Antidiabetic potential of two novel fatty acid derivatised, N-terminally modified analogues of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP): N-AcGIP(LysPAL16) and N-AcGIP(LysPAL37)
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Nigel Irwin
Abstract
Fatty acid derivatisation was used to develop two novel, long-acting, N-terminally modified, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) analogues, N-AcGIP(LysPAL16) and N-AcGIP(LysPAL37). In contrast to GIP, which was rapidly degraded by in vitro incubation with dipeptidylpeptidase IV (DPP IV) (52% intact after 2 h), the analogues remained fully intact for up to 24 h. Both fatty acid-derivatised analogues stimulated cAMP production in GIP receptor Chinese hamster lung (CHL) fibroblasts (EC50 12.1–13.0 nM) and significantly improved in vitro insulin secretion from BRIN-BD11 cells (1.1- to 2.4-fold; p<0.05 to p<0.001) compared to control (5.6 mM glucose). Administration of N-AcGIP(LysPAL16) and N-AcGIP(LysPAL37) together with glucose in obese diabetic (ob/ob) mice significantly reduced the glycaemic excursion (1.4- and 1.5-fold, respectively; p<0.05 to p<0.01) and improved the insulinotropic response (1.5- and 2.3-fold, respectively; p<0.01 to p<0.001) compared to native peptide. Dose-response studies with N-AcGIP(LysPAL37) revealed that even the lowest concentration (6.25 nmol/kg) induced a highly significant decrease (1.4-fold; p<0.001) in the overall glycaemic excursion, coupled with a significant increase (2.0-fold; p<0.01) in circulating insulin. Furthermore, basal glucose values remained significantly reduced (p<0.05) and insulin values increased 24 h following a single injection of N-AcGIP(LysPAL37). The glucose-lowering action of the fatty acid-derivatised peptide was greater than that of N-AcGIP. These data demonstrate that novel fatty acid-derivatised analogues of N-terminally modified AcGIP function as long-acting GIP-receptor agonists, with significant antidiabetic potential.
References
Agersø, H., Jensen, L.B., Elbrønd, B., Rolan, P., and Zdravkovic, M. (2002). The pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, safety and tolerability of NN2211, a new long-acting GLP-1 derivative, in healthy man. Diabetologia45, 195–202.10.1007/s00125-001-0719-zSearch in Google Scholar
Ahren, B., Simonsson, E., Larsson, H., Landin-Olsson, M., Torgeirsson, H., Jansson, P.A., Sandqvist, M., Bavenholm, P., Efendic, S., Eriksson, J.W., Dickinson, S., and Holmes, D. (2002). Inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase IV improves metabolic control over a 4-week study period in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care25, 869–875.10.2337/diacare.25.5.869Search in Google Scholar
Bailey, C.J. and Flatt, P.R. (1982). Influence of genetic background and age on the expression of the obese hyperglycaemic syndrome in Aston ob/ob mice. Int. J. Obesity6, 11–21.Search in Google Scholar
Brown, J.C. (1994). Enteroinsular axis. In: Gut Peptides: Biochemistry and Physiology, G.J. Dockray and J.H. Walsh, eds. (New York, USA: Raven Press), pp. 765–784.Search in Google Scholar
Burington, R.S. (1973). Handbook of Mathematical Tables and Formulae (New York, USA: McGraw-Hill).Search in Google Scholar
Creutzfeldt, W. (2001). The entero-insular axis in type 2 diabetes – incretins as therapeutic agents. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes109, 288–303.10.1055/s-2001-18589Search in Google Scholar
Drucker, D.J. (2003). Enhancing incretin action for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care26, 2929–2940.10.2337/diacare.26.10.2929Search in Google Scholar
Ehses, J.A., Casilla, V.R., Doty, T., Pospisilik, J.A., Winter, K.D., Demuth, H.U., Pederson, R.A., and McIntosh, C.H. (2003). Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide promotes β-INS-1. Cell survival via cyclic adenosine monophosphate-mediated caspase-3 inhibition and regulation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. Endocrinology144, 4433–4445.Search in Google Scholar
