Armenian rebellions in the Ottoman Empire covers the activities of ethnic Armenian citizens of the Ottoman Empire to obtain independence, similar to other non-Ottoman ethnic groups in the empire starting around 1880 to the period of the Armenian genocide (1915–1917).[1] The early rebellions were an attempt to obtain financial advantages (breaks), but with the French revolution and the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire the ideology of independence ("Freedom or Death") became dominant.[citation needed] The Greeks obtained independence in 1829, which sparked the Russo-Turkish war. The Ottomans held on to many of their other territories under very difficult conditions.[2] During this time among the Armenian elite, idea of republicanism replaced the absolute monarchy, and the Millet system of the Ottoman Armenians underwent a restructuring, which led to the establishment of the Armenian National Assembly in 1863 and took over some of the regulations of temporal matters of the Ottoman Armenian Community from the Patriarchate. While it took World War I for the establishment of First Armenian Republic, the Armenians had oscillated between the ideas of republic and autonomous region in the empire during the history of Ottoman democracy with organizations like Social Democrat Hunchakian Party and Armenakan. The Empire tried to cover the social needs by creating the Tanzimat era, the development of Ottomanism and First Constitutional Era. However, the coexistence of the communities under Ottomanism proved to be a dysfunctional solution as did the Second Constitutional Era which also ignited the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.
Breaking down the system
Social structure of the Empire, also the "Armenians", was based on Millet (Ottoman Empire) which was was term for a confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. It was somewhat similar to the autonomous territories that was the European norm.[citation needed] The Ottoman term specifically refers to the separate legal courts pertaining to personal law under which sections of the society were allowed to rule themselves (in cases not involving any Muslim) with fairly little interference from the Ottoman government.[citation needed] Each millet was under the supervision of an Ethnarch ('national' leader), most often a religious hierarch such as the Armenian Apostolic Church. The millets had a great deal of power - they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. During the Tanzimat period, a series of constitutional reforms provided a limited modernization of the Ottoman Empire. In 1856, the Hatt-ı Hümayun promised equality for all Ottoman citizens irrespective of their ethnicity and confession, widening the scope of the 1839 Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane. In 1863 the Armenian National Constitution (Ottoman Turkish:"Nizâmnâme-i Millet-i Ermeniyân") was Ottoman Empire approved form of the "Code of Regulations" composed of 150 articles drafted by the "Armenian intelligentsia", which defined the powers of Patriarch (position in Ottoman Millet) and newly formed "Armenian National Assembly".[3] The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-ı Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. "Firman of the Reforms" gave immense privileges to the Armenians, which formed a "governance in governance" to eliminate the aristocratic dominance of the Armenian nobles by development of the political strata in the society.[4] These two reforms, which were theoretically perfect examples of social change by law, brought serious stress over Ottoman political and administrative structure. Armenian Nobles (Amira) were not happy, and they were the owners of the economic system. Kagik Ozanyan claims that these regulations (formation of a political strata) incited the national (nation building by revolution) spirit.[5] General Mayewski, who was the Russian Consul General to Ottoman Empire recorded the following in 1912;[6]
The rebellion of Armenians resulted from the following three causes:(1). Their known evolution in political matters (Issue of Civilizations), (2). Development of ideas of nationalism, salvation and independence in Armenian opinion (Revolution Perspective), (3). Supporting of these ideas by Western governments and publication through the inspiration and efforts of Armenian clerical men (Humanitarian intervention).[7]
Issue of Civilizations
According to some authors the breakdown of the "coexistence of the communities" was a direct result of the Christian Armenians and Muslim Turks and Kurds of the Ottoman Empires inability to live together. Most of the Ottoman Sources do not give credit to these claims. They presenting the argument that because of the Millet (Ottoman Empire) system, and State and Religion (Ottoman Empire) structure which had preserved the Empire for centuries. The opposing side presents the activities of Armenian Patriarchs. Patriarch Nerses Varjabedyan expresses his position to British Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lord Salisbury on April 13 1878.[8]
It is no longer possible for the Armenians and the Turks to live together. Only a Christian administration can provide the equality, justice and the freedom of conscience. A Christian administration should replace the Muslim administration. Armenia (Eastern Anatolia) and Kilikya, are the regions, where the Christian administration should be founded... The Turkish Armenians want this... That is, a Christian administration is demanded in Turkish Armenia, as in Lebanon.[9]
A strong argument behind rejecting the "clash of civilizations" (for some civil war) came with the analysis of the activity timetable. The clashes collected in distinct events. Each event had high density with distinct beginning and an end. There was no single period that thousand deaths were spread over a long period of time. This fact support the "revolutionary view" which tried to be a catalyst – to show to the European powers (which had a certain, if ill-defined, responsibility for their government) the true nature of Ottoman rule, and to force them to do something about it through the international agreements (protectorate structure). Assuredly Europe would do nothing if those thousand deaths were spread over a year.
