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Global demand for biofuels is predicted to increase by 56% over 2022-2027.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2023-01-23 |title=Biofuel is approaching a feedstock crunch. How bad? And what must be done? |url=https://energypost.eu/biofuel-is-approaching-a-feedstock-crunch-how-bad-and-what-must-be-done/ |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=Energy Post |language=en-GB}}</ref> By 2027 worldwide biofuel production is expected to supply 5.4% of the world's fuels for transport including 1% of aviation fuel.<ref name="IEA-2022" /> Demand for [[aviation biofuel]] is forecast to increase.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2023-01-23 |title=Biofuel is approaching a feedstock crunch. How bad? And what must be done? |url=https://energypost.eu/biofuel-is-approaching-a-feedstock-crunch-how-bad-and-what-must-be-done/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Energy Post |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=How to scale Sustainable Aviation Fuel in the next decade |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/01/scale-sustainable-aviation-fuel-in-the-next-decade-davos23/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref>
The two most common types of biofuel are [[Ethanol#Fuel|bioethanol]] and [[biodiesel]]. Brazil is the largest producer of bioethanol, while the EU is the largest producer of biodiesel. The energy content in the global production of bioethanol and biodiesel is 2.2 and 1.8 EJ per year, respectively.<ref name="IEA 2022">{{cite web | title=Renewables Report 2022 | website=IEA | date=6 December 2022 | url = https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2022}}</ref>
Bioethanol is an [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]] made by [[Ethanol fermentation|fermentation]], mostly from [[carbohydrate]]s produced in [[sugar]] or [[starch]] crops such as [[maize]], [[sugarcane]], or [[sweet sorghum]]. [[Cellulose|Cellulosic biomass]], derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a [[feedstock]] for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form (E100), but it is usually used as a [[gasoline]] [[Fuel additive|additive]] to increase octane ratings and improve vehicle emissions.
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{{Main|Ethanol fuel}}
Biologically produced [[alcohols]], most commonly ethanol, and less commonly [[Propan-1-ol|propanol]] and [[butanol fuel|butanol]], are produced by the action of [[microorganism]]s and [[enzyme]]s through the fermentation of sugars or starches (easiest to produce) or cellulose (more difficult to produce).The IEA estimates that ethanol production used 20% of sugar supplies and 13% of corn supplies in 2021.<ref name="Renewables 2022 Biofuels">{{Cite web |title=Is the biofuel industry approaching a feedstock crunch? – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/is-the-biofuel-industry-approaching-a-feedstock-crunch |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=IEA |date=6 December 2022 |language=en-GB}}</ref>
Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly [[Ethanol fuel in Brazil|in Brazil]]. [[Alcohol fuel]]s are produced by fermentation of sugars derived from [[wheat]], [[Maize|corn]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[sugar cane]], [[molasses]] and any sugar or starch from which [[alcoholic beverage]]s such as [[whiskey]], can be made (such as [[potato]] and [[fruit]] waste, etc.). Production methods used are [[digestive enzyme|enzyme digestion]] (to release sugars from stored starches), fermentation of the sugars, [[distillation]] and drying. The distillation process requires significant energy input to generate heat. Heat is sometimes generated with unsustainable [[natural gas]] fossil fuel, but cellulosic biomass such as [[bagasse]] is the most common fuel in Brazil, while pellets, wood chips and also [[waste heat]] are more common in Europe. Corn-to-ethanol and other food stocks has led to the development of [[cellulosic ethanol]].<ref>{{cite report |title=Breaking the biological barriers to cellulosic ethanol: a joint research agenda. |date=7 June 2006 |publisher=EERE Publication and Product Library |doi=10.2172/1218382 |location=Washington, DC (United States) |vauthors=Houghton J, Weatherwax S, Ferrell J}}</ref>
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{{Main|Biodiesel production}}
[[Hydrotreated vegetable oil|Green diesel]] can be produced combination of biochemical and thermochemical processes. Conventional green diesel is produced through hydroprocessing biological oil feedstocks, such as vegetable oils and animal fats.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fast Pyrolysis and Bio-Oil Upgrading |url=http://www.ascension-publishing.com/BIZ/HD50.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105183213/http://www.ascension-publishing.com/BIZ/HD50.pdf |archive-date=5 January 2012 |access-date=15 March 2012 |vauthors=Brown R, Holmgren J}}</ref><ref name="seven">{{cite web |title=Alternative & Advanced Fuels |url=http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/emerging_green.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027183202/http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/emerging_green.html |archive-date=27 October 2012 |access-date=7 March 2012 |publisher=US Department of Energy}}</ref> Recently, it is produced using series of thermochemical processes such as pyrolysis and hydroprocessing. In the thermochemical route, syngas produced from gasification, bio-oil produced from pyrolysis or biocrude produced from hydrothermal liquefaction is upgraded to green diesel using hydroprocessing.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Technology {{!}} Comsyn |url=https://www.comsynproject.eu/technology/ |access-date=2024-04-19 |website=www.comsynproject.eu}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |
