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| reign = 336–323 BC
| predecessor = [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]]
| successor = {{
| succession2 = [[Hegemony#8th–1st centuries BC|Hegemon]] of the [[League of Corinth|Hellenic League]]
| reign2 = 336–323 BC
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| successor2 = [[Demetrius I of Macedon]]
| succession3 = [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh of Egypt]]
| reign3 = 332–323 BC
| predecessor3 = [[Darius III]]
| successor3 = {{
| succession4 = [[King of Persia]]
| reign4 = 330–323 BC
| predecessor4 = Darius III
| successor4 = {{
| full name =
| spouse = {{hlist|[[Roxana]]|[[Stateira (wife of Alexander the Great)|Stateira]]|[[Parysatis II|Parysatis]]
| [[Stateira (wife of Alexander the Great)|Stateira]]▼
}}
| issue = {{plainlist|
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| birth_place = [[Pella]], [[Macedon]]
| death_date = 10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)<!-- 32 years, 10 months and 20 days (approx.) -->
| death_place = [[Babylon]], [[Mesopotamia]]
| religion = [[Ancient Greek religion]]
}}
{{Alexander the Great series}}
'''Alexander III of Macedon''' ({{lang-grc|[[wikt:Ἀλέξανδρος|Ἀλέξανδρος]]|Alexandros}}; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as '''Alexander the Great''',{{Cref2|c}} was a king of the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] kingdom of [[Macedon]].{{Cref2|d}} He succeeded his father [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] to the throne in 336 BC at the age of 20 and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy [[military campaign]] throughout [[West Asia|Western Asia]], [[Central Asia]], parts of [[South Asia]], and [[ancient Egypt|Egypt]]. By the age of 30, he had created one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires]] in history, stretching from [[History of Greece|Greece]] to northwestern [[
Until the age of 16, Alexander was tutored by [[Aristotle]]. In 335 BC, shortly after his assumption of kingship over Macedon, he [[Alexander's Balkan campaign|campaigned in the Balkans]] and reasserted control over [[Thrace]] and parts of [[Illyria]] before marching on the city of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], which was [[Battle of Thebes|subsequently destroyed in battle]]. Alexander then led the [[League of Corinth]], and used his authority to launch the [[Greek nationalism#History|pan-Hellenic project]] envisaged by his father, assuming leadership over all [[Greeks]] in their conquest of [[Greater Iran|Persia]].{{sfn|Heckel|Tritle|2009|p=99}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Burger |first1=Michael |title=The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment |date=2008 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-55111-432-3 |page=76}}</ref>
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===Exile and return===
When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married [[Cleopatra Eurydice]] in 338 BC,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Green |first=Peter |date=1991 |title=Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age (Hellenistic Culture and Society) |location=Berkeley & Los Angeles |publisher=University of California Press |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=1 |doi=10.1086/ahr/96.5.1515 |issn = 0002-8762}}</ref> the niece of his general [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]].{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=179}} The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian.{{sfn|McCarty|2004|p=27}} During the [[Banquet|wedding banquet]], a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.{{sfn|Roisman|Worthington|2010|p=179}}
{{Blockquote|At the wedding of Cleopatra, whom Philip fell in love with and married, she being much too young for him, her uncle Attalus in his drink desired the Macedonians would implore the gods to give them a lawful successor to the kingdom by his niece. This so irritated Alexander that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Then Philip, taking Attalus's part, rose up and would have run his son through; but by good fortune for them both, either his over-hasty rage, or the wine he had drunk, made his foot slip, so that he fell down on the floor, at which Alexander reproachfully insulted him: "See there," said he, "the man who makes preparations to pass out of Europe into Asia, overturned in passing from one seat to another."|Plutarch, describing the feud at Philip's wedding.<ref name="PA9" />}}
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[[File:Pausanius assassinates Philip during the procession into the theatre by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899).jpg|thumb|upright=1|Pausanias assassinates Philip II, Alexander's father, during his procession into the theatre]]
In the
===Consolidation of power===
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{{Main|Alexander's Balkan campaign}}
[[File:The Macedonian phalanx counter-attacks during the battle of the carts.jpg|thumb|The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts" against the Thracians in 335 BC]]
Before crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from [[Amphipolis]], he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians", and at [[Mount Haemus]], the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights.<ref name="I, 1" /> The Macedonians marched into the country of the [[Triballi]] and defeated their army near the [[Lyginus]] river<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=I, 2}}</ref> (a [[List of tributaries of the Danube|tributary of the Danube]]). Alexander then marched for three days to the [[Danube]], encountering the [[Getae]] tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry [[skirmish]].<ref>{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc=I, 3–4}}, {{harvnb|Renault|2001|pp=73–74}}</ref>