Flatt, P.R. and Bailey, C.J. (1981). Abnormal plasma glucose and insulin responses in heterozygous lean (ob/+). mice. Diabetologia20, 573–577.10.1007/BF00252768Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Parker, J.C., Harriott, P., Flatt, P.R., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2002a). Evidence that the major degradation product of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), GIP(3–42), is a GIP receptor antagonist in vivo. J. Endocrinol.175, 525–533.10.1677/joe.0.1750525Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Flatt, P.R., Bailey, C.J., Harriott, P., Greer, B., Mooney, M.H., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2002b). Enhanced cAMP generation and insulin-releasing potency of two novel Tyr1-modified enzyme-resistant forms of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide is associated with significant anti-hyperglycaemic activity in spontaneous obesity-diabetes. Biochem. J.367, 913–920.10.1042/bj20020319Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Irwin, N., Harriott, P., Flatt, P.R., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2002c). DPP IV resistance and insulin releasing activity of a novel di-substituted analogue of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, (Ser2–Asp13)GIP. Cell. Biol. Int.27, 41–46.10.1016/S1065-6995(02)00255-XSearch in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Harriott, P., Flatt, P.R., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2002d). Cyclic AMP production and insulin releasing activity of synthetic fragment peptides of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide. Biosci. Rep.22, 523–528.10.1023/A:1022073819618Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Flatt, P.R., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2003a). Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide analogues and their therapeutic potential for the treatment of obesity-diabetes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.308, 207–213.10.1016/S0006-291X(03)01361-5Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., O'Harte, F.P.M., and Flatt, P.R. (2003b). Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP): anti-diabetic and anti-obesity potential?Neuropeptides37, 253–263.10.1016/j.npep.2003.09.002Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Flatt, P.R., Harriott, P., Mooney, M.H., Bailey, C.J., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2003c). Improved biological activity of Gly2- and Ser2-substituted analogues of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide. J. Endocrinol.176, 133–141.10.1677/joe.0.1760133Search in Google Scholar
Green, B.D., Gault, V.A., Mooney, M.H., Irwin, N., Harriott, P., Greer, B., Bailey, C.J., O'Harte, F.P., and Flatt, P.R. (2004). Degradation, receptor binding, insulin secreting and anti-hyperglycaemic actions of palmitate-derivatised native and Ala8-substituted GLP-1 analogues. Biol. Chem.385, 169–177.Search in Google Scholar
Gremlich, S., Porret, A., Hani, E.H., Cherif, D., Vionnet, N., Froguel, P., and Thorens, B. (1995). Cloning, functional expression, and chromosomal localization of the human pancreatic islet glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor. Diabetes44, 1202–1208.10.2337/diab.44.10.1202Search in Google Scholar
Hinke, S.A., Manhart, S., Pamir, N., Demuth, H., Gelling, R., Pederson, R.A., and McIntosh, C.H. (2001). Identification of a bioactive domain in the amino-terminus of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP). Biochem. Biophys. Acta1547, 143–155.10.1016/S0167-4838(01)00181-9Search in Google Scholar
Hinke, S.A., Gelling, R.W., Pederson, R.A., Manhart, S., Nian, C., Demuth, H.U., and McIntosh, C.H. (2002). Dipeptidyl peptidase IV-resistant [d-Ala(2)] glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) improves glucose tolerance in normal and obese diabetic rats. Diabetes51, 652–661.10.2337/diabetes.51.3.652Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Holst, J.J. (2002). Gastric inhibitory polypeptide analogues: do they have a therapeutic role in diabetes mellitus similar to that of glucagon-like Peptide-1? BioDrugs16, 175–181.10.2165/00063030-200216030-00002Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Irwin, N., Gault, V.A., Green, B.D., Harriott, P., O'Harte, F.P.M., and Flatt, P. (2004). Long-acting Tyr1-modified analogues of GIP with significantly improved antihyperglycaemic and insulinotropic properties. Diabetologia47 (Suppl. 1), A109.Search in Google Scholar
Jones, I.R., Owens, D.R., Moody, A.J., Luzio, S.D., Morris, T., and Hayes, T.M. (1987). The effects of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide infused at physiological concentrations in normal subjects and type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients on glucose tolerance and B-cell secretion. Diabetologia30, 707–712.10.1007/BF00296993Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Kieffer, T.J., McIntosh, C.H.S., and Pederson, R.A. (1995). Degradation of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and truncated glucagon-like peptide 1 in vitro and in vivo by dipeptidyl peptidase IV. Endocrinology136, 3585–3596.10.1210/endo.136.8.7628397Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Kim, J.G., Baggio, L.L., Bridon, D.P., Castaigne, J.P., Robitaille, M.F., Jette, L., Benquet, C., and