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{{Short description|Sultan of Egypt and Syria from 1260 to 1277}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October
{{Infobox royalty
| title = Sultan Misr wa al-
| image = Baybars, Medallion IV, Baptistère de Saint-Louis.jpg
| alt =
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| reign = 24 October 1260 – 1 July 1277
| coronation = 1260 at [[Salihiyya Madrasa|Salihiyah]]
<!-- | othertitles
| spouse = Iltutmish Khatun
| issue = {{unbulletedlist|[[Al-Said Barakah]]|[[Solamish]]|Khizir|Tidhkarbay Khatun|}}
| house = Zahiri
| dynasty = [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri]]
| birth_date
| birth_place
| death_date
| death_place
| religion
}}
'''Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari''' ({{
The reign of Baybars marked the start of an age of Mamluk dominance in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] and solidified the durability of their military system. He managed to pave the way for the end of the [[Crusader states|Crusader]] presence in the [[Levant]] and reinforced the union of Egypt and Syria as the region's pre-eminent Muslim state, able to fend off threats from both Crusaders and Mongols, and even managed to subdue the kingdom of [[Makuria]], which was famous for being unconquerable by previous Muslim empire invasion attempts. As sultan, Baybars also engaged in a combination of diplomacy and military action, allowing the Mamluks of Egypt to greatly expand their empire.
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Possibly based on the Turkic meaning of his name, Baybars used the panther as his heraldic [[blazon]], and placed it on both coins and buildings.<ref name="Watenpaugh2004"/> The lion/panther used on the [[Jisr Jindas|bridge built by Baybars]] near al-Ludd (today's [[Lod]]) plays with a rat, which may be interpreted to represent Baybars' Crusader enemies.<ref name="Christie">{{cite book |author= Niall Christie |title= Muslims and Crusaders: Christianity's Wars in the Middle East, 1095–1382, from the Islamic Sources |page=121, Plate 8 |publisher= Routledge |edition=first |year=2014 |series= Seminar Studies |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd_pAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 |isbn=9781138022744}}</ref>
Baybars was described as a tall
== Biography ==
Baybars was a [[Kipchaks|Kipchak]] thought to be born in the [[steppe]] region north of the [[Black Sea]], or [[Desht-i Kipchak|Dasht-i Kipchak]] at the time<!-- The cited sources don't specify "Dasht-i Kipchak", they simply say from the Kipchaks north of the Black Sea, but linking to this article is probably reasonable; if not, this detail can be removed. -->.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holt |first=P. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TqasAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 |title=The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517 |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-87152-1 |
[[Al-Sha'rani]] (d. 973/1565) counted him among [[Ibn 'Arabi]]'s students.<ref>{{cite book |author=Nader Jamil Jum'a |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bpzODwAAQBAJ&pg=PT85 |title=محيي الدين بن عربي وآراؤه الفقهية في الفتوحات المكية |date=2020 |publisher=[[w:de:Dār al-Kutub al-ʿilmīya|Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya]] |isbn=9782745192783 |edition=1st |location=[[Lebanon]] |page=86 |language=Arabic |trans-title=Muhyi al-Din ibn 'Arabi and his jurisprudential opinions in al-Futuhāt al-Makkiyya |quote=الظاهر بيبرس: ركن الدين أبو الفتوح بيبرس التركي البندقداري ثم الصالحي صاحب مصر والشام ولد في حدود العشرين وستمائة كان رجلاً شجاعاً فارساً مقداماً مجاهداً عظيم الهيبة يضرب بشجاعته المثل، وله في الإسلام أيام بيض وفتوحات مشهورة. أجازه الشيخ محيي الدين ابن عربي برواية جميع مؤلفاته توفي 676 هـ، ذكره الشعراني ضمن تلاميذ ابن عربي. |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
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=== Rise to power ===
[[File:EdwardICrusadeMap.jpg|thumb|The Mamluks under Baybars (yellow) fought off the Franks and the Mongols during the [[Ninth Crusade]].]]
In 1250, he supported the defeat of the [[Seventh Crusade]] of [[Louis IX of France]] in two major battles.