Revolution Perspective
As the (Millets) was broken, Armenians began gradually to reject the theocratic system (Armenian Apostolic Church) of the Ottoman empire as a political control (move from theocratic to a democratic system) which was set under the Ottoman Armenian Millet, and so rethink their position in the world. In this analysis the Armenian subjects of the Empire began to hear from European educated fellow Armenians (Armenian diaspora) and the Protestant missionaries with their network of congregations and schools throughout Ottoman Empire. Even though their initial aim was to conversion (Mission (Christian)) of the Muslims and Jews, they soon became involved with reformation (see:Protestant Reformation) of the Christian Armenians. The mission (Christian) activities quickly transferred the European intellectual currents such as ideas of French revolution to the 23,000 Armenian students within 127 Protestant congregations with 13,000 communicants, and 400 schools.[10] Ottoman Armenians educated with the European Way [disambiguation needed] began to make attempts at political organization – secret societies, local groups and so forth. In 1881, the 'Protectors of the Fatherland', was established in Erzerum. Protectors of the Fatherland aimed to defend the Armenian population against the Kurds and Turks; but it was almost certainly affected by the ideas of French revolution as 'Freedom or Death' was their motto [11].
Humanitarian intervention
After the Greek revolution of 1821, the Great Powers—England, France, and Russia—became increasingly involved in Ottoman affairs using the "capitulations of the Ottoman Empire." Protectorate structure give powers reason to support the independence struggles of Ottoman subjects as opportunities to achieve their own strategic interests under the guise of “humanitarian intervention.” The national awakining in the Balkans ended with uprisings which were harshly repressed and also the plight of Armenians to Tsar urged the Russian intervention in 1877-1878. After the Treaty of San Stefano Russia gained control over a large part of Armenia become the protectorate of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire (a protectorate clause) and obtained the independence of Romania (see:National awakening of Romania) and Serbia . However, Russia had to step back as a result of the English and German pressure. Russian intervention gained a protectorate to the Armenian national movement but fall short establishing the Armenian state. 1878 was marked for the down turn of relations between Armenians and Ottoman Empire.
The first effective intervention (or response to Armenian martyrdom) had come by the Woodrow Wilson who agreed to transfer what will be named as "Wilsonian Armenia" back to the Armenians in the Treaty of Sèvres.