Drucker, D.J. (2003). Development and characterization of a glucagon-like peptide1-albumin conjugate: the ability to activate the glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor in vivo. Diabetes52, 751–759.10.2337/diabetes.52.3.751Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Knudsen, L.B., Nielsen, P.F., Huusfeldt, P.O., Johansen, N.L., Madsen, K., Pedersen, F.Z., Thogersen, H., Wilken, M., and Agersø, H. (2000). Potent derivatives of glucagon-like peptide-1 with pharmacokinetic properties suitable for once daily administration. J. Med. Chem.43, 1664–1669.10.1021/jm9909645Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Kurtzhals, P., Havelund, S., Jonassen, I., Kiehr, B., Larsen, U.D., Ribel, U., and Markussen, J. (1995). Albumin binding of insulins acylated with fatty acids: characterization of the ligand-protein interaction and correlation between binding affinity and timing of the insulin effect in vivo. Biochem. J.312, 725–731.10.1042/bj3120725Search in Google Scholar
Manhart, S., Hinke, S.A., McIntosh, C.H., Pederson, R.A., and Demuth, H.U. (2003). Structure-function analysis of a series of novel GIP analogues containing different helical length linkers. Biochemistry42, 3081–3088.10.1021/bi026868eSearch in Google Scholar
McClenaghan, N.H., Barnett, C.R., Ah-Sing, E., Abdel-Wahab, Y.H., O'Harte, F.P., Yoon, T.W., Swanston-Flatt, S.K., and Flatt, P.R. (1996). Characterization of a novel glucose-responsive insulin-secreting cell line, BRIN-BD11, produced by electrofusion. Diabetes45, 1132–1140.10.2337/diab.45.8.1132Search in Google Scholar
Meier, J.J., Nauck, M.A., Schmidt, W.E., and Gallwitz, B. (2002). Gastric inhibitory polypeptide: the neglected incretin revisited. Regul. Pept.107, 1–13.10.1016/S0167-0115(02)00039-3Search in Google Scholar
Meier, J.J., Goetze, O., Anstipp, J., Hagemann, D., Holst, J.J., Schmidt, W.E., Gallwitz, B., and Nauck, M.A. (2003). Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP). does not inhibit gastric emptying in man. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.286, 621–625.Search in Google Scholar
Meier, J.J., Nauck, M.A., Kranz, D., Holst, J.J., Deacon, C.F., Gaeckler, D., Schmidt, W.E., and Gallwitz, B. (2004a). Secretion, degradation, and elimination of glucagon-like peptide 1 and gastric inhibitory polypeptide in patients with chronic renal insufficiency and healthy control subjects. Diabetes53, 654–662.10.2337/diabetes.53.3.654Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Meier, J.J., Gallwitz, B., Kask, B., Deacon, C.F., Holst, J.J., Schmidt, W.E., and Nauck, M.A. (2004b). Stimulation of insulin secretion by intravenous bolus injection and continuous infusion of gastric inhibitory polypeptide in patients with type 2 diabetes and healthy control subjects. Diabetes53 (Suppl. 3), 220–224.10.2337/diabetes.53.suppl_3.S220Search in Google Scholar
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©2005 by Walter de Gruyter Berlin New York
Abstract
Fatty acid derivatisation was used to develop two novel, long-acting, N-terminally modified, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) analogues, N-AcGIP(LysPAL16) and N-AcGIP(LysPAL37). In contrast to GIP, which was rapidly degraded by in vitro incubation with dipeptidylpeptidase IV (DPP IV) (52% intact after 2 h), the analogues remained fully intact for up to 24 h. Both fatty acid-derivatised analogues stimulated cAMP production in GIP receptor Chinese hamster lung (CHL) fibroblasts (EC50 12.1–13.0 nM) and significantly improved in vitro insulin secretion from BRIN-BD11 cells (1.1- to 2.4-fold; p<0.05 to p<0.001) compared to control (5.6 mM glucose). Administration of N-AcGIP(LysPAL16) and N-AcGIP(LysPAL37) together with glucose in obese diabetic (ob/ob) mice significantly reduced the glycaemic excursion (1.4- and 1.5-fold, respectively; p<0.05 to p<0.01) and improved the insulinotropic response (1.5- and 2.3-fold, respectively; p<0.01 to p<0.001) compared to native peptide. Dose-response studies with N-AcGIP(LysPAL37) revealed that even the lowest concentration (6.25 nmol/kg) induced a highly significant decrease (1.4-fold; p<0.001) in the overall glycaemic excursion, coupled with a significant increase (2.0-fold; p<0.01) in circulating insulin. Furthermore, basal glucose values remained significantly reduced (p<0.05) and insulin values increased 24 h following a single injection of N-AcGIP(LysPAL37). The glucose-lowering action of the fatty acid-derivatised peptide was greater than that of N-AcGIP. These data demonstrate that novel fatty acid-derivatised analogues of N-terminally modified AcGIP function as long-acting GIP-receptor agonists, with significant antidiabetic potential.