In 1254, a power shift occurred in Egypt, as [[Aybak]] killed [[Faris ad-Din Aktai]], the leader of the Bahri Mamluks. Some of his Mamluks, among them Baybars and [[Qalawun|Qalawun al-Alfi]], fled to [[an-Nasir Yusuf]] in [[Syria]],{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=326}} persuading him to break the accord{{Clarify|reason=Which accord?|date=September 2023}} and invade Egypt. Aybak wrote to an-Nassir Yusuf warning him of the danger of these Mamluks who took refuge in Syria, and agreed to grant him their territorial domains on the coast, but an-Nasir Yusuf refused to expel them and instead returned to them the domains which Aybak had granted. In 1255, an-Nasir Yusuf sent new forces to the Egyptian border, this time with many of Aktai's Mamluks, among them Baybars, and Qalawun al-Alfi, but he was defeated again. In 1257, Baybars and other Bahri Mamluks left Damascus to [[Jerusalem]], where they deposed its governor Kütük and plundered its markets, then they did the same in [[Gaza City|Gaza]]. Later on, they fought against the forces of an-Nasir Yusuf at [[Nablus]], then fled to join the forces of {{ill|al-Mughith Umar|de|al-Mughīth ʿUmar}} in [[Kerak]].{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=331}} The combined forces tried in vain to invade Egypt during the reign of Aybak.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=332}}
Baybars then sent 'Ala al-Din Taybars al-Waziri to discuss with [[Qutuz]] his return to Egypt, which was eagerly accepted.{{sfn|Humphreys|1977|p=348}} He was still a commander under sultan Qutuz at the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260, when he decisively defeated the Mongols. After the battle, Sultan Qutuz (aka Koetoez) was assassinated while on a hunting expedition. It was said that Baybars was involved in the assassination because he expected to be rewarded with the governorship of [[Aleppo]] for his military success, but Qutuz, fearing his ambition, refused to give him the post.<ref>The story of the involvement of Baybars in the assassination was told by different historians in different ways. In one account the assassins killed Qutuz while he was giving a hand to Baybars (Al-Maqrizi and Ibn-Taghri). In another, from an Ayyubid source, Qutuz was giving a hand to someone when Baybars struck his back with a sword (Abu-Al-Fida). A third account mentioned that Baybars tried to help Qutuz against the assassins (O. Hassan). According to Al-Maqrizi, the Emirs who struck Qutuz were Badr ad-Din Baktut, Emir Ons, and Emir Bahadir al-Mu'izzi. (Al-Maqrizi, p.519/vol.1)</ref> Baybars succeeded Qutuz as Sultan of Egypt.<ref>MacHenry, Robert. ''The New Encyclopædia Britannica''. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 1993. [https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia07ency <!--
=== Becoming Sultan ===
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There was also a brief rebellion in Cairo led by a leading figure of the Shiite named [[al-Kurani]]. Al-Kurani is said originated from Nishapur.<ref name="History of the Arab world and the Crusades" /> Al-Kurani and his follower are recorded to have attacked the weapon stores and stables of Cairo during a night raid. Baybars, however, manage to suppress the rebellion quickly as he surrounded and arrested them all. Al- Kurani and another rebel leaders were executed (crucified) in [[Bab Zuweila]]<ref name="History of the Arab world and the Crusades" />
After suppressing the revolt of Sinjar, Baybars then managed to deal with the [[Ayyubid]]s, while quietly eliminating the prince of Kerak. Ayyubids such as [[Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Homs]] and the Ayyubid Emir Dynasty of Hama [[Al-Mansur Muhammad II]], who had earlier staved off the Mongol threat, were permitted to continue their rule in exchange for their recognizing Baybars' authority as Sultan.<ref name="mrw8AAAAIAAJ">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mrw8AAAAIAAJ&q=baibars+homs&pg=PA315