====Straight vegetable oil====
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{{Main|Algaculture|Algae fuel}}
Algae can be produced in ponds or tanks on land, and out at sea.<ref name="Thomas-2020">{{cite web |title=Biofuel from Algae: The Pros and Cons of Pond Scum |url=https://www.thomasnet.com/insights/biofuel-from-algae-the-pros-and-cons-of-pond-scum/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406004138/https://www.thomasnet.com/insights/biofuel-from-algae-the-pros-and-cons-of-pond-scum/ |archive-date=6 April 2020 |access-date=2020-10-25 |website=Thomasnet®}}</ref><ref name="Renewable Energy Magazine, at the heart of clean energy journalism 2020">{{cite web |date=2020-09-14 |title=Biomass - Offshore wind farms = seaweed = biofuel |url=https://www.renewableenergymagazine.com/biomass/offshore-wind-farms--seaweed--biofuel |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727005336/https://www.renewableenergymagazine.com/biomass/offshore-wind-farms--seaweed--biofuel |archive-date=27 July 2020 |access-date=2020-10-16 |website=Renewable Energy Magazine, at the heart of clean energy journalism}}</ref> Algal fuels have high yields,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Greenwell HC, Laurens LM, Shields RJ, Lovitt RW, Flynn KJ |date=May 2010 |title=Placing microalgae on the biofuels priority list: a review of the technological challenges |journal=Journal of the Royal Society, Interface |volume=7 |issue=46 |pages=703–726 |doi=10.1098/rsif.2009.0322 |pmc=2874236 |pmid=20031983}}</ref> a high [[Flash point|ignition point]],<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Dinh LT, Guo Y, Mannan MS |year=2009 |title=Sustainability evaluation of biodiesel production using multicriteria decision-making |journal=Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=38–46 |bibcode=2009EPSE...28...38D |doi=10.1002/ep.10335 |s2cid=111115884}}</ref> can be grown with minimal impact on [[fresh water]] resources,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ajayebi |first1=Atta |last2=Gnansounou |first2=Edgard |last3=Kenthorai Raman |first3=Jegannathan |date=2013-12-01 |title=Comparative life cycle assessment of biodiesel from algae and jatropha: A case study of India |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960852413015502 |journal=Bioresource Technology |language=en |volume=150 |pages=429–437 |doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2013.09.118 |pmid=24140355 |bibcode=2013BiTec.150..429A |issn=0960-8524}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Yang J, Xu M, Zhang X, Hu Q, Sommerfeld M, Chen Y |date=January 2011 |title=Life-cycle analysis on biodiesel production from microalgae: water footprint and nutrients balance |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~mingxu/files/papers/Algae.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Bioresource Technology |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=159–165 |doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2010.07.017 |pmid=20675125 |bibcode=2011BiTec.102..159Y |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227182622/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~mingxu/files/papers/Algae.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2012}}</ref><ref name="gas2.0">{{cite web |date=29 March 2008 |title=First Algae Biodiesel Plant Goes Online: 1 April 2008 |url=http://gas2.org/2008/03/29/first-algae-biodiesel-plant-goes-online-april-1-2008/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618110905/https://gas2.org/2008/03/29/first-algae-biodiesel-plant-goes-online-april-1-2008/ |archive-date=18 June 2019 |access-date=10 June 2008 |publisher=Gas 2.0 |vauthors=Cornell CB}}</ref> can be produced using saline water and [[wastewater]], and are [[biodegradable]] and relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Demirbas AH |year=2011 |title=Biodiesel from oilgae, biofixation of carbon dioxide by microalgae: A solution to pollution problems |journal=Applied Energy |volume=88 |issue=10 |pages=3541–3547 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.12.050 |bibcode=2011ApEn...88.3541D |hdl=11503/1330}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Demirbas AH |year=2009 |title=Inexpensive oil and fats feedstocks for production of biodiesel |journal=Energy Education Science and Technology Part A: Energy Science and Research |volume=23 |pages=1–13}}</ref> However, production requires large amounts of energy and fertilizer, the produced fuel degrades faster than other biofuels, and it does not flow well in cold temperatures.<ref name="Thomas-2020" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rodionova |first1=M.V. |last2=Poudyal |first2=R.S. |last3=Tiwari |first3=I. |last4=Voloshin |first4=R.A. |last5=Zharmukhamedov |first5=S.K. |last6=Nam |first6=H.G. |last7=Zayadan |first7=B.K. |last8=Bruce |first8=B.D. |last9=Hou |first9=H.J.M. |last10=Allakhverdiev |first10=S.I. |date=March 2017 |title=Biofuel production: Challenges and opportunities |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360319916334139 |journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy |language=en |volume=42 |issue=12 |pages=8450–8461 |doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.11.125|bibcode=2017IJHE...42.8450R }}</ref>