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Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the [[tomb of Cyrus the Great]] in [[Pasargadae]] had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them.<ref name="AVI29" /> Alexander admired [[Cyrus the Great]], from an early age reading Xenophon's ''[[Cyropaedia]]'', which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator.<ref name="Ulrich">{{cite book |title=Alexander the Great |author=Ulrich Wilcken |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |year=1967 |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WiSZM-LYsk4C&pg=PA146 |isbn=978-0-393-00381-9 |access-date=5 September 2020}}</ref> During his visit to Pasargadae, Alexander ordered his architect [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia|Aristobulus]] to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus's tomb.<ref name="Ulrich" />
Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning.<ref name="AVII14" /> Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander and he ordered the preparation of an expensive [[funeral pyre]] in Babylon along with a decree for public mourning.<ref name="AVII14" /> Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia
==Death and succession==
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[[File:Babylonian astronomical diary recording the death of Alexander the Great (British Museum).jpg|thumb|A [[Babylonian astronomical diary]] (c. 323–322 BC) recording the death of Alexander ([[British Museum]], London)]]
On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], in Babylon, at age 32.<ref>{{cite web |title=A contemporary account of the death of Alexander |url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/oriental-varia/a-contemporary-account-of-the-death-of-alexander/ |access-date=Nov 5, 2019 |publisher=[[Livius.org]]}}</ref><ref name="Depuydt" /> There are two different versions of Alexander's death, differing slightly in details. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral [[Nearchus]] and spent the night and next day drinking with [[Medius of Larissa]].<ref name="P75" /> Alexander developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.{{Sfn |Wood|2001|pp= 2267–70}} In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever, instead dying after some agony.<ref name="DSXVII117" /> Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.<ref name="P75" />▼
▲On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], in Babylon, at age 32.<ref name="Depuydt" /> There are two different versions of Alexander's death, differing slightly in details. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral [[Nearchus]] and spent the night and next day drinking with [[Medius of Larissa]].<ref name="P75" /> Alexander developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them.{{Sfn |Wood|2001|pp= 2267–70}} In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever, instead dying after some agony.<ref name="DSXVII117" /> Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.<ref name="P75" />
Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,{{sfn|Green|2007|pp= 1–2}} foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]] all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication,<ref name="PA77" /> while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.<ref name="DSXVII117" /><ref name="AVII27" /> The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating [[Antipater]], recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, replaced by Craterus, as the head of the alleged plot.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pitt |first1=E. M. |last2=Richardson |first2=W. P. |date=May 2017 |title=Hostile inaction? Antipater, Craterus and the Macedonian regency |journal=[[The Classical Quarterly]] |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=77–78 |doi=10.1017/S0009838817000301 |s2cid=157417151 }}</ref> Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence{{sfn|Green|2007|pp=23–24}} and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas,<ref name="DSXVII118" /> Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer.<ref name="AVII27" /><ref name="DSXVII118" /> There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.<ref name="AVII27" />
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===Physical appearance===
[[File:AlexanderCameo.JPG|thumb|left|Alexander [[Cameo_(carving)|cameo]] by [[Pyrgoteles]]|upright=.9]]
Historical sources frequently give conflicting accounts of Alexander's appearance, and the earliest sources are the most scant in their detail.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Andrew |title=Faces of Power : Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics Hellenistic Culture and Society |date=1993 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-06851-3 |page=72}}</ref> During his lifetime, Alexander carefully curated his image by commissioning works from famous and great artists of the time. This included commissioning sculptures by [[Lysippos]], paintings by [[Apelles]] and gem engravings by [[Pyrgoteles]].<ref name="Alexander the Great">{{cite book |last1=Nawotka |first1=Krzysztof |title=Alexander the Great |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |page=43}}</ref> Ancient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image; scholars today, however, find the claim dubious.<ref>{{cite web |title=Images of Authority II: The Greek Example |year=2005 |publisher=SUNY Oneonta |url=http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth200/politics/images_authority_2_greek.html |access-date=16 December 2011 |archive-date=4 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004195912/http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth200/politics/images_authority_2_greek.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Alexander the Great"/> Nevertheless, Andrew Stewart highlights the fact that artistic portraits, not least because of who they are commissioned by, are always partisan, and that artistic portrayals of Alexander "seek to legitimize him (or, by extension, his Successors), to interpret him to their audiences, to answer their critiques, and to persuade them of his greatness", and thus should be considered within a framework of "praise and blame", in the same way sources such as praise poetry are.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Andrew |title=Faces of Power : Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics Hellenistic Culture and Society |date=1993 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-06851-3 |page=69}}</ref> Despite those caveats, Lysippos's sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.{{Sfn |Bosworth|1988|pp = 19–20}}