After the [[Abbasid caliphate]] in Iraq was overthrown by the Mongols in 1258 when they conquered and [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|sacked Baghdad]], the Muslim world lacked a [[caliph]], a theoretically supreme leader who had sometimes used his office to endow distant Muslim rulers with legitimacy by sending them writs of investiture. Thus, when the Abbasid refugee Abu al-Qasim Ahmad, the uncle of the last Abbasid caliph [[al-Musta'sim]], arrived in Cairo in 1261, Baybars had him proclaimed caliph as [[al-Mustansir II]] and duly received investiture as sultan from him. Unfortunately, al-Mustansir II was killed by the Mongols during an ill-advised expedition to recapture Baghdad from the Mongols later in the same year. In 1262, another Abbasid, allegedly the great-great-great-grandson of the Caliph [[al-Mustarshid]], Abu al-'Abbas Ahmad, who had survived from the defeated expedition, was proclaimed caliph as [[al-Hakim I]], inaugurating the line of Abbasid caliphs of Cairo that continued as long as the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk sultanate]], until 1517. Like his unfortunate predecessor, al-Hakim I also received the formal oath of allegiance of Baybars and provided him with legitimation. While most of the Muslim world did not take these caliphs seriously, as they were mere instruments of the sultans, they still lent a certain legitimation as well as a decorative element to their rule.<ref name= "mrw8AAAAIAAJ"/>
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{{Further| Siege of Antioch (1268)}}
[[File:Dinar LACMA M.2006.143.10 (1 of 2).jpg|thumb|Gold coin minted under Baybars, with an Arabic inscription and an image of a panther or lion below it]]
As sultan, Baybars engaged in a lifelong struggle against the Crusader kingdoms in [[Syria]], in part because the Christians had aided the Mongols. He started with the [[Principality of Antioch]], which had become a vassal state of the Mongols and had participated in attacks against Islamic targets in Damascus and Syria. In 1263, Baybars laid siege to [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], the capital of the remnant of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], although the siege was abandoned when he sacked [[Nazareth]] instead.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=taJZ433OqJIC&pg=PA7|title=In Xanadu|first=William|last=Dalrymple|author-link=William Dalrymple (historian)|date=
In the same year, Baybars laid siege to the fortress of [[Safed]], held by the [[Templar]] knights, which had [[Siege of Safed (1188)|been conquered]] by [[Saladin]] in 1188 but returned to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1240. Baybars promised the knights safe passage to the Christian town of Acre if they surrendered their fortress. Badly outnumbered, the knights agreed. Upon surrender, Baybars broke his promise and massacred the entire Templar garrison{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}}. On capturing Safed, Baybars did not raze the fortress to the ground but fortified and repaired it instead, as it was strategically situated and well constructed. He installed a new governor in Safed, with the rank of ''Wali''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBBMJJTEoKMC&q=baibars+safed&pg=PA165|title=The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society|first1=Michael|last1=Winter|first2=Amalia|last2=Levanoni|date=
Later, in 1266, Baybars invaded the Christian country of [[Cilician Armenia]] which, under King [[Hethum I]], had submitted to the Mongol Empire. After defeating the forces of Hethum I in the [[Battle of Mari]], Baybars managed to ravage the three great cities of [[Mamistra]], [[Adana]] and [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], so that when Hetoum arrived with Mongol troops, the country was already devastated. Hetoum had to negotiate the return of his son [[Leo II, King of Armenia|Leo]] by giving control of Armenia's border fortresses to the Mamluks. In 1269, Hetoum abdicated in favour of his son and became a monk, but he died a year later.<ref>[[Claude Mutafian]], p. 60</ref> Leo was left in the awkward situation of keeping Cilicia as a subject of the Mongol Empire, while at the same time paying tribute to the Mamluks.<ref>Bournotian, ''A Concise History of the Armenian People'', p. 101</ref>
This isolated Antioch and Tripoli, led by Hethum's son-in-law, Prince [[Bohemond VI]]. After successfully conquering Cilicila, Baybars in 1267 settled his unfinished business with Acre, and continued the extermination of remaining crusader garrisons in the following years. In 1268, he [[Siege of Antioch (1268)|besieged Antioch]], capturing the city on 18 May. Baybars had promised to spare the lives of the inhabitants, but he broke his promise and had the city razed, killing or enslaving much of the population after the surrender.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.americanoutlook.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=article_detail&id=1474|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060129230411/http://www.americanoutlook.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=article_detail&id=1474|url-status=dead|title=Hudson Institute > American Outlook > American Outlook Article Detail<!-- Bot generated title -->|archivedate=29 January 2006}}</ref> prompting the fall of the [[Principality of Antioch]]. The massacre of men, women, and children at Antioch "was the single greatest massacre of the entire crusading era."<ref>Thomas F. Madden, ''The Concise History of the Crusades'' (3rd ed. 2014), p. 168</ref> Priests had their throats slit inside their churches, and women were sold into slavery.<ref>Madden, ''supra'' at 168.</ref>