By 2017, due to economic considerations, most efforts to produce fuel from algae have been abandoned or changed to other applications.<ref name="Eric Wesoff">{{cite web |date=19 April 2017 |title=Hard Lessons From the Great Algae Biofuel Bubble |url=https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/lessons-from-the-great-algae-biofuel-bubble |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705164003/https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/lessons-from-the-great-algae-biofuel-bubble |archive-date=5 July 2017 |access-date=5 August 2017 |vauthors=Wesoff E}}</ref>
Third and fourth-generation biofuels also include biofuels that are produced by bioengineered organisms i.e. algae and cyanobacteria.<ref name="Aro-2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Aro EM |date=January 2016 |title=From first generation biofuels to advanced solar biofuels |journal=Ambio |volume=45 |issue=Supplement 1 |pages=S24–S31 |doi=10.1007/s13280-015-0730-0 |pmc=4678123 |pmid=26667057|bibcode=2016Ambio..45S..24A }}</ref> Algae and cyanobacteria will use water, carbon dioxide, and solar energy to produce biofuels.<ref name="Aro-2016" /> This method of biofuel production is still at the research level. The biofuels that are secreted by the bioengineered organisms are expected to have higher photon-to-fuel conversion efficiency, compared to older generations of biofuels.<ref name="Aro-2016" /> One of the advantages of this class of biofuels is that the cultivation of the organisms that produce the biofuels does not require the use of arable land.<ref name="Abdullah-2019">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Abdullah B, Muhammad SA, Shokravi Z, Ismail S, Kassim KA, Mahmood AN, Aziz MM |date=June 2019 |title=Fourth generation biofuel: A review on risks and mitigation strategies |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=107 |pages=37–50 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2019.02.018 |bibcode=2019RSERv.107...37A |s2cid=116245776}}</ref> The disadvantages include the cost of cultivating the biofuel-producing organisms being very high.<ref name="Abdullah-2019" />
=== Electrofuels and solar fuels ===
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== Bio-digesters ==
A bio-digester is a mechanized toilet that uses decomposition and sedimentation to turn human waste into a renewable fuel called biogas. Biogas can be made from substances like agricultural waste and sewage.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Fuqing |last2=Li |first2=Yangyang |last3=Ge |first3=Xumeng |last4=Yang |first4=Liangcheng |last5=Li |first5=Yebo |date=2018-01-01 |title=Anaerobic digestion of food waste – Challenges and opportunities
== Extent of production and use ==
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In 2021 worldwide biofuel production provided 4.3% of the world's fuels for transport, including a very small amount of [[aviation biofuel]].<ref name="IEA-2022">{{Cite web |title=Transport biofuels – Renewables 2022 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2022/transport-biofuels |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> By 2027 worldwide biofuel production is expected to supply 5.4% of the world's fuels for transport including 1% of aviation fuel.<ref name="IEA-2022" />
The US, Europe, Brazil and Indonesia are driving the majority of biofuel consumption growth. This demand for biodiesel, renewable diesel and biojet fuel is projected to increase by 44% (21 billion litres) over 2022-2027.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is the biofuel industry approaching a feedstock crunch? – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/is-the-biofuel-industry-approaching-a-feedstock-crunch |access-date=2024-03-13 |website=IEA |date=6 December 2022 |language=en-GB}}</ref>
== Issues ==
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[[Life-cycle assessment]]s of first generation biofuels have shown large emissions associated with the potential [[land-use change]] required to produce additional biofuel feedstocks.<ref name="Jeswani-2020" /><ref name="Lark Hendricks Smith Pates 2022 p.">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lark TJ, Hendricks NP, Smith A, Pates N, Spawn-Lee SA, Bougie M, Booth EG, Kucharik CJ, Gibbs HK |date=March 2022 |title=Environmental outcomes of the US Renewable Fuel Standard |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=119 |issue=9 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11901084L |doi=10.1073/pnas.2101084119 |doi-access=free |pmc=8892349 |pmid=35165202}}</ref> If no land-use change is involved, first-generation biofuels can—on average—have lower emissions than fossil fuels.