Between three Empires
Before the 20th century Armenians mainly lived in the intersection of three empires, Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire and Persian Empire. Although an Armenian diaspora existed since the Armenian loss of statehood in 1375 (when the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia fell to the Mamelukes), it grew in size only after the 1915 Armenian Genocide. Most of the Armenian diaspora before the 20th century were composed of the elite (high socioeconomic status) part whom were being educated or performing the trade. It was expected that the movements will cover the three empires, not only inside (local forms such as "Protectors of the Fatherland") but also in Europe, such as Geneva. The organization that was founded in Geneva (Europe), mostly by active Russian Armenians, took the idea of nationalism and gave it a clear imprint of Caucasian revolutionary thought in 1887.[12] . Caucasian revolutionary thought was directed to Ottoman Empire, which as a diaspora saw it as homeland. The Armenians in Europe (Armenian diaspora) began to hold meetings about their oppressed status leading to the foundation of parties that will formalize the "national politics" under Armenakans, Hnchakians, and Armenian Revolutionary Federation with the coming years. These secret societies (or parties for some) which developed the "National Politics" stated goals as "freeing the Armenians from the Ottoman Empire by any means possible".[13] H. K. Vartanian wrote that the Armenian revolutionary movement was a direct and necessary response to the increasingly intolerable social, economic and political conditions of the 19th century decaying and declining Ottoman Empire.[14]
Seeking help to be rescued
Armenian national movement was clearly an international movement. However, practical center for Armenian revolutionaries was the Caucasus, where Armenians could meet, organize funds, move the sources and materials to Ottoman Empire easily. Young Armenia Society founded in 1889 by Kristapor Mikayelian within Caucasia become bigger with time.[15] Young Armenia Society organized Fedayee campaigns into Ottoman territory. The society members believed that the Armenians can ask Russia to build a national state, such as they did by rescuing beleaguered Bulgaria. The rationalization of this idea depended on two main international political promises of British government. First came with the Cyprus Convention and then Treaty of Berlin, 1878 with the article 61. As Patriarch Nerses Varjabedyan had expressed his position to British Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lord Salisbury, Britain was bound to intervene to Ottoman rule for the benefit of Armenian National cause. In 1879, one year of after the agreements, the only thing missing was the practical events (uprising) to enable the articles against the Ottoman Empire for the demand of an Armenian state. Within the next two decades the Armenian national movement had discovered through their revolutionary uprising (revolutionary movement) that neither Tsar Alexander II with his idealism nor Gladstone's Liberalism was a dependable hope to intervene the Ottoman Empire. Besides the development of ideological imprint, the Young Armenia Society was also an instrument to future organizations. Simon Zavarian, who was Kristapor Mikayelian's right-hand man, was instrumental in the founding of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. There was a very big common ground (shared methods, ideologies, workforce, etc) between these different organizations.
Unification
Beginning with the 1879, the Armenian national movement, began to collect distributed organizations under a unified front. The national perspective that was set during 1870s, which was solidified Cyprus Convention and then Treaty of Berlin, 1878, required a need of coordinating the patriotic activities and also a reason to build a single front. These activities will form what will become the nationalism of Armenian Diaspora.
The activities
Russian intervention in 1877-1878 changed the political and military structure alongside newly established Russian border. With the hostilities on the border become open, numbers of Circassians and Laz from the Russian empire emigrated (forced deportation) in the Ottoman empire which brought tensions where they settled. These migrations were changing the population distribution and balance of power within the local communities. The Russia become protectorate of Armenians (Christians) so the lands that changed hand had less on Armenian but relatively more hostile environment to the Kurds who were left under the Russian control. The Kurdish tribal leaders, who had fled during the war began to express their power along the countryside, not only to Armenian Millet but to the local non-tribal Kurds as well. The regions social structure (coexistence of the communities or (Millets) was clearly broken under the Ottoman Empire. The broken structure (social structure) of coexistence of the communities required implementation of new reforms with the plan of February 1882 by the Sultan. However Germany (another protector) refused to act in concert with the other powers, which 'interference with the happiness of other sovereigns' was the main reason given. Unsolved social problems began to feed the Armenian national politics.
Russian intervention in 1877-1878 put an end to the Tanzimat, which Armenian political expression was coming to age. Nonetheless, the Armenian liberation movement gathered momentum with the establishment of Armenian Revolutionary Federation, Social Democrat Hunchakian Party and Armenakan (later named as Ramgavar).[16] The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party, also known as the Hentchak, is one of the oldest political parties of Armenia. It was founded in 1887 with the goal to gain Armenia's independence from the Ottoman Empire. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation came into being in 1890 through the merging of various factions of Armenian political groups akin to the ones operating in Russia and Eastern Europe at the time. The original aim was for autonomy of the Armenian-populated areas in the Ottoman Empire. The party began to organize itself in Anatolia in the early 1890s and held its first major meeting in Georgia in 1892. At that meeting the party adopted a decentralized modus operandi according to which the various chapters in different countries were allowed to plan and implement policies in tune with their local political atmosphere.