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==== Alliance with Golden Horde ====
Baybars actively pursued a close relationship with [[Berke]], the Khan of Golden Horde.<ref name="The Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith">{{cite book |author1=Thomas Walker Arnold |author-link= Thomas Walker Arnold |title=The Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith |date=1896 |publisher=A. Constable and Company; Harvard University |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qxsVAAAAYAAJ |access-date=26 November 2023 |language=En |chapter=8 |page=192 |quote=A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith Sir Thomas Walker Arnold. men , observing the growing enmity between ... Baybars , who persuaded them to embrace Islam.1 Baybars himself was at war with Hūlāgū , whom he had recently ...}}</ref> He particularly was recorded to receive the first two hundred soldiers from Golden Horde to visit warmly, where Baybars persuade them to convert to Islam while also observing the growing enmity between the Golden Horde Khan with Hulagu.<ref name="The Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith" /> Baybars, who at that time has just defeated Hulagu, immediately sent envoy to Berke to inform the latter about this. Then, As soon as Berke converted to Islam, he sent envoy to Egypt to give news about this matter, and later, Baybars brought more peoples from Golden Horde to be sent into Egypt, where they also converted
In some time around October to November 1267, or about 666 Safar of [[Hijra year]], Baybars wrote condolences and congratulations to the new Khan of the [[Golden Horde]], [[Mengu-Timur]], to urge him to fight [[Abaqa Khan|Abaqa]]. Baybars continued to conduct warm correspondence with the Golden Horde, particularly with Mengu Timur's general [[Nogai Khan|Noqai]], who unlike Mengu Timur was very cooperative with Baybars. It is theorized that this intimacy was not only due to the religious connection (as Noqai was a Muslim, unlike his Khan), but also because Noqai was not really fond of Mengu-Timur. However, Baybars was pragmatic in his approach and did not want to become involved in complicated intrigue inside the Golden Horde, so instead he stayed close to both Mengu Timur and Noqai.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxOcXC85tnQC&q=baybars+golden+horde&pg=PA59 | last = F. Broadbridge | first = Anne
====Continued campaign against Crusaders====
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On 30 March 1271, after Baybars captured the smaller castles in the area, including [[Chastel Blanc]], he besieged the Krak des Chevaliers, held by the [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitaller]]s. Peasants who lived in the area had fled to the castle for safety and were kept in the outer ward. As soon as Baybars arrived, he began erecting [[mangonel]]s, powerful siege weapons which he would turn on the castle. According to [[Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad|Ibn Shaddad]], two days later the first line of defences was captured by the besiegers; he was probably referring to a walled suburb outside the castle's entrance.<ref name=King88-92>{{harvnb|King|1949|pp=88–92}}</ref> After a lull of ten days, the besiegers conveyed a letter to the garrison, supposedly from the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Tripoli, [[Hugues de Revel]], which granted permission for them to surrender. The garrison capitulated and the Sultan spared their lives.<ref name=King88-92/> The new owners of the castle undertook repairs, focused mainly on the outer ward.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1949|p=91}}</ref> The Hospitaller chapel was converted to a [[mosque]] and two [[mihrab]]s were added to the interior.<ref name=FFC179>{{harvnb|Folda|French|Coupel|1982|p=179}}</ref>
Baybars then turned his attention to Tripoli, but he interrupted his siege there to call a truce in May 1271.