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The [[Alexander Mosaic]] and contemporary coins portray Alexander with "a straight nose, a slightly protruding jaw, full lips and eyes deep set beneath a strongly pronounced forehead".<ref name="Alexander the Great"/> He is also described as having a slight upward tilt of his head to the left.{{sfn|Renault|2013|p=1}}
The ancient historian [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]] ({{circa|175}} – {{circa|235 AD}}), in his ''Varia Historia'' (12.14), describes Alexander's hair color as "''ξανθὴν''" (''xanthín''), which at the time, could mean
===Personality===
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===Hellenistic kingdoms===
{{Main|Hellenistic period}}
[[File:Mappa di Eratostene.jpg|thumb|The [[Hellenistic]] world view: [[ancient world map|world map]] by [[Eratosthenes]] (276–194 BC), using information from the campaigns of Alexander and his successors<ref>{{cite web |title=World map according to Eratosthenes (194 B.C.) |publisher=Henry Davis Consulting |work=henry-davis.com |url=http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/112.html |
Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some {{convert|5200000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}},<ref name="uconn">Peter Turchin, Thomas D. Hall and Jonathan M. Adams, "[http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf East-West Orientation of Historical Empires] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222011511/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf |date=22 February 2007 }}", ''Journal of World-Systems Research'' Vol. 12 (no. 2), pp. 219–29 (2006).</ref> and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The [[Hellenistic period#The successors|successor states]] that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the [[Hellenistic period]].{{sfn|Green|2007|pp=xii–xix}}
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<ref name="AVII29">{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc= [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book7b.asp VII, 29]}}</ref>
<ref name="AVII4">{{harvnb|Arrian|1976|loc= [http://websfor.org/alexander/arrian/book7a.asp VII, 4]}}</ref>
<ref name="Depuydt">{{
<ref name="DiodXVI">{{harvnb|Diodorus Siculus|1989|loc= [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+16.86 XVI, 86]}}</ref>
<ref name="DSXVII77">{{harvnb|Diodorus Siculus|1989|loc= [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Diod.+17.77.1 XVII, 77]}}</ref>
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* {{cite book |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0243 |title=Plutarch, Alexander |editor-first=Bernadotte |editor-last=Perrin |last=[[Plutarch]] |year=1919 |publisher=Perseus Project |access-date=6 December 2011 |archive-date=21 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021034907/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0243 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri*/ |title=On the Fortune of Alexander |last=Plutarch |publisher=[[Loeb Classical Library]] |editor-first=Frank Cole |editor-last=Babbitt |access-date=26 November 2011 |volume=IV |year=1936 |pages=379–487}}
* {{cite web |first=Pompeius |last=Trogus |year=1853 |url=http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/ |editor-last=Justin |title=Epitome of the Philippic History |access-date=14 November 2009 |website=Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum |others=Rev. John Selby Watson, translator |archive-date=8 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131108235820/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/ |url-status=
{{refend}}
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* {{cite map |url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11738/ |title=The Empire and Expeditions of Alexander the Great |first=Félix |last=Delamarche |author-link=Félix Delamarche |year=1833}}
* {{cite news |title=Two Great Historians on Alexander the Great |type=conversations |first1=James |last1=Romm |first2=Paul |last2=Cartledge |author2-link=Paul Cartledge |newspaper=Forbes}} [https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/12/two-great-historians-on-alexander-the-great-part-one/ Part 1], [https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/17/two-great-historians-on-alexander-the-great-part-two/ Part 2], [https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2010/12/20/two-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-3/ Part 3], [https://www.forbes.com/sites/booked/2011/01/03/two-great-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-4/ Part 4], [https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2011/01/10/how-great-a-general-was-alexander/ Part 5], [https://blogs.forbes.com/booked/2011/01/28/two-great-historians-talk-alexander-the-great-part-6/ Part 6].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161204170928/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources]. Livius. Archived from [http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html the original] on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2020.
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06d9bkx ''In Our Time'': "Alexander the Great"]{{snd}}BBC discussion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 1 October 2015.
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