbarima, kamani {{IPA|/b dʒ z/}}, ka zooi ka di ka kukoli. Bachi gbarima tooi yirimina bachinima tuuli bɔlibu ni bela, ka yirina viɛyɛla vaawulinima sunsuuni. Bachinima kamani {{IPA|/p/}} malila nahingban shɛŋa dabam zuliya shɛŋa ni: Di boonimi ni vuhim vuhibahina {{IPA|[pʰ]}} di yi ti yina di o bachinima din kahim ni, amaa ka biu tuhiri vuhim saha shɛŋa, ka bɛ tooi zooi ka di bahiri {{IPA|[p̚]}} bee {{IPA|[ʔp]}} di bahigu. Bachi gansi ni, Bachin din kani na ka tiri bachi din mali yaa bi darigira: dini n-nyɛ '''nip"'' nyɛla din mali vaawuli din bi darigira (bachinma ŋmebu ni, amaa ka bachinima pebu ni) n-gari ''nib'' {{IPA|[nɪˑb̥]}} (Lihimi gbunni ŋɔ).{{sfn|Collins|Mees|2003|pages=47–53}}
* zanibu bihi din ka yaa: ''bin'' {{IPA|[b̥ɪˑn]}}, ''about'' {{IPA|[əˈbaʊt]}}, ''nib'' {{IPA|[nɪˑb̥]}}
* Zanibu bihi din mali yaa: ''pin'' {{IPA|[pʰɪn]}}; ''spin'' {{IPA|[spɪn]}}; ''happy'' {{IPA|[ˈhæpi]}}; ''nip'' {{IPA|[nɪp̚]}} or {{IPA|[nɪʔp]}}

RP puuni, bachinima din nyɛt {{IPA|/l/}}, malila pubu buyi: din ne {{IPA|[l]}}, kamani neesim ni, ni din mali zimsim {{IPA|[ɫ]}}, kamani din pali ni.{{Sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=13}} GA malila zimsim ''l'' luɣa pam ni.{{Sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2008|p=41}}
* din ne ''l'': RP ''light'' {{IPA|[laɪt]}}
* din mali zimsim ''l'': RP and GA ''full'' {{IPA|[fʊɫ]}}, GA ''light'' {{IPA|[ɫaɪt]}}

Nyeeni konsonantinima zaa (koma {{IPA|/l, r/}} ni nyevoya ni {{IPA|/m, n, ŋ/}}) yirimina bachinma din ka kumsim ni, ka doli taba di yi ti kanina konsonantinima bahigu.{{sfn|Brinton|Brinton|2010|pages=56–59}}
* nyevoya ni bachinima din ka kumsi: "''clay"'' {{IPA|[kl̥eɪ̯]}}; "''snow"'' RP {{IPA|[sn̥əʊ̯]}}, GA {{IPA|[sn̥oʊ̯]}}
* nyevoya ni bachinima din pe taba: "''paddle"'' {{IPA|[ˈpad.l̩]}}, "''button"'' {{IPA|[ˈbʌt.n̩]}}

=== Vaawulinima ===
{{Main|English phonology#Vowels}}

{{stack begin}}
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Closing diphthongs
! [[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GA]] !! Word
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|eɪ}} || b'''ay'''
|-
| {{IPA|əʊ}} || {{IPA|oʊ}} || r'''oa'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|aɪ}} || cr'''y'''
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|aʊ}} || c'''ow'''
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || b'''oy'''
|}

{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Centring diphthongs
! [[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GA]] !! Word
|-
| {{IPA|ɪə}} || {{IPA|ɪɹ}} || p'''eer'''
|-
| {{IPA link|ɛ|eə}} || {{IPA|ɛɹ}} || p'''air'''
|-
| {{IPA|ʊə}} || {{IPA|ʊɹ}} || p'''oor'''
|}
{{stack end}}

<div style="float: right;">
{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center; margin-right: 1em;"
|+ Monophthongs
! [[Received Pronunciation|RP]] !! [[General American|GA]] !! Word
|-
| {{IPA link|iː}} || {{IPA link|i}} || n'''ee'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɪ}} || b'''i'''d
|-
| {{IPA link|e̞|e}} || {{IPA link|ɛ}} || b'''e'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|æ}}<!-- Pronunciation differs between RP and GA, but until we use separate symbols, these cells will be merged. --> || b'''a'''ck
|-
| {{IPA link|ɑː}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɑ}} || br'''a'''
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɒ}} || b'''o'''x
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɔ}}, {{IPA link|ɑ}} || cl'''o'''th
|-
| {{IPA link|ɔ|ɔː}}|| p'''aw'''
|-
| {{IPA link|uː}} || {{IPA link|u}} || f'''oo'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ʊ}}<!-- Pronunciation differs between RP and GA, with RP probably closer to {{IPA|[ɵ]}}, but until we use separate symbols, these cells will be merged. --> || g'''oo'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɐ|ʌ}} || b'''u'''t
|-
| {{IPA link|ə|ɜː}} || {{IPA link|ɚ|ɜɹ}} || b'''ir'''d
|-
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ə}} || comm'''a'''
|}
</div>

Vaawulinima bolibu malila waliginsim zuliyanima sunsuuni ka ka di nyɛ din yi polo yɛltɔɣa ni zaŋ chaŋ nira ni yina zuliya shɛli ni. Teebuli din doli ŋɔ na kalila vaawulinima ŋmebu (RP) mini (GA) ni, ni bachinma shɛhira shɛŋa ni di ni be bala ni. Vaawulinima maa dalim mi ni dalima din yina "International Phonetic Alphabet" ni; din zaŋ ti RP nyɛla din za di naba zuɣu British bachinma kahigibu kundunima ni.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wells|first=John C.|date=8 February 2001|url=https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-english-uni.htm|title=IPA transcription systems for English|publisher=University College London|access-date=3 September 2018|archive-date=19 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919182345/https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-english-uni.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

RP puuni, vaawuli waɣilim malila di ŋmebu; Vaawuli waɣila dalindimi ni {{angbr IPA|ː}} teebuli din do zuɣusaa ŋɔ ni, kamani vaawuni zaŋ ti "''need"'' {{IPA|[niːd]}} zaŋ dalim "''bid"'' {{IPA|[bɪd]}}. GA puuni, vaawuli waɣilim bi za yim.

RP mini GA ni zaa, vaawuli bachinma ŋmebu niŋdi la zaɣi jia pɔi ni ni konsonatinima din mali yaa, kamani {{IPA|/t tʃ f/}}, amaaa ka ni konsonantinima din ka yaa kamani {{IPA|/d dʒ v/}} bee: kamani, vaawulinima din be "''rich"'' {{IPA|[rɪtʃ]}}, "''neat"'' {{IPA|[nit]}}, mini "''safe"'' {{IPA|[seɪ̯f]}} ni nyɛla din ji ni vaawulinima din be "''ridge"'' {{IPA|[rɪˑdʒ]}}, "''need"'' {{IPA|[niˑd]}}, n-ti pahi "''save"'' {{IPA|[seˑɪ̯v]}} ni, ni "''light"'' {{IPA|[laɪ̯t]}} vaawuli nyɛla din ji n-gari "''lie"'' {{IPA|[laˑɪ̯]}}. Ka di daliri nyɛla vaawulinima din ka yaa ka kumsi bachinima bahigu, vaawuli kumsi kpala talahi ni wuhi vaawuli din mali yaa bee din ka yaa.{{sfn|Collins|Mees|2003|pp=46–50}}

Vaawuli din nyɛ {{IPA|/ə/}} yirimina bachinma din bi kahim ni ka tooi yooi pam zaashe shɛŋa ni.{{sfn|Cruttenden|2014|p=138}}{{sfn|Flemming|Johnson|2007}} Zuliya shɛŋa bi kahindi {{IPA|/ɪ/}} mini {{IPA|/ə/}} zaashe shɛŋa ni, kamani "''rabbit"'' mini "''abbot"'' bachi kumsim taba dolibu ni.{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=167}} GA {{IPA|/ɜr/}} mini {{IPA|/ər/}}nyɛla "''r''-coloured vowel" {{IPA|[ɚ]}}, kamani "''further" ni'' {{IPA|[ˈfɚðɚ]}} (bachi ŋmebu pebu ni {{IPA|/ˈfɜrðər/}}),  RP ni bahi shɛli ka di nyɛ {{IPA|[ˈfəːðə]}} (bachi ŋmebu {{IPA|/ˈfɜːðə/}}).{{sfn|Wells|1982|p=121}}