====Campaign against Makuria====
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In 1265 a Mamluk army allegedly raided Makuria as far south as Dongola{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=117, note 16}} while also expanding southwards along the African Red Sea coast, thus threatening the Nubians.{{sfn|Gazda|2005|p=93}} In 1272 king [[David of Makuria|David]] marched east and attacked the port town of [[Aidhab]],{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=118}} located on an important [[Hajj|pilgrimage]] route to [[Mecca]]. The Nubian army destroyed the town, causing “a blow to the very heart of Islam”.{{sfn|Gazda|2005|p=95}} This initiated several decades of intervention by the Mamluks in [[Nubia]]n affairs.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V7qpKqM2Ji8C&q=baybars&pg=PA37 | last = Howard| first = Jonathan | year= 2011|title =The Crusades: A History of One of the Most Epic Military Campaigns of All Time | publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 9780521209816}}</ref> A punitive Mamluk expedition was sent in response, but did not pass beyond the second cataract.{{sfn|Seignobos|2016|p=554}} Three years later the Makurians attacked and destroyed Aswan,{{sfn|Werner|2013|p=118}} but this time, Baybars responded with a well-equipped army setting off from Cairo in early 1276,{{sfn|Gazda|2005|p=95}} accompanied by a cousin of king David named Mashkouda{{sfn|Seignobos|2016|p=554, note 2}} or Shekanda.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=244}} The Mamluks defeated the Nubians in three battles at Gebel Adda, Meinarti and finally at the [[Battle of Dongola (1276)|Battle of Dongola]]. David fled upstream the Nile, eventually entering [[Kingdom of al-Abwab|al-Abwab]] in the south,{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=120–122}} which, previously being Alodia's northernmost province, had by this period become a kingdom of its own.{{sfn|Welsby|2002|p=254}} The king of al-Abwab, however, handed David over to Baybars, who had him executed.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=122–123}}
Baybars then completed his conquest of Nubia, including the [[Al-Maris (region)|Medieval lower Nubia]] which was ruled by [[Banu Kanz]]. Under the terms of the settlement, the Nubians were now subjected to paying [[jizya]] tribute, and in return they were allowed to keep their religion, being protected under Islamic law as '[[People of the Book]]'; they were also allowed to continue being governed by a king from the native royal family, although this king was chosen personally by Baybars, namely a Makurian noble named Shakanda.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C&q=baibars+makuria&pg=PA300
==== Further campaign against Ilkhanate ====
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=== Death ===
[[File:Ancient City of Damascus-107601 (retouched).jpg|thumb|200px|Mausoleum chamber of sultan [[Baybars]] (1260-1277) in [[Al-Zahiriyah Library]] in [[Damascus]]]]
Baybars died in [[Damascus]] on 1 July 1277, when he was 53 years old.
| last = Young
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==Family==
Sultan Baybars married a noble lady from Tripoli (modern-day Lebanon) named Aisha al Bushnatiya, a prominent Arab family. Aisha was a warrior who fought the
One of Baibar's wives was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Nogay at-Tatari.<ref name="yigit">{{cite journal | last=Akkuş Yiğit | first=Fatma | title=Memlûk Sarayında Tek Eşlilik ve Çok Eşlilik Üzerine Bir İnceleme | journal=Journal of International Social Research | publisher=The Journal of International Social Research | volume=9 | issue=43 | date=20 April 2016 | url = https://www.sosyalarastirmalar.com/articles/a-study-on-monogamy-and-polygamy-in-mamluk-palace.pdf | issn=1307-9581 | doi=10.17719/jisr.20164317631 | page=557}}</ref> Another wife was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Giray at-Tatari.<ref name="yigit"/> Another wife was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Tammaji.<ref name="yigit"/> Another wife was Iltutmish Khatun.<ref name="karam">{{cite web | last=Karam | first=Amina | title=Women, Architecture and Representation in Mamluk Cairo | website=AUC DAR Home | date=22 May 2019 | url=http://dar.aucegypt.edu/handle/10526/5732 | access-date=22 December 2021 | pages=20, 21 | archive-date=18 December 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218152406/http://dar.aucegypt.edu/handle/10526/5732 | url-status=dead }}</ref> She was the daughter of Barka Khan a former Khwarazmian amir. She was the mother of his son [[Al-Said Barakah]].