References
Agersø, H., Jensen, L.B., Elbrønd, B., Rolan, P., and Zdravkovic, M. (2002). The pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, safety and tolerability of NN2211, a new long-acting GLP-1 derivative, in healthy man. Diabetologia45, 195–202.10.1007/s00125-001-0719-zSearch in Google Scholar
Ahren, B., Simonsson, E., Larsson, H., Landin-Olsson, M., Torgeirsson, H., Jansson, P.A., Sandqvist, M., Bavenholm, P., Efendic, S., Eriksson, J.W., Dickinson, S., and Holmes, D. (2002). Inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase IV improves metabolic control over a 4-week study period in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care25, 869–875.10.2337/diacare.25.5.869Search in Google Scholar
Bailey, C.J. and Flatt, P.R. (1982). Influence of genetic background and age on the expression of the obese hyperglycaemic syndrome in Aston ob/ob mice. Int. J. Obesity6, 11–21.Search in Google Scholar
Brown, J.C. (1994). Enteroinsular axis. In: Gut Peptides: Biochemistry and Physiology, G.J. Dockray and J.H. Walsh, eds. (New York, USA: Raven Press), pp. 765–784.Search in Google Scholar
Burington, R.S. (1973). Handbook of Mathematical Tables and Formulae (New York, USA: McGraw-Hill).Search in Google Scholar
Creutzfeldt, W. (2001). The entero-insular axis in type 2 diabetes – incretins as therapeutic agents. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes109, 288–303.10.1055/s-2001-18589Search in Google Scholar
Drucker, D.J. (2003). Enhancing incretin action for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care26, 2929–2940.10.2337/diacare.26.10.2929Search in Google Scholar
Ehses, J.A., Casilla, V.R., Doty, T., Pospisilik, J.A., Winter, K.D., Demuth, H.U., Pederson, R.A., and McIntosh, C.H. (2003). Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide promotes β-INS-1. Cell survival via cyclic adenosine monophosphate-mediated caspase-3 inhibition and regulation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. Endocrinology144, 4433–4445.Search in Google Scholar
Flatt, P.R. and Bailey, C.J. (1981). Abnormal plasma glucose and insulin responses in heterozygous lean (ob/+). mice. Diabetologia20, 573–577.10.1007/BF00252768Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Parker, J.C., Harriott, P., Flatt, P.R., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2002a). Evidence that the major degradation product of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), GIP(3–42), is a GIP receptor antagonist in vivo. J. Endocrinol.175, 525–533.10.1677/joe.0.1750525Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Flatt, P.R., Bailey, C.J., Harriott, P., Greer, B., Mooney, M.H., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2002b). Enhanced cAMP generation and insulin-releasing potency of two novel Tyr1-modified enzyme-resistant forms of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide is associated with significant anti-hyperglycaemic activity in spontaneous obesity-diabetes. Biochem. J.367, 913–920.10.1042/bj20020319Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Irwin, N., Harriott, P., Flatt, P.R., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2002c). DPP IV resistance and insulin releasing activity of a novel di-substituted analogue of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, (Ser2–Asp13)GIP. Cell. Biol. Int.27, 41–46.10.1016/S1065-6995(02)00255-XSearch in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Harriott, P., Flatt, P.R., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2002d). Cyclic AMP production and insulin releasing activity of synthetic fragment peptides of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide. Biosci. Rep.22, 523–528.10.1023/A:1022073819618Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Flatt, P.R., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2003a). Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide analogues and their therapeutic potential for the treatment of obesity-diabetes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.308, 207–213.10.1016/S0006-291X(03)01361-5Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., O'Harte, F.P.M., and Flatt, P.R. (2003b). Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP): anti-diabetic and anti-obesity potential?Neuropeptides37, 253–263.10.1016/j.npep.2003.09.002Search in Google Scholar