=== Phonotactics ===
Siliminsili pebu chanimi ni pebu soli din nyɛ vaawuli kumsi. Pebu piligu mini di bahigu nyɛla suhuyurilim. Di ni tooi piligi ni konsonantinima kumsim dibaa ata, kamani "''sprint"'' {{IPA|/sprɪnt/}} ni, ka naai ni dibaa anu, kamani "''angsts"'' {{IPA|/aŋksts/}} zuliya shɛŋa ni. Lala dini ŋɔ tila Silimisili pebu din nyɛ, (CCC)V(CCCCC), ka C zaniti konsonanti ka V zaniti vaawuli; bachi din nyɛ "''strengths"'' {{IPA|/strɛŋkθs/}} nyɛla din mali yɛligola Siliminsili ni.{{sfn|König|1994|pages=537–538}}

=== Stress, rhythm and intonation ===
Kahimbu nyɛla din kpa talahi Siliminsili ni. Bachi shɛŋ kahindi mi, ka shɛŋa mi bi kahinda. Kahimbu laɣindila waɣilim, darigibu, vaawuli darija, ka taɣiri kumsim saha shɛŋa. Bachi kahinda boonimi niŋdi waɣiliga gari bachinima di bi kahim, ka vaawulinima din be bachinima din bi kahim ni filimda ka vaawulinima din be din kahim ni i ka lala.{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|page=42}} Bachi shɛŋa ni, di bahi bahindi bachinima din tuma ji ni bachiniŋda di buɣisiri ni kamani "''can"'', malila di zaɣ'gbarima mini din mali yaa di yi niŋ ka di ti za kahimbu bee din bi kahim zaani.

Bachinma kahimbu Siliminsili ni malila di ni ŋmeri shɛm, ka bachi shɛŋa waligibu yirina di kahimbu ni. Kamani ŋmahinli, bachi din nyɛ "''contract"'' kahimla tuuli ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɒ|n|t|r|æ|k|t}} {{respell|KON|trakt}}) di yi ti zani bachinamdili zaani, amaa bahigu ni ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|n|ˈ|t|r|æ|k|t}} {{respell|kən|TRAKT|'}}) gbunni balibu ni (kamani shɛhira, "n-filim galisim") di yi ti zani bachinamdili zaani.{{sfn|Oxford Learner's Dictionary|2015|loc=Entry "contract"}}{{sfn|Merriam Webster|2015|loc=Entry "contract"}}{{sfn|Macquarie Dictionary|2015|loc=Entry "contract"}}{{sfn|Brinton|Brinton|2010|page=66}}

Bachinima kum doli taba, Siliminsili nyɛla bɛ ni buɣisi shɛli bachinma-saha kahimbu balli, ka di wuhiri ni saha din be bachinima kahimbu sunsuuni nyɛla yim.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sentence stress |url=https://esol.britishcouncil.org/content/teachers/staff-room/teaching-articles/sentence-stress |website=ESOL Nexus |publisher=British Council |access-date=24 November 2019 |archive-date=3 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203092723/https://esol.britishcouncil.org/content/teachers/staff-room/teaching-articles/sentence-stress |url-status=dead }}</ref> Bachi kahinda bɔlibu darigirimi, amaa bachinma din bi kahim bi darigira. Vaawulinima din be bachinma din bi kahim ni gba bi darigi, ka vaawuli jiya ŋmaabu filimdi di zaŋ maŋ'tali: Vaawuli filimbu.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lunden |first1=Anya |title=Duration, vowel quality, and the rhythmic pattern of English |journal=Laboratory Phonology |volume=8 |pages=27 |doi=10.5334/labphon.37 |year=2017 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Regional variation ===
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+ table centered | Varieties of Standard English and their features{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pp=4–6}}
! Phonological<br />features !! [[American English|United<br />States]] !! [[Canadian English|Canada]] !! [[Hiberno-English|Republic<br />of Ireland]] !! [[Ulster English|Northern<br />Ireland]] !! [[Scottish English|Scotland]] !! [[English language in England|England]] !! [[Welsh English|Wales]] !! [[South African English|South<br />Africa]] !! [[Australian English|Australia]] !! [[New Zealand English|New<br />Zealand]]
|-
! [[father-bother merger|''father''–''bother'' merger]]
| yes || yes || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"|
|-
! {{IPAc-en|ɒ}} is [[unrounded]]
| yes || yes || yes || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"|
|-
! {{IPAc-en|ɜr}} is pronounced {{IPA|[ɚ]}}
| yes || yes || yes || yes || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[cot-caught merger|''cot''–''caught'' merger]]
| possibly || yes || possibly || yes || yes || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"|
|-
! [[Full–fool merger|''fool''–''full'' merger]]
| style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || yes || yes || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"|
|-
! {{IPAc-en|t|,_|d}} [[flapping]]
| yes || yes || possibly || often || rarely || rarely || rarely || rarely || yes || often
|-
! [[trap-bath split|''trap''–''bath'' split]]
| style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || possibly || possibly || style="background:lightgrey;"| || often || yes || yes || often || yes
|-
! [[rhoticity in English|non-rhotic]] ({{IPAc-en|r}}-dropping after vowels)
| style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || yes || yes || yes || yes || yes
|-
! close vowels for {{IPA|/æ, ɛ/}}
| style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || yes || yes || yes
|-
! {{IPAc-en|l}} can always be pronounced {{IPA|[ɫ]}}
| yes || yes || style="background:lightgrey;"| || yes || yes || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || yes || yes
|-
! {{IPA|/ɑː/}} is [[fronted (phonetics)|fronted]] before {{IPA|/r/}}
| style="background:lightgrey;"| || possibly || possibly || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || style="background:lightgrey;"| || yes || yes
|}
{|class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Dialects and low vowels
! [[Lexical set]] !! RP || GA !! Can !! Sound change
|-
! {{sc2|THOUGHT}}
| {{IPA|/ɔː/}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɔ/}} or {{IPA|/ɑ/}} || rowspan="4" | {{IPA|/ɑ/}} || [[Cot–caught merger|''cot''–''caught'' merger]]
|-
! {{sc2|CLOTH}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɒ/}} || [[Lot–cloth split|''lot''–''cloth'' split]]
|-
! {{sc2|LOT}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɑ/}} || rowspan="2" | [[Father–bother merger|''father''–''bother'' merger]]
|-
! {{sc2|PALM}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɑː/}}
|-
! {{sc2|BATH}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/æ/}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/æ/}} || rowspan="2" | [[Trap–bath split|''trap''–''bath'' split]]
|-
! {{sc2|TRAP}}
| {{IPA|/æ/}}
|}

=== Britain and Ireland ===
{{See also|English language in England|Estuary English|English language in Northern England|Welsh English|Scottish English|Scots language|Ulster English|Hiberno-English}}
{| style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"
| {{listen|filename=Alain de Botton on Fear of Failure at Cannes Lions 2012.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a man with a contemporary [[Received Pronunciation accent]] ([[Alain de Botton]]).|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=Danny Baker BBC Radio4 Desert Island Discs 31 Jul 2007 b012wcl4.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a man with a [[Cockney accent]] ([[Danny Baker]]).|help=no|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=Russell brand bbc radio4 desert island discs 21 07 2013.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of an [[Essex]] man with a working-class [[Estuary English|Estuary English accent]] ([[Russell Brand]]).|help=no|image=none}}
|-
| {{listen|filename=Damien hirst bbc radio4 desert island discs 13 05 2013 b01sd0hy.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a man with a ([[West Yorkshire|West]]) [[Yorkshire accent]] ([[Damien Hirst]]).|help=no|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=John_bishop_bbc_radio4_desert_island_discs_24_06_2012.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a man with a contemporary [[Liverpool accent]] ([[John Bishop]]).|help=no|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=Rob Brydon BBC Radio4 Front Row 18 Mar 2012 b01dhl11.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a man with a ([[South Wales|South]]) [[Welsh English|Wales accent]] ([[Rob Brydon]]).|help=no|image=none}}
|-
| {{listen|filename=Alex Salmond BBC Radio4 Desert Island Discs 16 January 2011 b00xgs41.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a man with one of the many [[Scottish English|accents of Scotland]] ([[Alex Salmond]]).|help=no|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=George Best - The New Elizabethans -20 Jul 2012 - b01kt7cs.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a man with a [[Ulster English|Northern Irish accent]] ([[George Best]]).|help=no|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=Mary Robinson - Desert Island Discs - 28 July 2013.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a woman with one of the many [[Hiberno-English|accents of the Republic of Ireland]] ([[Mary Robinson]]).|help=no|image=none}}
|}
[[File:Dialects of English in UK and Ireland.svg|thumb|A map showing the main dialect regions in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]]]]