<ref name="Winter Levanoni">{{cite book | last1=Winter | first1=M. | last2=Levanoni | first2=A. | title=The Mamluks in Egyptian and Syrian Politics and Society | publisher=Brill | series=The medieval Mediterranean peoples, economies and cultures, 400–1500 | year=2004 | isbn=978-90-04-13286-3 | page=391}}</ref> She died in 1284–85.<ref name="karam"/> Another wife was the daughter Karmun Agha, a Mongol Amir.<ref name="Clifford Conermann">{{cite book | last1=Clifford | first1=W.W. | last2=Conermann | first2=S. | title=State formation and the structure of politics in Mamluk Syro-Egypt, 648–741 A.H./1250–1340 C.E. | publisher=V&R Unipress | series=Mamluk Studies | year=2013 | isbn=978-3-8470-0091-4 | page=105}}</ref> He had three sons [[al-Said Barakah]], [[Solamish]] and Khizir.<ref name="yigit"/> He had seven daughters;<ref name="yigit"/> one of them was named Tidhkarbay Khatun.<ref name="Papas">{{cite book | last=Papas | first=A. | title=Sufi Institutions | publisher=Brill | series=Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1 The Near and Middle East | year=2020 | isbn=978-90-04-39260-1 | page=33}}</ref>
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[[File:تمثال للسلطان الظاهر بيبرس.JPG|thumb|Bronze bust of Sultan Baibars in Cairo, at the [[Egyptian National Military Museum]]]]
As the first Sultan of the [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri]] Mamluk [[dynasty]], Baybars made the meritocratic ascent up the ranks of Mamluk society, where he commanded Mamluk forces in the decisive [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260, repelling Mongol forces from Syria.<ref>''100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present''. Paul K. Davis,
{{
Baybars also played an important role in bringing the Mongols to [[Islam]].<ref name="The Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith" />
===Military legacy===
Baybars was a popular ruler in the Muslim world who had defeated the crusaders in three campaigns, and the [[Mongols]] in the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] which many scholars deem of great [[macro-historical]] importance.
===Culture and science===
{{Further|Islam and cats}}
He was also an efficient administrator who took interest in building various infrastructure projects, such as a mounted message relay system capable of delivery from [[Cairo]] to [[Damascus]] in four days.
His memoirs were recorded in ''[[Sirat al-Zahir Baibars]]'' ("Life of al-Zahir Baibars"), a popular [[Arabic Romance Literature|Arabic romance]] recording his battles and achievements. He has a heroic status in [[Kazakhstan]], as well as in [[Egypt]], [[State of Palestine|Palestine]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]].
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*[[Mosque of al-Zahir Baybars]]
*[[Sirat al-Zahir Baibars]]
*[[Sayyidah Zainab District]]
==Notes==
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* {{citation |last=Humphreys |first=R. Stephen |title=From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JfXl5kvabhoC |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=1977 |place=Albany, New York |isbn=0-87395-263-4 }}
* {{citation |last1=Folda |first1=Jaroslav |author-link1=Jaroslav Folda |last2=French |first2=Pamela |last3=Coupel |first3=Pierre |title=Crusader Frescoes at Crac des Chevaliers and Marqab Castle |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University |volume=36 |year=1982 |pages=177–210 |jstor=1291467|doi=10.2307/1291467 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Seignobos |first=Robin |title=La frontière entre le bilād al-islām et le bilād al-Nūba : enjeux et ambiguïtés d'une frontière immobile (
*{{cite book |last=Seignobos |first=Robin |language=fr |chapter=La liste des conquêtes nubiennes de Baybars selon Ibn Šadd ād (
* {{cite book |title=Writing History at the Ottoman Court: Editing the Past, Fashioning the Future |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2013 |chapter=The Historical Epic "Ahval-i Sultan Mehemmed" (The Tales of Sultan Mehmed) in the Context of Early Ottoman Historiography |first=Dimitris |last=Kastritsis }}
*{{cite book |last=Werner |first=Roland |year=2013 |title=Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche |publisher=Lit}}
*{{cite book |last=Welsby |first=Derek |year=2002 |title=The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims along the Middle Nile.
==External links==
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[[Category:Muslims of the Seventh Crusade]]
[[Category:Muslims of Lord Edward's crusade]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Palestine]]
[[Category:1223 births]]
[[Category:1277 deaths]]
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