Gault, V.A., Flatt, P.R., Harriott, P., Mooney, M.H., Bailey, C.J., and O'Harte, F.P.M. (2003c). Improved biological activity of Gly2- and Ser2-substituted analogues of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide. J. Endocrinol.176, 133–141.10.1677/joe.0.1760133Search in Google Scholar
Green, B.D., Gault, V.A., Mooney, M.H., Irwin, N., Harriott, P., Greer, B., Bailey, C.J., O'Harte, F.P., and Flatt, P.R. (2004). Degradation, receptor binding, insulin secreting and anti-hyperglycaemic actions of palmitate-derivatised native and Ala8-substituted GLP-1 analogues. Biol. Chem.385, 169–177.Search in Google Scholar
Gremlich, S., Porret, A., Hani, E.H., Cherif, D., Vionnet, N., Froguel, P., and Thorens, B. (1995). Cloning, functional expression, and chromosomal localization of the human pancreatic islet glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor. Diabetes44, 1202–1208.10.2337/diab.44.10.1202Search in Google Scholar
Hinke, S.A., Manhart, S., Pamir, N., Demuth, H., Gelling, R., Pederson, R.A., and McIntosh, C.H. (2001). Identification of a bioactive domain in the amino-terminus of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP). Biochem. Biophys. Acta1547, 143–155.10.1016/S0167-4838(01)00181-9Search in Google Scholar
Hinke, S.A., Gelling, R.W., Pederson, R.A., Manhart, S., Nian, C., Demuth, H.U., and McIntosh, C.H. (2002). Dipeptidyl peptidase IV-resistant [d-Ala(2)] glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) improves glucose tolerance in normal and obese diabetic rats. Diabetes51, 652–661.10.2337/diabetes.51.3.652Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Holst, J.J. (2002). Gastric inhibitory polypeptide analogues: do they have a therapeutic role in diabetes mellitus similar to that of glucagon-like Peptide-1? BioDrugs16, 175–181.10.2165/00063030-200216030-00002Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Irwin, N., Gault, V.A., Green, B.D., Harriott, P., O'Harte, F.P.M., and Flatt, P. (2004). Long-acting Tyr1-modified analogues of GIP with significantly improved antihyperglycaemic and insulinotropic properties. Diabetologia47 (Suppl. 1), A109.Search in Google Scholar
Jones, I.R., Owens, D.R., Moody, A.J., Luzio, S.D., Morris, T., and Hayes, T.M. (1987). The effects of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide infused at physiological concentrations in normal subjects and type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients on glucose tolerance and B-cell secretion. Diabetologia30, 707–712.10.1007/BF00296993Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Kieffer, T.J., McIntosh, C.H.S., and Pederson, R.A. (1995). Degradation of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and truncated glucagon-like peptide 1 in vitro and in vivo by dipeptidyl peptidase IV. Endocrinology136, 3585–3596.10.1210/endo.136.8.7628397Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Kim, J.G., Baggio, L.L., Bridon, D.P., Castaigne, J.P., Robitaille, M.F., Jette, L., Benquet, C., and Drucker, D.J. (2003). Development and characterization of a glucagon-like peptide1-albumin conjugate: the ability to activate the glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor in vivo. Diabetes52, 751–759.10.2337/diabetes.52.3.751Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Knudsen, L.B., Nielsen, P.F., Huusfeldt, P.O., Johansen, N.L., Madsen, K., Pedersen, F.Z., Thogersen, H., Wilken, M., and Agersø, H. (2000). Potent derivatives of glucagon-like peptide-1 with pharmacokinetic properties suitable for once daily administration. J. Med. Chem.43, 1664–1669.10.1021/jm9909645Search in Google Scholar PubMed