Silimiinsili nyɛla balli shɛli din yɛra England yuun tuhiyini ni kɔbishi din gari maa ka di nyɛ din wuhiri lala yaɣili ŋɔ silimiinsili yaa ni nyɛ shɛm.{{sfn|Trudgill|1999|p=10}}United Kingdom nyɛla ban daa tuui baŋ bachinima ŋɔ bolibu shikuru baŋda so ŋun daa yina England. "Received pronunciation", bɛ ni lahi mi shɛli ( BBC English) nyɛla din yɛligi ka di nyɛla di ni niŋ ka niriba sabiri pohim zuɣu la. Bin din gbaai yuuni 1950-61, vihigu niŋbu zaŋ n-ti silimiinsili balli nyɛla din daa mali booni koŋkoba mini bachinima kumsim koŋkoba zaŋ n-ti tiŋgbani kam.{{sfn|Trudgill|1999|p=125}}
=== North America ===
{{Main|American English|General American English|Southern American English|African-American Vernacular English|Canadian English|Atlantic Canadian English}}
{| style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"
| {{listen|filename=Emery Emery Voice.ogg|title=Speech example|description=An example of a [[Midwestern America]]n man with a [[General American accent]] ([[Emery Emery]]).|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=Rep. Martha Roby's "Roller Coaster" Speech Sound Bite.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of an [[Alabamian]] woman with a contemporary [[Southern American accent]] ([[Martha Roby]]).|help=no|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=Chuck Zito on Becoming a Hells Angel.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a man with a [[New York City accent]] ([[Chuck Zito]]).|help=no|image=none}}
|-
| {{listen|filename=Sec. Walsh on Construction Jobs in Infrastructure Bill v2.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a man with a [[Boston accent]] ([[Marty Walsh]]).|help=no|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=On the phone- Russell Gage.ogg|title=Speech example|description=An example of two men with [[AAVE accents]], the interviewer from [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] ([[D. J. Shockley]]) and the interviewee from [[Louisiana]] ([[Russell Gage]]).|help=no|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=Margaret atwood bbc radio4 front row 27 07 2007 b007tjpb.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of an [[Ontarian]] woman with a [[Standard Canadian accent]] ([[Margaret Atwood]]).|help=no|image=none}}
|}

[[File:Population speaking English at home by PUMA.png|thumb|Percentage of Americans aged 5+ speaking English at home in each public usage microdata area (PUMA) of the 50 states, [[Washington, D.C.]] and [[Puerto Rico]]. according to the 2016–2021 five-year [[American Community Survey]]]]
[[File:Non-RhoticityUSA.png|thumb|[[Rhoticity in English|Rhoticity]] dominates in [[North American English]], but ''[[The Atlas of North American English]]'' found over 50% non-rhoticity with at least one local speaker in each US metropolitan area (designated with a red dot) and non-rhotic [[African-American Vernacular English]] pronunciations found primarily among [[African Americans]] regardless of location.]]
{{image frame
|content={{Map of Canadian English}}
|max-width=630
|caption=
}}

Pirinla balla pam nyɛla ban daa laɣim taba pɔi ni maŋsulinsi nima deebu zuɣu, North America silimiinsili n-daa na nyɛ balli shɛli niriba pam ni yɛra ti yi yɛn zaŋ li maɣisi British balli. Amaa baŋdiba pam nyɛla ban bɛ saɣi n-ti lala yɛligu. Din bɔŋɔ nyɛla balli shɛli din wali wali bela kamani Africanima Americanima silimiinsili, Chicano silimiinsili, Cajun silimiinsili bee Newfoundland silimiinsili .<ref>{{cite book |title=The Handbook of World Englishes |date=2020 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-119-16421-0 |page=45 |chapter=3}}</ref> Americanima silimiinsili balli ŋɔ nyɛla din yɛligi gili tiŋduya amaa ka di yɛligu leei booi di tiŋgbani ni {{sfn|Labov|2012}}{{sfn|Wells|1982|page=34}} amaa ka bɛ leei laɣim di zaa booni li General American silimiinsili (GA) amaa ka waliginsim bela leei be di ni hali Americanima maŋmaŋ sunsuun, di shɛŋa nyɛ Midland mini Western Amerivan silimiinsili.{{sfn|Rowicka|2006}}{{sfn|Toon|1982}}{{sfn|Cassidy|1982}}{{sfn|Labov|1972}}

=== Australia and New Zealand ===
{{Main|Australian English|New Zealand English}}
{| style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"
| {{listen|filename=AustraliaPart2.ogg|title=Speech example|description=An example of a man with a [[Australian English phonology|general Australian accent]].|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=Prime Minister Gillard of Australia at News Conference with President Obama.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a [[South Australia]]n woman with a [[broad Australian accent]] ([[Julia Gillard]]).|help=no|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=Geoffrey Rush bbc radio4 front row 01 05 2013.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a [[Queensland]] man with a cultivated Australian accent ([[Geoffrey Rush]]).|help=no|image=none}}
|-
| {{listen|filename=Eleanor_catton_bbc_radio4_womans_hour_09_09_2013.flac|title=Speech example|description=An example of a woman with a [[New Zealand accent]] ([[Eleanor Catton]]).|help=no|image=none}}
|
{{listen|filename=H.E. Mr. John Key Prime Minister, New Zealand - speech at Connect Asia-Pacific 2013 Summit.ogg|title=Speech example|description=An example of a man with a [[New Zealand accent]] ([[John Key]]).|help=no|image=none}}
|
|}

Tum yuuni 1788, silimiinsili nyɛla balli bɛ ni daa pun yɛra Oceania ka balli shɛli bɛ ni daa yɛra pam daa nyɛ Australian silimiinsili. New Zealand silimiinsili nyɛla din gba waligi bela.{{sfn|Eagleson|1982}} Australian mini New Zealand silimiinsili nyɛla ŋmani taba amaa ka di nahingbana dibaa ashɛm ŋɔ nyɛ di walinginsim, ti yi lihi South Africanima silimiinsili mini South East England gba nyɛla din ŋmani taba. Australian mini New Zealand silimiinsili bachinima nyɛla din nyɛ. Australian silimiinsili bachinima zalikpana nyɛla din lu zahim ni British mini American silimiinsili.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pages=16–21}}{{sfn|Burridge|2010}} New Zealand siliminsili nyɛla din mali tooni Vaawulinima ka di mali yaa gari Australian silimiinsili.{{sfn|Trudgill|Hannah|2002|pages=24–26}}{{sfn|Maclagan|2010}}{{sfn|Gordon|Campbell|Hay et al.|2004}}
=== Southeast Asia ===
{{Main|Southeast Asian English|Singapore English|Philippine English|Malaysian English|Brunei English}}
{| style="text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"
| {{listen|filename=Declaration of Independence Part 1.ogg|title=Speech example|description=An example of a male teenager with a [[Singaporean English|Singaporean accent]].|image=none}}
| {{listen|filename=Dr. Villaverde on Conflicts of Interest in Medicine and Dr. Dans on Evidence-Based Medicine in INCLEN.flac|title=Speech examples|description=Examples of a man and woman with [[Philippine English|Filipino accents]].|help=no|image=none}}
|}
[[Philippines]] nima daa tuumi baŋ silimiinsili yuuni 1762 din daa niŋ ka British deei Manila zaa Seven Years tɔbu saha. Silimiinsili nyɛla din anfaani daa pahi ka yɛligi saha shɛli Americanima ni daa gbubi ba bin din gbaai yuuni 1898 mini yuuni 1946 sunsuun ka nyɛ din leei balli shɛli tiŋgbani maa zaa ni saɣi n-ti ka yɛra. Zuŋɔ, silimiinsili nyɛla balli bɛ ni yɛra Philippines luɣilikam, di ni ka bɛ yɛra ka sabiri pohim zuɣu, dabiligu niŋbu shee ni yaɣa shɛŋa din pahi .<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dayag |first1=Danilo |date=2008 |chapter=English-language media in the Philippines: Description and research |title=Philippine English: Linguistic and Literary Perspectives |pages=49–66 |editor-last1=Bautista |editor-first=Ma. Lourdes |editor-last2=Bolton |editor-first2=Kingsley |location=Hong Kong |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |doi=10.5790/hongkong/9789622099470.003.0004 |isbn=978-962-209-947-0 }}</ref> Siliminsili yɛlibu tiŋgbani ŋɔ ni nyɛla din be luɣilikam di gbaai bahindi Filipinos ban yina Manila ka bɛ shɛba gba nyɛ ban yɛra Taglish.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bautista |first1=Maria Lourdes S. |title=Tagalog-English Code-switching as a Mode of Discourse |journal=Asia Pacific Education Review |date=2004 |volume=5|pages=226–233|issue=2|doi=10.1007/BF03024960|s2cid=145684166|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ720543.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220515012035/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ720543.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
 



== Lihimi m-pahi ==
* [[Linguistic purism in English]]
* [[English-speaking world]]
* [[English-only movement]]
* [[List of countries and territories where English is an official language]]