These parties within the next decade (1880-1890) developed local communication channels. The organization was fully functional under Ankara, Amasya, Çorum, Diyarbakır, Yozgat, and Tokat. In 1893 they began to use wall newspapers (newspapers like billboards) directed toward the non Armenian subjects. The main theme of these materials were people should take control of their own life (against the oppressors).[17] This ideological communicants did not have any effect on the Muslims. The main result was clashes between patriots and Ottoman police that ended with the jail time. Every jail time ended with official exchanges between two empires as Britain was the protectorate of the these patriots (Educated (European) revolutionaries who can print papers). Britain concluded that was 'more than probable' that Armenian revolutionaries (patriots) were responsible parties in this conflict.[18] They were cutting telegraph wires, bombing the odd government buildings which would have caused the sultan to panic, and local authorities act against them, however if there would be more interference (Britain or European sources) that would end with religious fanaticism, and a civil war (massacres) would occur.[19]
| Decade | Event | Organization |
| 1880s | Bashkaleh Resistance | Armenakan Party |
| 1890s | Kum Kapu Affray | Hunchaks (Social Democrat Hunchakian Party) |
| Defense of Van | Armenakan Party | |
| 1896 Ottoman Bank Takeover | Armenian Revolutionary Federation | |
| Khanasor Expedition | Armenian Revolutionary Federation | |
| 1900s | Yildiz Attempt | Armenian Revolutionary Federation |
See also
External links
References
- ^ "HOW THE ARMENIAN ISSUE CAME ABOUT". www.ermenisorunu.gen.tr. Retrieved 2006-10-09.
- ^ "Armenian History, chapter 8: Western Armenia". www.armenianhistory.info. Retrieved 2006-10-09.
- ^ Richard G. (EDT) Hovannisian "The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times" page 198
- ^ Ilber Ortayli, Tanzimattan Cumhuriyete Yerel Yönetim Gelenegi, Istanbul 1985, pp. 73
- ^ Esat Uras, Tarihte Ermeniler ve Ermeni Meselesi, İstanbul 1976, 5. 463;
- ^ General MAYEWSKI; Statistique des Provinces de Van et de Bitlis, pp. 11-13
- ^ General MAYEWSKI; Statistique des Provinces de Van et de Bitlis, pp. 11-13
- ^ F.O. 424/70, No. 134/I zikr., Bilal N. ªimsir, British Documents On Ottoman Armenians 1856-1880), Vol. I, Ankara 19R2, pp.173. Document No. 69
- ^ F.O. 424/70, No. 134/I zikr., Bilal N. ªimsir, British Documents On Ottoman Armenians 1856-1880), Vol. I, Ankara 19R2, pp.173. Document No. 69
- ^ G. Warneck, Outline of a History of Protestant Missions (Edinburgh and London, 1901), p. 241.
- ^ The Times, 10 January 1883, p. 5; ibid., 8 June 1883, p. 5
- ^ Nalbandian, Armenian Revolutionary Movement, p. 115.
- ^ Eddie Arnavoudian; In defence of the Armenian National Liberation Movement, 2002
- ^ Vartanian; The Western Armenian Liberation Struggle, Yerevan, 1967
- ^ Nalbandian, Armenian Revolutionary Movement, pp. 145–7.
- ^ "Chapter VIII: WESTERN ARMENIA (FROM 1820 TO 1913)". Armenianhistory.info. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
- ^ Graves, Storm Centres,
- ^ Graves, Storm Centres, p. 138
- ^ Graves, Storm Centres, pp. 132-139