Kurtzhals, P., Havelund, S., Jonassen, I., Kiehr, B., Larsen, U.D., Ribel, U., and Markussen, J. (1995). Albumin binding of insulins acylated with fatty acids: characterization of the ligand-protein interaction and correlation between binding affinity and timing of the insulin effect in vivo. Biochem. J.312, 725–731.10.1042/bj3120725Search in Google Scholar
Manhart, S., Hinke, S.A., McIntosh, C.H., Pederson, R.A., and Demuth, H.U. (2003). Structure-function analysis of a series of novel GIP analogues containing different helical length linkers. Biochemistry42, 3081–3088.10.1021/bi026868eSearch in Google Scholar
McClenaghan, N.H., Barnett, C.R., Ah-Sing, E., Abdel-Wahab, Y.H., O'Harte, F.P., Yoon, T.W., Swanston-Flatt, S.K., and Flatt, P.R. (1996). Characterization of a novel glucose-responsive insulin-secreting cell line, BRIN-BD11, produced by electrofusion. Diabetes45, 1132–1140.10.2337/diab.45.8.1132Search in Google Scholar
Meier, J.J., Nauck, M.A., Schmidt, W.E., and Gallwitz, B. (2002). Gastric inhibitory polypeptide: the neglected incretin revisited. Regul. Pept.107, 1–13.10.1016/S0167-0115(02)00039-3Search in Google Scholar
Meier, J.J., Goetze, O., Anstipp, J., Hagemann, D., Holst, J.J., Schmidt, W.E., Gallwitz, B., and Nauck, M.A. (2003). Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP). does not inhibit gastric emptying in man. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.286, 621–625.Search in Google Scholar
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©2005 by Walter de Gruyter Berlin New York
Articles in the same Issue
- Digestive versus regulatory proteases: on calpain action in vivo
- Psc3 cohesin of Schizosaccharomyces pombe: cell cycle analysis and identification of three distinct isoforms
- Rearrangements in a hydrophobic core region mediate cAMP action in the regulatory subunit of PKA
- Characterization of oligomeric species in the fibrillization pathway of the yeast prion Ure2p
- Nucleotide binding and filament assembly of recombinant yeast septin complexes
- Identification and partial characterization of two eukaryotic UDP-galactopyranose mutases
- Inhibition of aldosterone biosynthesis by staurosporine
- Rab6 interacts with the mint3 adaptor protein
- Antidiabetic potential of two novel fatty acid derivatised, N-terminally modified analogues of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP): N-AcGIP(LysPAL16) and N-AcGIP(LysPAL37)
- Kinetics of autocatalytic zymogen activation measured by a coupled reaction: pepsinogen autoactivation
- A possible alternative mechanism of kinin generation in vivo by cathepsin L
- hDLG/SAP97, a member of the MAGUK protein family, is a novel caspase target during cell-cell detachment in apoptosis
Articles in the same Issue
- Digestive versus regulatory proteases: on calpain action in vivo
- Psc3 cohesin of Schizosaccharomyces pombe: cell cycle analysis and identification of three distinct isoforms
- Rearrangements in a hydrophobic core region mediate cAMP action in the regulatory subunit of PKA
- Characterization of oligomeric species in the fibrillization pathway of the yeast prion Ure2p
- Nucleotide binding and filament assembly of recombinant yeast septin complexes
- Identification and partial characterization of two eukaryotic UDP-galactopyranose mutases
- Inhibition of aldosterone biosynthesis by staurosporine
- Rab6 interacts with the mint3 adaptor protein
- Antidiabetic potential of two novel fatty acid derivatised, N-terminally modified analogues of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP): N-AcGIP(LysPAL16) and N-AcGIP(LysPAL37)
- Kinetics of autocatalytic zymogen activation measured by a coupled reaction: pepsinogen autoactivation
- A possible alternative mechanism of kinin generation in vivo by cathepsin L
- hDLG/SAP97, a member of the MAGUK protein family, is a novel caspase target during cell-cell detachment in apoptosis