== Kundivihira ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
<!-- The entries in this bibliography are in alphabetical order. Comments show the names of named references. -->
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
<!-- AartsHaegeman2006
-->* {{cite book|first1=Bas|last1=Aarts|first2=Liliane|last2=Haegeman|date=2006|chapter=6. English Word classes and Phrases|title=The Handbook of English Linguistics|editor1-last=Aarts|editor1-first=Bas|editor2-first=April|editor2-last=McMahon|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd |isbn=9781405164252}}
<!-- AbercrombieDaniels2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04878-1 |chapter=Spelling Reform Proposals: English |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Abercrombie |first1=D. |last2=Daniels |first2=P.T. |pages=72–75 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- AitkenMcArthur1979
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Aitken |editor1-first=A. J. |editor2-last=McArthur |editor2-first=Tom |date=1979 |title=Languages of Scotland |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Chambers |series=Occasional paper – Association for Scottish Literary Studies; no. 4 |isbn=978-0-550-20261-1 }}
<!-- Alcaraz-ArizaNavarro2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/02351-8 |chapter=Medicine: Use of English |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Alcaraz Ariza |first1=M.Á. |last2=Navarro |first2=F. |pages=752–759 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Algeo1999
-->* {{cite book |last=Algeo |first=John |chapter=Chapter 2:Vocabulary |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NxHuNOvwt7wC&pg=PA57 |title=Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=IV: 1776–1997 |editor-last=Romaine |editor-first=Suzanne |pages=57–91 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-26477-8 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521264778.003 }}
<!-- Ammon2006
-->* {{cite journal |last=Ammon |first=Ulrich |s2cid=142692741 |title=Language Conflicts in the European Union: On finding a politically acceptable and practicable solution for EU institutions that satisfies diverging interests |journal=International Journal of Applied Linguistics |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=319–338 |date=2006 |doi=10.1111/j.1473-4192.2006.00121.x |s2cid-access=free |via=DYLAN project |url=http://www.dylan-project.org/Dylan_en/presentation/dissemination/articles/assets/UDE-Ammon-LanguageConflictsInTheEuropeanUnion.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102074109/http://www.dylan-project.org/Dylan_en/presentation/dissemination/articles/assets/UDE-Ammon-LanguageConflictsInTheEuropeanUnion.pdf |archive-date= Jan 2, 2011 }}
<!-- Ammon2008
-->* {{cite book |last=Ammon |first=Ulrich |chapter=Pluricentric and Divided Languages |editor1-last=Ammon |editor1-first=Ulrich N. |editor2-last=Dittmar |editor2-first=Norbert |editor3-last=Mattheier |editor3-first=Klaus J. |display-editors=3 |editor4-last=Trudgill |editor4-first=Peter |title=Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society / Soziolinguistik Ein internationales Handbuch zur Wissenschaft vov Sprache and Gesellschaft |volume=2 |date=2008 |edition=2nd completely revised and extended |publisher=de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-019425-8 |series=Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science / Handbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft 3/2 }}
<!-- Annamalai2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04611-3 |chapter=India: Language Situation |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Annamalai |first1=E. |pages=610–613 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Australian Bureau of Statistics2013 official census of Australia
-->* {{cite web |author=Australian Bureau of Statistics |title=2011 Census QuickStats: Australia |date=28 March 2013 |url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2011/quickstat/0 |access-date=25 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151106221006/http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2011/quickstat/0 |archive-date=6 November 2015 }}
<!-- Bailey2001
-->* {{cite book |last=Bailey |first=Guy |chapter=Chapter 3: The relationship between African American and White Vernaculars |editor-last=Lanehart |editor-first=Sonja L. |title=Sociocultural and historical contexts of African American English |url=https://archive.org/details/socioculturalhis00lane |url-access=limited |date=2001 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/socioculturalhis00lane/page/n71 53]–84 |publisher=John Benjamins |series=Varieties of English around the World |isbn=978-1-58811-046-6 }}
<!-- Bailey1997
-->* {{cite book |last=Bailey |first=G. |date=1997 |chapter=When did southern American English begin |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zvFtOr5_BZAC&pg=PA255 |title=Englishes around the world |pages=255–275 |editor=Edgar W. Schneider|publisher=John Benjamins|isbn=9789027248763}}
<!-- Bammesberger1992
-->* {{cite book |last=Bammesberger |first=Alfred |date=1992 |chapter=Chapter 2: The Place of English in Germanic and Indo-European |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y83EPUUWnQkC&pg=PA26 |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=1: The Beginnings to 1066 |editor-last=Hogg |editor-first=Richard M. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-26474-7 |pages=26–66 }}
<!-- Bao2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04257-7 |chapter=Variation in Nonnative Varieties of English |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Bao |first1=Z. |pages=377–380 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Barry1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Barry |first=Michael V. |chapter=English in Ireland |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=84–134 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- BaughCable2002
-->* {{cite book |last1=Baugh |first1=Albert C. |last2=Cable |first2=Thomas |title=A History of the English Language |edition=5th |publisher=Longman |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-13-015166-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish02baug }}
<!-- Bermudez-OteroMcMahon2006
-->* {{cite book|last1=Bermúdez-Otero|first1=Ricardo|first2=April|last2=McMahon|date=2006|chapter=Chapter 17: English phonology and morphology|editor1=Bas Aarts|editor2=April McMahon|title=The Handbook of English Linguistics|location=Oxford|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-6425-2|chapter-url=http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/uid=3/tocnode?id=g9781405113823_chunk_g978140511382318|access-date=2 April 2015|doi=10.1111/b.9781405113823.2006.00018.x|pages=382–410|doi-broken-date=2 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403030637/http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/uid=3/tocnode?id=g9781405113823_chunk_g978140511382318|archive-date=3 April 2017|url-status=dead}}
<!-- BlenchSpriggs1999
-->* {{cite book |last1=Blench |first1=R. |last2=Spriggs |first2=Matthew |title=Archaeology and Language: Correlating Archaeological and Linguistic Hypotheses |pages=285–286 |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-11761-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&pg=PA286 |access-date=2 June 2020 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200408/https://books.google.com/books?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&pg=PA286 |url-status=live }}
<!-- Boberg2010
-->* {{cite book |last=Boberg |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Boberg |date=2010 |title=The English language in Canada: Status, history and comparative analysis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49144-0 |series=Studies in English Language}}
<!-- BosworthToller1921
-->* {{cite web |last1=Bosworth |first1=Joseph |author-link1=Joseph Bosworth |last2=Toller |first2=T. Northcote |title=Engla land |work=[[An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary]] (Online) |date=1921 |url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 |access-date=6 March 2015 |publisher=[[Charles University]] |archive-date=21 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221212612/http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/009427 |url-status=live }}
<!-- BrintonBrinton2010
-->* {{cite book |last1=Brinton |first1=Laurel J. |last2=Brinton |first2=Donna M. |date=2010 |title=The linguistic structure of modern English |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-90-272-8824-0 |url=https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/z.156/main |access-date=2 April 2015 |archive-date=1 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501194533/https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/z.156/main |url-status=live }}
<!-- Brutt-Griffler2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00644-1 |chapter=Languages of Wider Communication |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Brutt-Griffler |first1=J. |pages=690–697 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Burridge2010
-->* {{cite book |last=Burridge |first=Kate |chapter=Chapter 7: English in Australia |editor-last=Kirkpatrick |editor-first=Andy |date=2010 |title=The Routledge handbook of world Englishes |url=https://archive.org/details/routledgehandboo00kirk_142 |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-62264-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/routledgehandboo00kirk_142/page/n154 132]–151 }}
<!-- Campbell1959
-->* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Alistair |author-link=Alistair Campbell (academic) |title=Old English Grammar |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=1959 |isbn=978-0-19-811943-2 }}
<!-- CarrHoneybone2007
-->* {{cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Philip |last2=Honeybone |first2=Patrick |date=2007 |title=English phonology and linguistic theory: an introduction to issues, and to 'Issues in English Phonology' |journal=Language Sciences |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=117–153 |doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2006.12.018 }}
<!-- Cassidy1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Cassidy |first=Frederic G. |chapter=Geographical Variation of English in the United States |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=177–210 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Cercignani1981
-->* {{cite book |last=Cercignani |first=Fausto |title=Shakespeare's works and Elizabethan pronunciation |date=1981 |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_JBlAAAAMAAJ |access-date=14 March 2015 |jstor=3728688 |isbn=978-0-19-811937-1 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200400/https://books.google.com/books?id=_JBlAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- CollingwoodMyres1936
-->* {{cite book |last1=Collingwood |first1=Robin George |author-link=R. G. Collingwood |last2=Myres |first2=J. N. L. |chapter=Chapter XX. The Sources for the period: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes on the Continent |title=Roman Britain and the English Settlements |volume=Book V: The English Settlements |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford, England |date=1936 |lccn=37002621 |jstor=2143838}}
<!-- CollinsMees2003
-->* {{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Beverley |last2=Mees |first2=Inger M. |year=2003 |orig-date=1981 |title=The Phonetics of English and Dutch |edition=5th |place=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-10340-5 }}