<ref name="Jeswani-2020" /> However, biofuel production can compete with foodcrop production. Up to 40% of corn produced in the United States is used to make ethanol<ref>{{cite news |date=12 June 2022 |title=Food vs fuel: Ukraine war sharpens debate on use of crops for energy |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/b424067e-f56b-4e49-ac34-5b3de07e7f08 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/b424067e-f56b-4e49-ac34-5b3de07e7f08 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live}}</ref> and worldwide 10% of all grain is turned into biofuel.<ref>{{cite news |date=6 June 2022 |title=Guest view: Global hunger fight means no biofuel |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/breakingviews/guest-view-global-hunger-fight-means-no-biofuel-2022-06-06/}}</ref> A 50% reduction in grain used for biofuels in the US and Europe would replace all of [[Ukraine]]'s grain exports.<ref>{{cite news |date=14 March 2022 |title=Cutting biofuels can help avoid global food shock from Ukraine war |work=New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2312151-cutting-biofuels-can-help-avoid-global-food-shock-from-ukraine-war/}}</ref> Several studies have shown that reductions in emissions from biofuels are achieved at the expense of other impacts, such as [[Ocean acidification|acidification]], [[eutrophication]], [[water footprint]] and [[biodiversity loss]].<ref name="Jeswani-2020" />
The use of second generation biofuels is thought to increase environmental sustainability, since the non-food part of plants is being used to produce second-generation biofuels, instead of being disposed.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Antizar-Ladislao B, Turrion-Gomez JL |date=September 2008 |title=Second-generation biofuels and local bioenergy systems |journal=Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining |language=en |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=455–469 |doi=10.1002/bbb.97 |s2cid=84426763|doi-access=free }}</ref> But the use of second-generation biofuels increases the competition for lignocellulosic biomass, increasing the cost of these biofuels.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Bryngemark E |date=December 2019 |title=Second generation biofuels and the competition for forest raw materials: A partial equilibrium analysis of Sweden |journal=Forest Policy and Economics |volume=109 |pages=102022 |doi=10.1016/j.forpol.2019.102022 |bibcode=2019ForPE.10902022B |issn=1389-9341 |s2cid=212954432}}</ref>
Third generation biofuels, produced from Algae, in theory shouldn't have as negative an impact on the environment than first or second generation biofuels, due to lower changes in land use and not requiring pesticide use for production.<ref>{{Cite book |title=3rd generation biofuels: disruptive technologies to enable commercial production |date=2022 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing, an imprint of Elsevier |isbn=978-0-323-90971-6 |editor-last=Jacob-Lopes |editor-first=Eduardo |series=Woodhead Publishing series in energy |location=Cambridge, MA Kidlington |editor-last2=Zepka |editor-first2=Leila Queiroz |editor-last3=Severo |editor-first3=Ihana Aguiar |editor-last4=Maroneze |editor-first4=Mariana Manzoni}}</ref> When looking at the data however, it has been shown that the environmental cost to produce the infrastructure and energy required for third generation biofuel production, is higher than the benefits provided from the biofuels use.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magazine |first=Hakai |title=Biofuel Made from Algae Isn't the Holy Grail We Expected |url=https://hakaimagazine.com/news/biofuel-made-from-algae-isnt-the-holy-grail-we-expected/ |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=Hakai Magazine |language=en}}</ref>
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The [[European Commission]] has officially approved a measure to phase out [[palm oil]]-based biofuels by 2030.<ref>{{cite news |title=Palm Oil Exporter Indonesia Concerned by EU's Deforestation Law |url=https://jakartaglobe.id/business/palm-oil-exporter-indonesia-concerned-by-eus-deforestation-law |work=Jakarta Globe |date=22 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=EU palm oil use and imports seen plummeting by 2032 |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/eu-palm-oil-use-imports-seen-plummeting-by-2032-2022-12-08/ |work=Reuters |date=8 December 2022}}</ref> Unsustainable palm oil agriculture has caused significant environmental and social problems, including deforestation and pollution.
The production of biofuels can be very energy intensive, which if generated from non-renewable sources can heavily mitigate the benefits gained through biofuel use. A solution proposed to solve this issue is to supply biofuel production facilities with excess nuclear energy, which can supplement the energy provided by fossil fuels.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Charles |date=January 2009 |title=The Real Path to Green Energy: Hybrid Nuclear-Renewable Power |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.2968/065006007 |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |language=en |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=65–71 |doi=10.2968/065006007 |bibcode=2009BuAtS..65f..65F |issn=0096-3402}}</ref> This can provide a carbon inexpensive solution, to help reduce the environmental impacts of biofuel production.
===Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels===
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