<!-- Connell2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01655-2 |chapter=Nigeria : Language Situation |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Connell |first1=B.A. |pages=635–637 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- ConradRubal-Lopez1996
-->* {{cite book |last1=Conrad |first1=Andrew W. |last2=Rubal-Lopez |first2=Alma |title=Post-Imperial English: Status Change in Former British and American Colonies, 1940–1990 |date=1996 |publisher=de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-087218-7 |url=http://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/143492 |access-date=2 April 2015 |page=261 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924071825/http://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/143492 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Cruttenden |first=Alan |date=2014 |title=Gimson's Pronunciation of English |edition=8th |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-4441-8309-2 }}
<!-- CrystalLanguageDeath2002
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139106856 |title=Language Death |date=2000 |last1=Crystal |first1=David |isbn=978-0-521-65321-3 }}
<!-- CrystalGlobalLanguage2003a
-->* {{Cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=English as a Global Language |author-link=David Crystal |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=69 |date=2003a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC |access-date=4 February 2015 |isbn=978-0-521-53032-3 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200407/https://books.google.com/books?id=d6jPAKxTHRYC |url-status=live }}
<!-- CrystalEncyclopedia2003b
-->* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language |author-link=David Crystal |edition=2nd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2003b |isbn=978-0-521-53033-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3b3ngEACAAJ |access-date=4 February 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200436/https://books.google.com/books?id=A3b3ngEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- CrystalSubcontinent2004b
-->* {{cite news |last=Crystal |first=David |title=Subcontinent Raises Its Voice |year=2004 |url=http://education.guardian.co.uk/tefl/story/0,,1355064,00.html |access-date=4 February 2015 |newspaper=The Guardian |archive-date=17 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417171455/http://education.guardian.co.uk/tefl/story/0,,1355064,00.html |url-status=live }}
<!-- Crystal2006
-->* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |chapter=Chapter 9: English worldwide |title=A History of the English Language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-511-16893-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n435 420]–439 }}
<!-- DanielsBright1996
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Daniels |editor1-first=Peter T. |editor2-last=Bright |editor2-first=William |title=The World's Writing Systems |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=621jAAAAMAAJ |access-date=23 February 2015 |date=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507993-7 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200408/https://books.google.com/books?id=621jAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- Dehaene2009
-->* {{cite book|last=Dehaene|first=Stanislas|title=Reading in the Brain: The Science and Evolution of a Human Invention|date=2009|publisher=Viking|isbn=978-0-670-02110-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z2hjwEACAAJ|access-date=3 April 2015|archive-date=17 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200401/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z2hjwEACAAJ|url-status=live}}
<!-- DenisonHogg2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Denison |first1=David |last2=Hogg |first2=Richard M. |author-link2=Richard Milne Hogg |chapter=Overview |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n45 30]–31 }}
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-->* {{cite book |last1=Denning |first1=Keith |last2=Kessler |first2=Brett |last3=Leben |first3=William Ronald |title=English Vocabulary Elements |date=17 February 2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-516803-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jz76l9RAccQC |access-date=25 February 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200436/https://books.google.com/books?id=jz76l9RAccQC |url-status=live }}
<!-- Deumert2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01294-3 |chapter=Migration and Language |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Deumert |first1=A. |pages=129–133 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Dixon 1982
-->* {{cite journal |last=Dixon|first=R. M. W. |date=1982 |title=The grammar of English phrasal verbs |journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics |volume=2 |issue=1|doi=10.1080/07268608208599280 |pages=1–42}}
<!-- Donoghue2008
-->* {{cite book |last=Donoghue |first=D. |title=Old English Literature: A Short Introduction |publisher=Wiley |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-631-23486-9 |doi=10.1002/9780470776025 |editor1-last=Donoghue |editor1-first=Daniel }}
<!-- Durrell2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/02189-1 |chapter=Germanic Languages |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Durrell |first1=M. |pages=53–55 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Eagleson1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Eagleson |first=Robert D. |chapter=English in Australia and New Zealand |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=415–438 |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press }}
<!-- Ethnologue
-->* {{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |title=Summary by language size |access-date=10 February 2015 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |ref={{harvid|Ethnologue|2010}} |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226040016/https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |url-status=live }}
<!-- EuropeanCommission2012
-->* {{cite report |author=European Commission |title=Special Eurobarometer 386: Europeans and Their Languages |date=June 2012 |series=Eurobarometer Special Surveys |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |access-date=12 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106183351/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2016 }}
<!--FasoldConnor-Linton2014
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Fasold |editor1-first=Ralph W. |editor2-last=Connor-Linton |editor2-first=Jeffrey |title=An Introduction to Language and Linguistics |edition=Second |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-06185-5 }}
<!-- Fischer-van der Wurff2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Olga |last2=van der Wurff |first2=Wim |chapter=Chapter 3: Syntax |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n124 109]–198 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Flemming |first1=Edward |last2=Johnson |first2=Stephanie |year=2007 |title=''Rosa's roses'': reduced vowels in American English |journal=[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association]] |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=83–96 |doi=10.1017/S0025100306002817 |url=http://web.mit.edu/flemming/www/paper/rosasroses.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.536.1989 |s2cid=145535175 |access-date=2 September 2018 |archive-date=19 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919182406/http://web.mit.edu/flemming/www/paper/rosasroses.pdf |url-status=live }}
<!-- Giegerich1992
-->* {{cite book |title=English Phonology: An Introduction |first=Heinz J. |last=Giegerich |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-33603-1 |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics }}
<!-- Gneuss2013
-->* {{cite book |last=Gneuss |first=Helmut |chapter=Chapter 2: The Old English Language |editor1-last=Godden |editor1-first=Malcolm |editor2-last=Lapidge |editor2-first=Michael |date=2013 |title=The Cambridge companion to Old English literature |edition=Second |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-15402-4 |pages=19–49 }}
<!-- Görlach1991
-->* {{cite book |last=Görlach |first=Manfred |title=Introduction to Early Modern English |date=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-32529-5 }}
<!-- Gordin2015
-->* {{cite web |last=Gordin |first=Michael D. |title=Absolute English |url=http://aeon.co/magazine/science/how-did-science-come-to-speak-only-english/ |access-date=16 February 2015 |work=[[Aeon (digital magazine)|Aeon]] |date=4 February 2015 |archive-date=7 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207162247/http://aeon.co/magazine/science/how-did-science-come-to-speak-only-english/ |url-status=dead }}
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-->* {{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Campbell |first2=Lyle |last3=Hay |first3=Jennifer |last4=Maclagan |first4=Margaret |last5=Sudbury |first5=Angela |last6=Trudgill |first6=Peter |author-link6=Peter Trudgill |date=2004 |title=New Zealand English: its origins and evolution|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-10895-9 |series=Studies in English Language |ref={{harvid|Gordon|Campbell|Hay et al.|2004}}}}
<!-- Gottlieb2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04455-2 |chapter=Linguistic Influence |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Gottlieb |first1=H. |pages=196–206 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Graddol2006
-->* {{cite book |last=Graddol |first=David |title=English Next: Why global English may mean the end of 'English as a Foreign Language' |author-link=David Graddol |url=http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next.pdf |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=2006 |publisher=The British Council |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212042939/http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2015 }}
<!-- Graddol2010
-->* {{cite book |last=Graddol |first=David |title=English Next India: The future of English in India |author-link=David Graddol |url=http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next-india-2010.pdf |access-date=7 February 2015 |date=2010 |publisher=The British Council |isbn=978-0-86355-627-2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212042654/http://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ec/files/books-english-next-india-2010.pdf |archive-date=12 February 2015 }}
<!-- GraddolLeithSwann et al.2007
-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=Graddol |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Leith |editor2-first=Dick |editor3-last=Swann |editor3-first=Joan |editor4-last=Rhys |editor4-first=Martin |editor5-last=Gillen |editor5-first=Julia |title=Changing English |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415376792/ |access-date=11 February 2015 |date=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-37679-2 |ref={{harvid|Graddol|Leith|Swann et al.|2007}} |archive-date=24 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224062821/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415376792/ |url-status=live }}
<!--Green2002
-->* {{cite book |last=Green |first=Lisa J. |date=2002 |title=African American English: a linguistic introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387 |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
<!-- Greenbaum
-->* {{cite book |last1=Greenbaum |first1=S. |last2=Nelson |first2=G. |title=An introduction to English grammar |date=2002 |edition=Second |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-43741-8 }}
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-->* {{cite book |last1=Halliday |first1=M. A. K. |last2=Hasan|first2=Ruqaiya|date=1976|title=Cohesion in English|publisher=Pearson Education ltd.|isbn=978-0-582-55041-4 }}
<!-- Harbert2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511755071 |title=The Germanic Languages |date=2006 |last1=Harbert |first1=Wayne |isbn=978-0-521-80825-5 }}
<!-- Hickey 2007
-->* {{cite book |last=Hickey |first=R. |date=2007 |title=Irish English: History and present-day forms |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85299-9 }}
<!-- Hogg1992
-->* {{cite book |last=Hogg |first=Richard M. |s2cid=161881054 |chapter=Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology |editor-last=Hogg |editor-first=Richard M. |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=1: The Beginnings to 1066 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-26474-7 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521264747 |pages=67–168 }}
<!-- Hogg2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Hogg |first1=Richard M. |chapter=Chapter7: English in Britain |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n375 360]–61 }}
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-->* {{cite web |title=How English evolved into a global language |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753 |date=20 December 2010 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=9 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|How English evolved into a global language|2010}} |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925173407/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12017753 |url-status=live }}
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-->* {{cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney |last2=Pullum |first2=Geoffrey K. |title=The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-43146-0 |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/grammar-and-syntax/cambridge-grammar-english-language |access-date=10 February 2015 |archive-date=12 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212000801/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/languages-linguistics/grammar-and-syntax/cambridge-grammar-english-language |url-status=live }}
<!-- Hughes & Trudgill 1996
-->* {{cite book |first1=Arthur |last1=Hughes |last2=Trudgill |first2=Peter |author-link2=Peter Trudgill |date=1996 |title=English Accents and Dialects |edition=3rd |publisher=Arnold Publishers |isbn=9780340614457 }}
<!-- International Civil Aviation Organization
-->* {{cite web |title=Personnel Licensing FAQ |url=http://www.icao.int/safety/airnavigation/pages/peltrgfaq.aspx#anchor14 |access-date=16 December 2014 |publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization – Air Navigation Bureau |date=2011 |at=In which languages does a licence holder need to demonstrate proficiency? |quote=Controllers working on stations serving designated airports and routes used by international air services shall demonstrate language proficiency in English as well as in any other language(s) used by the station on the ground. |archive-date=20 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220003044/http://www.icao.int/safety/airnavigation/pages/peltrgfaq.aspx#anchor14 |url-status=live | ref = {{SfnRef|International Civil Aviation Organization|2011}} }}
<!-- International Maritime Organization
-->* {{cite web |author=International Maritime Organization |title=IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases |date=2011 |url=http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-date=3 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003233938/http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Safety/Navigation/Pages/StandardMarineCommunicationPhrases.aspx |url-status=dead }}
<!-- International Phonetics Association 1999
-->* {{Cite book |last=International Phonetic Association |author-link=International Phonetic Association |date=1999 |title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-65236-0 }}
<!-- Jambor2007
-->* {{cite journal |last=Jambor |first=Paul Z. |title=English Language Imperialism: Points of View |journal=Journal of English as an International Language |date=2007 |volume=2 |pages=103–123 |url=https://www.eilj.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/2-december%202007.pdf#page=103 |access-date=11 December 2023 |archive-date=11 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211184023/https://www.eilj.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/2-december%202007.pdf#page=103 |url-status=live }}
<!-- Jespersen 2007
-->* {{cite book |last=Jespersen |first=Otto |title=The Philosophy of Grammar |chapter=Case: The number of English cases |publisher=Routledge |orig-date=1924 |date=2007 }}
<!-- Kachru2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00645-3 |chapter=English: World Englishes |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Kachru |first1=B. |pages=195–202 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Kastovsky2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Kastovsky |first1=Dieter |chapter=Chapter 4: Vocabulary |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n214 199]–270 }}
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-->* {{cite book |editor1-last=König |editor1-first=Ekkehard |editor2-last=van der Auwera |editor2-first=Johan |title=The Germanic Languages |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28079-2 |series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions |url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |access-date=26 February 2015 |jstor=4176538 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101046/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |url-status=live }} The survey of the Germanic branch languages includes chapters by Winfred P. Lehmann, [[Ans van Kemenade]], John Ole Askedal, Erik Andersson, Neil Jacobs, Silke Van Ness, and Suzanne Romaine.
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-->* {{cite book |last=König |first=Ekkehard |chapter=17. English |pages=532–562 |editor1-last=König |editor1-first=Ekkehard |editor2-last=van der Auwera |editor2-first=Johan |title=The Germanic Languages |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-28079-2 |series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions |chapter-url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |access-date=26 February 2015 |jstor=4176538 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402101046/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415280792/ |url-status=live }}
<!-- Labov 1972
-->* {{cite book |last=Labov |first=W. |author-link=William Labov |date=1972 |title=Sociolinguistic patterns |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |chapter=The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City Department Stores |pages=168–178 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-25582-5_14 |isbn=978-0-333-61180-7 |s2cid=107967883 }}
<!-- Labov 2012
-->* {{cite book |last=Labov |first=W. |date=2012 |title=Dialect Diversity in America: The Politics of Language Change |publisher=University of Virginia Press |chapter=1. About Language and Language Change |isbn=9780813933276 }}
<!-- Lanham 1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Lanham |first=L. W. |chapter=English in South Africa |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=324–352 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
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-->* {{cite book |last=Lass |first=Roger |chapter=2. Phonology and Morphology |editor1-last=Blake |editor1-first=Norman |title=Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=II: 1066–1476 |pages=23–154 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521264754.003|isbn=978-1-139-05553-6 }}
<!-- Lass2000
-->* {{cite book |last=Lass |first=Roger |chapter=Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology |editor-first=Roger |editor-last=Lass |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III: 1476–1776 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |date=2000 |pages=56–186 }}
<!-- Lass 2002
-->* {{citation |last=Lass |first=Roger |chapter=South African English |editor-last=Mesthrie |editor-first=Rajend |date=2002 |title=Language in South Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-79105-2 }}
<!-- Lass2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Lass |first1=Roger |chapter=Chapter 2: Phonology and Morphology |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |url=https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg |url-access=limited |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyenglishla00hogg/page/n61 46]–47 }}
<!-- Lawler2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04573-9 |chapter=Punctuation |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Lawler |first1=J. |pages=290–291 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Lawton 1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Lawton |first=David L. |chapter=English in the Caribbean |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=251–280 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Leech 2006
-->* {{cite book|last=Leech|first=G. N.|author-link=Geoffrey Leech|date=2006|title=A glossary of English grammar|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=0748624066}}
<!-- LeechHundtMairSmith2009
-->* {{cite book |url=http://english.fullerton.edu/publications/clnarchives/2012winter/angus-chng%20contemp_eng.pdf |last1=Leech |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Hundt |first2=Marianne |last3=Mair |first3=Christian |last4=Smith |first4=Nicholas |title=Change in contemporary English: a grammatical study |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-86722-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402140536/http://english.fullerton.edu/publications/clnarchives/2012winter/angus-chng%20contemp_eng.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2015 |access-date=22 September 2016 |url-status=live }}
<!-- LevineCrocket1966
-->* {{cite journal |last1=Levine |first1=L. |last2=Crockett |first2=H. J. |date=1966 |title=Speech Variation in a Piedmont Community: Postvocalic r*|journal=Sociological Inquiry |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=204–226 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-682x.1966.tb00625.x }}
<!-- Li2003
-->* {{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=David C. S. |title=Between English and Esperanto: what does it take to be a world language? |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |issue=164 |pages=33–63 |date=2003 |issn=0165-2516 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.2003.055 }}
<!-- LimAnsaldo2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01701-6 |chapter=Singapore: Language Situation |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Lim |first1=L. |last2=Ansaldo |first2=U. |pages=387–389 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Maclagan 2010
-->* {{cite book |last=Maclagan |first=Margaret |chapter=Chapter 8: The English(es) of New Zealand |editor-last=Kirkpatrick |editor-first=Andy |date=2010 |title=The Routledge handbook of world Englishes |url=https://archive.org/details/routledgehandboo00kirk |url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |pages=[https://archive.org/details/routledgehandboo00kirk/page/n173 151]–164 |isbn=978-0-203-84932-3 }}
<!--MacMahon 2006
-->* {{cite book |last=MacMahon |first=M. K. |date=2006 |chapter=16. English Phonetics |editor1=Bas Aarts |editor2=April McMahon |title=The Handbook of English Linguistics |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |pages=359–382 |isbn=978-1-4051-6425-2 }}
<!-- Macquarie Dictionary2015
-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |url=https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ |title=Macquarie Dictionary |website=Australia's National Dictionary & Thesaurus Online &#124; Macquarie Dictionary |date=2015 |publisher=Macmillan Publishers Group Australia |access-date=15 February 2015 |url-access=registration |ref={{harvid|Macquarie Dictionary|2015}} |archive-date=21 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721141547/https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ |url-status=live }}
<!-- Mair & Leech 2006
-->* {{cite book|last1=Mair|first1=C. |last2=Leech |first2=G. |date=2006 |chapter=14 Current Changes in English Syntax |title=The Handbook of English Linguistics |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-405-16425-2 }}
<!-- Mair 2006
-->* {{cite book |last=Mair |first=Christian |date=2006 |title=Twentieth-century English: History, variation and standardization |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/S1360674307002420 |s2cid=120824612 }}
<!-- MazruiMazrui1998 was refMazrui1998
-->* {{cite book |last1=Mazrui |first1=Ali A. |last2=Mazrui |first2=Alamin |title=The Power of Babel: Language and Governance in the African Experience |date=1998 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-51429-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lQTPxdYx8kC |access-date=15 February 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200404/https://books.google.com/books?id=6lQTPxdYx8kC |url-status=live }}
<!-- McArthur1992
-->* {{cite book |editor-last=McArthur |editor-first=Tom |title=The Oxford Companion to the English Language |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-19-214183-5 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800619.001.0001 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00mcar }}
<!-- McCrumMacNeilCran2003
-->* {{Cite book |last1=McCrum |first1=Robert |last2=MacNeil |first2=Robert |last3=Cran |first3=William |title=The Story of English |location=London |date=2003 |edition=Third Revised |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-200231-5 }}
<!-- McGuinness1997
-->* {{cite book |last=McGuinness |first=Diane |title=Why Our Children Can't Read, and what We Can Do about it: A Scientific Revolution in Reading |author-link=Diane McGuinness |date=1997 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-83161-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F-q02ZBKh3wC |access-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200441/https://books.google.com/books?id=F-q02ZBKh3wC |url-status=live }}
<!-- Meierkord2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00641-6 |chapter=Lingua Francas as Second Languages |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Meierkord |first1=C. |pages=163–171 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- MerriamWebster2015
-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=English |publisher=Merriam Webster |date=26 February 2015 |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/English |access-date=26 February 2015 |ref={{harvid|Merriam Webster|2015}} |archive-date=25 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325140932/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/english |url-status=live }}
<!-- Methrie2006
-->* {{cite journal |last1=Mesthrie |first1=Rajend |title=New Englishes and the native speaker debate |journal=Language Sciences |date=November 2010 |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=594–601 |doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2010.08.002 }}
<!-- Miller 2002
-->* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Jim |date=2002 |title=An Introduction to English Syntax |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=0748612548 }}
<!-- Montgomery
-->* {{cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=M. |date=1993 |title=The Southern Accent—Alive and Well |journal=Southern Cultures |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=47–64 |doi=10.1353/scu.1993.0006 |s2cid=143984864 }}
<!-- Mountford2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05018-5 |chapter=English Spelling: Rationale |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Mountford |first1=J. |pages=156–159 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Mufwene2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01291-8 |chapter=Language Spread |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Mufwene |first1=S.S. |pages=613–616 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Nation2001 needs more verification
-->* {{Cite book |last=Nation |first=I. S. P. |title=Learning Vocabulary in Another Language |author-link=Paul Nation |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sKqx8k8gYTkC |access-date=4 February 2015 |page=477 |isbn=978-0-521-80498-1 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200409/https://books.google.com/books?id=sKqx8k8gYTkC |url-status=live }}
<!-- National Records of Scotland2013 official census data for Scotland
-->* {{cite web |author=National Records of Scotland |title=Census 2011: Release 2A |series=Scotland's Census 2011 |date=26 September 2013 |url=http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/news/census-2011-release-2a |access-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402152137/http://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/news/census-2011-release-2a |url-status=live }}
<!-- Neijt2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04574-0 |chapter=Spelling Reform |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Neijt |first1=A. |pages=68–71 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- NevalainenTieken-Boon van Ostade2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Nevalainen |first1=Terttu |last2=Tieken-Boon van Ostade |first2=Ingrid |chapter=Chapter 5: Standardization |editor1-last=Denison |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Hogg |editor2-first=Richard M. |title=A History of the English language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-71799-1 }}
<!-- Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency2012
-->* {{cite web |author=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency |title=Census 2011: Key Statistics for Northern Ireland December 2012 |periodical=Statistics Bulletin |date=2012 |url=http://www.nisra.gov.uk/Census/key_report_2011.pdf |access-date=16 December 2014 |at=Table KS207NI: Main Language |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224033625/http://www.nisra.gov.uk/Census/key_report_2011.pdf |archive-date=24 December 2012 }}
<!-- Northrup2013
-->* {{cite book |last=Northrup |first=David |title=How English Became the Global Language |date=2013 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-30306-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YPAlPeB6IvQC |access-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200433/https://books.google.com/books?id=YPAlPeB6IvQC |url-status=live }}
<!-- O'Dwyer 2006
-->* {{cite book |last=O'Dwyer |first=Bernard |title=Modern English Structures: Form, Function, and Position |edition=2nd |publisher=Broadview Press |publication-place=Canada |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-5511-1763-8}}
<!-- Office for National Statistics official census figures for England and Wales
-->* {{cite web |author=Office for National Statistics |title=Language in England and Wales, 2011 |date=4 March 2013 |periodical=2011 Census Analysis |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/language-in-england-and-wales-2011/rpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115009/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census-analysis/language-in-england-and-wales-2011/rpt---language-in-england-and-wales--2011.html |url-status=live }}
<!-- OxfordLearner'sDictionary
-->* {{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Oxford Learner's Dictionaries |url=http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ |access-date=25 February 2015 |publisher=Oxford |ref={{harvid|Oxford Learner's Dictionary|2015}} |archive-date=9 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209040312/http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ |url-status=live }}
<!-- Patrick2006aJamaica
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01760-0 |chapter=Jamaica: Language Situation |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006a |last1=Patrick |first1=P.L. |pages=88–90 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Patrick2006bAAVE
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05092-6 |chapter=English, African-American Vernacular |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006b |last1=Patrick |first1=P.L. |pages=159–163 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Payne & Huddleston 2002
-->* {{cite book |last1=Payne |last2=Huddleston |first1=John |first2=Rodney |chapter=5. Nouns and noun phrases |editor1-last=Huddleston |editor2-last=Pullum |editor1-first=R. |editor2-first=G. K. |date=2002 |title=The Cambridge Grammar of English |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=323–522 |doi=10.1017/9781316423530.006 |isbn=978-0-521-43146-0 }}
<!-- Phillipson2004
-->* {{cite book |last=Phillipson |first=Robert |title=English-Only Europe?: Challenging Language Policy |date=28 April 2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-44349-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HiCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |access-date=15 February 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200434/https://books.google.com/books?id=9HiCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |url-status=live }}
<!-- Richter2012
-->* {{cite book |last=Richter |first=Ingo |chapter=Introduction |editor1-last=Richter |editor1-first=Dagmar |editor2-last=Richter |editor2-first=Ingo |editor3-last=Toivanen |editor3-first=Reeta |display-editors=3 |editor4-last=Ulasiuk |editor4-first=Iryna |title=Language Rights Revisited: The challenge of global migration and communication |date=2012 |publisher=BWV Verlag |isbn=978-3-8305-2809-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3u9kBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |access-date=2 April 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200439/https://books.google.com/books?id=3u9kBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |url-status=live }}
<!-- Roach1999
-->* {{cite book |last=Roach |first=Peter |title=English Phonetics and Phonology |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge |edition=4th }}
<!-- Robinson1992
-->* {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Orrin |author-link=Orrin W. Robinson (philologist) |title=Old English and Its Closest Relatives: A Survey of the Earliest Germanic Languages |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-8047-2221-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/oldenglishitsclo0000robi |url-access=registration |access-date=5 April 2015 }}
<!-- Romaine1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Romaine |first=Suzanne |chapter=English in Scotland |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=56–83 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Romaine1999
-->* {{cite book |last=Romaine |first=Suzanne |chapter=Chapter 1: Introduction |title=Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=IV: 1776–1997 |editor-last=Romaine |editor-first=Suzanne |pages=01–56 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-26477-8 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521264778.002 }}
<!-- Romaine2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00646-5 |chapter=Language Policy in Multilingual Educational Contexts |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Romaine |first1=S. |pages=584–596 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Routes of English
-->* {{cite web |title=The Routes of English |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/storysofar/programme4_6.shtml |date=1 August 2015 |website=BBC |ref={{harvid|The Routes of English}} |access-date=9 August 2015 |archive-date=24 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024081346/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/storysofar/programme4_6.shtml |url-status=live }}
<!-- Rowicka2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01848-4 |chapter=Canada: Language Situation |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Rowicka |first1=G.J. |pages=194–195 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Rubino2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01736-3 |chapter=Philippines: Language Situation |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Rubino |first1=C. |pages=323–326 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Ryan2013 an official report of the United States Census
-->* {{cite web |last=Ryan |first=Camille |title=Language Use in the United States: 2011 |periodical=American Community Survey Reports |date=August 2013 |page=1 |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205101044/http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-22.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}
<!-- Sailaja 2009
-->* {{cite book |last=Sailaja |first=Pingali |title=Indian English |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-7486-2595-6 |series=Dialects of English |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntxWxuoRBiwC |access-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200426/https://books.google.com/books?id=ntxWxuoRBiwC |url-status=live }}
<!-- Schiffrin 1988
-->* {{cite book |last=Schiffrin |first=Deborah |date=1988 |title=Discourse Markers |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-35718-0 |series=Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hs7J-WqPtPAC |access-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200436/https://books.google.com/books?id=hs7J-WqPtPAC |url-status=live }}
<!-- Schneider2007
-->* {{cite book |last=Schneider |first=Edgar |title=Postcolonial English: Varieties Around the World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-53901-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIE6zGSd8okC |access-date=5 April 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200423/https://books.google.com/books?id=QIE6zGSd8okC |url-status=live }}
<!-- Schonweitz2001
-->* {{cite journal |last=Schönweitz |first=Thomas |title=Gender and Postvocalic /r/ in the American South: A Detailed Socioregional Analysis |journal=American Speech |volume=76 |issue=3 |date=2001 |pages=259–285 |doi=10.1215/00031283-76-3-259|s2cid=144403823 }}
<!-- Shaywitz2003
-->* {{cite book |last=Shaywitz |first=Sally E. |title=Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-based Program for Reading Problems at Any Level |date=2003 |publisher=A.A. Knopf |isbn=978-0-375-40012-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXbZ1QInSF0C |access-date=3 April 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200441/https://books.google.com/books?id=hXbZ1QInSF0C |url-status=live }}
<!-- Smith2009
-->* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Jeremy J. |title=Old English: A Linguistic Introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |publication-place=United Kingdom |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-86677-4 }}
<!-- Statistics Canada2014 official census of Canada
-->* {{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |title=Population by mother tongue and age groups (total), 2011 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories |date=22 August 2014 |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Pages/highlight.cfm?TabID=1&Lang=E&Asc=0&PRCode=01&OrderBy=2&View=1&tableID=401&queryID=1&Age=1#TableSummary |access-date=25 March 2015 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726032921/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Pages/highlight.cfm?TabID=1&Lang=E&Asc=0&PRCode=01&OrderBy=2&View=1&tableID=401&queryID=1&Age=1#TableSummary |url-status=live }}
<!-- Statistics New Zealand2014 official census of New Zealand
-->* {{cite web |author=Statistics New Zealand |title=2013 QuickStats About Culture and Identity |date=April 2014 |url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/quickstats-culture-identity.pdf |page=23 |access-date=25 March 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115195639/http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/quickstats-culture-identity.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2015 }}
<!-- Statistics South Africa2012 official census of South Africa
-->* {{cite book |publisher=Statistics South Africa |title=Census 2011: Census in Brief |id=Report No. 03‑01‑41 |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-621-41388-5 |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf |chapter=Population by first language spoken and province |ref={{SfnRef|Statistics South Africa|2012}} |page=23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113164744/http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2015 |url-status=live |chapter-url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf#page=28 |editor-first=Pali |editor-last=Lehohla |location=Pretoria }}
<!-- SvartikLeech2006
-->* {{cite book |last1=Svartvik |first1=Jan |last2=Leech |first2=Geoffrey |title=English – One Tongue, Many Voices |date=2006 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-4039-1830-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/englishonetongue0000svar |url-access=registration |access-date=5 March 2015 }}
<!-- Swan2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05058-6 |chapter=English in the Present Day (Since ca. 1900) |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Swan |first1=M. |pages=149–156 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Sweet1892
-->* {{cite book |last=Sweet |first=Henry |title=A new English grammar |url=https://archive.org/details/anewenglishgram01sweegoog |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2014 |orig-date=1892 }}
<!-- Thomas 2008
-->* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Erik R. |date=2008 |chapter=Rural Southern white accents |title=Varieties of English |volume=2: The Americas and the Caribbean |pages=87–114 |editor=Edgar W. Schneider |publisher=de Gruyter |doi=10.1515/9783110208405.1.87 |isbn=978-3-11-020840-5 }}
<!-- ThomasonKaufman1988
-->* {{cite book |last1=Thomason |first1=Sarah G. |author-link=Sarah Thomason |last2=Kaufman |first2=Terrence |author-link2=Terrence Kaufman |title=Language Contact, Creolization and Genetic Linguistics |url=https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_afr_detail-2 |publisher=University of California Press |date=1988 |isbn=978-0-520-91279-3 }}
<!-- Toon1982
-->* {{cite book |last=Toon |first=Thomas E. |chapter=Variation in Contemporary American English |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Görlach |editor2-first=Manfred |title=English as a World Language |pages=210–250 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-3-12-533872-2 }}
<!-- Toon1992
-->* {{cite book |last=Toon |first=Thomas E. |chapter=Old English Dialects |editor-last=Hogg |editor-first=Richard M. |title=The Cambridge History of the English Language |volume=1: The Beginnings to 1066 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-26474-7 |pages=409–451 }}
<!-- TraskTrask2010
-->* {{cite book |last1=Trask |first1=Larry |last2=Trask |first2=Robert Lawrence |title=Why Do Languages Change? |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83802-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qoZzBgCmFMC |access-date=5 March 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200449/https://books.google.com/books?id=9qoZzBgCmFMC |url-status=live }}
<!-- Trudgill 1999
-->* {{cite book |last=Trudgill |first=Peter |date=1999 |title=The Dialects of England |edition=2nd |publisher=Blackwell |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-631-21815-9}}
<!-- Trudgill2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01506-6 |chapter=Accent |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Trudgill |first1=P. |page=14 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Trudgill & Hannah 2002 replace with 2008 5th edition
-->* {{cite book |last1=Trudgill |first1=Peter |first2=Jean |last2=Hannah |date=2002 |title=International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English |edition=4th |location=London |publisher=Hodder Education |isbn=978-0-340-80834-4 }}
<!-- Trudgill & Hannah 2008
-->* {{cite book |last1=Trudgill |first1=Peter |first2=Jean |last2=Hannah |date=2008 |title=International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English |edition=5th |location=London |publisher=Arnold |isbn=978-0-340-97161-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8u8MR8MNaEC |access-date=26 March 2015 |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200442/https://books.google.com/books?id=e8u8MR8MNaEC |url-status=live }}
<!-- United Nations2008
-->* {{cite web |author=United Nations |title=Everything You Always Wanted to Know About the United Nations |date=2010 |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/705254/files/everything_un.pdf?ln=en |access-date=10 December 2022 |quote=The working languages at the UN Secretariat are English and French. |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317200412/https://tind-customer-undl.s3.amazonaws.com/46855284-e7b4-4ef3-ad95-8b8252fc27bd?response-content-disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%2A%3DUTF-8%27%27everything_un.pdf&response-content-type=application%2Fpdf&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Expires=86400&X-Amz-Credential=AKIAXL7W7Q3XFWDGQKBB%2F20230317%2Feu-west-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Date=20230317T200411Z&X-Amz-Signature=e9f0f4293b0666c9f09c2350fff35bc0126c052b25512f4fad2cfa5fe9cdf260 |url-status=live }}
<!-- Wardhaugh2010
-->* {{cite book |last=Wardhaugh |first=Ronald |title=An Introduction to Sociolinguistics |edition=Sixth |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-4051-8668-1 |series=Blackwell textbooks in Linguistics; 4 }}
<!-- Watts2011
-->* {{cite book |last=Watts |first=Richard J. |title=Language Myths and the History of English |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-532760-1 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327601.001.0001 }}
<!--Wells 1982
-->* {{Accents of English}}
<!-- Wojcik2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/05081-1 |chapter=Controlled Languages |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Wojcik |first1=R.H. |pages=139–142 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
<!-- Wolfram2006
-->* {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/04256-5 |chapter=Variation and Language: Overview |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |last1=Wolfram |first1=W. |pages=333–341 |isbn=978-0-08-044854-1 }}
{{refend}}


== External links ==
{{Library resources box |about=yes |by=no }}
* [http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/research/gsound/Eng/Database/Phonetics/Englishes/Home/HomeMainFrameHolder.htm Accents of English from Around the World (University of Edinburgh)] Sound files comparing how 110 words are pronounced in 50 English accents from around the world
* [http://www.dialectsarchive.com/ International Dialects of English Archive – recordings of English dialects and international L2 accents]

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== Kundivihira ==
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[[Pubu:Yɛtɔɣili]]
[[Pubu:Lahabaya zaa]]
[[Pubu:Balli]]


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