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{{See also|Doctor of Sciences}}
[[File:DiplomKandidata.jpg|right|thumb|Cover of a Soviet Candidate of Sciences diploma]]
A '''Candidate of Sciences''' ({{lang-ru|кандидат наук|translit=kandidat nauk}}) is the first of two doctoral level [[scientific degree]]s in [[Russia]] and the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]. It is formally classified as [[UNESCO]]'s [[International Standard Classification of Education|ISCED]] level 8, "doctoral or equivalent." It may be recognized as a [[Doctor of Philosophy#USSR, Russian Federation and former Soviet Republics|Doctor of Philosophy]], usually in natural sciences, by scientific institutions in other countries.<ref name="ISCED_2011">{{cite book |last1=UNESCO |title=Revision of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002116/211619e.pdf |access-date=2017-11-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211044137/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002116/211619e.pdf |archive-date=2017-02-11 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ISCED_1997">{{cite book |last1=Kouptsov |first1=Oleg |title=Mutual Recognition of Qualification: The Russian Federation and The Other European Countries |publisher=UNESCO |pages=97 |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001298/129839eo.pdf |access-date=2018-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801094319/http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001298/129839eo.pdf |archive-date=2016-08-01 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Former Soviet countries]] also have a more advanced degree, [[Doctor of Sciences]].▼
A '''Candidate of Sciences'''{{efn|{{langx|ru|кандидат наук|translit=kandidat nauk}}, {{langx|uk|кандидат наук|translit=kandydat nauk}}, {{langx|be|кандыдат навук|translit=kandydat navuk}}, {{langx|cs|kandidát věd}}, {{langx|sk|kandidát vied}}}} is a [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]]-equivalent academic research degree in many post-Soviet and Eastern European countries, including Russia, Czechia, Slovakia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. It is officially classified by [[UNESCO]] as [[International Standard Classification of Education|ISCED]] level 8, "doctoral or equivalent". In those countries conferring the Candidate of Sciences degrees, a more advanced degree, [[Doctor of Sciences]], is usually conferred as a [[higher doctorate]].<ref name="ISCED_2011" /><ref name="ISCED_1997" />
▲
==Overview==
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==Procedure for attaining the degree==
The work on a [[dissertation]] is commonly carried out during a [[postgraduate]] study period called ''aspirantura''. Not all those who accomplish aspirantura will be invited to write a dissertation. An analogous situation may be found in American institutions where, after comprehensive examinations, a faculty may decide to award another Masters degree instead of continuing with the dissertation. It is performed either within an educational institution (such as a [[university]]) or a scientific research institution (such as an institute of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] network). It can also be carried out without a direct connection to the academy. In exceptional cases, the Candidate of Sciences degree may be awarded on the basis of published scholarly works without writing a thesis. In experimental sciences the dissertation is based on an independent research project conducted under the supervision of a professor, the results of which must be published in at least three papers in [[peer-review]] scientific journals.
A necessary prerequisite is taking courses in philosophy and foreign language, and passing a qualifying examination called "candidate minimum". In the Soviet Union, the candidate minimum included exams in the specialty field of the "dissertant", in a foreign language of his/her choice and in [[scientific communism]]. In [[History of post-Soviet Russia|post-Soviet Russia]] and other post-Soviet states, the latter examination was replaced by the one in [[philosophy]], and in Russia recently in the [[history and philosophy of science]]; in Ukraine it
The dissertation is presented ("defended") before a committee called the Dissertation Council which is accredited at the educational or scientific institution. The Council consists of about 20 members, who are the leading specialists (including the academicians) in the field of the dissertation and who have been selected and empowered to serve for the council. The summary of the dissertation must be published before public defense in the form of "autoreferat" in about 150–200 copies, and distributed to major research organizations and libraries. The seeker of the degree must have an official "research supervisor". The dissertation must be delivered together with official references of several reviewers, called "opponents". In a procedure called the "defense of the dissertation" the dissertation is summarized before the commission, followed by speeches by the opponents or the reading of their references, and replies to the comments of the opponents and question of the Commission members by the ''aspirant''.
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===Former Czechoslovakia===
In [[Czechoslovakia]], the Candidate and Doctor of Sciences ({{
The abbreviation of the degree is '''CSc.''' ({{
There also have been other academic degrees in Czechoslovakia and its successional states, that incorporate the "Dr." abbreviation, e.g.
* [[cz:JUDr.|JUDr.]] <small>({{
* [[cz:PhDr.|PhDr.]] <small>({{
* [[cz:RNDr.|RNDr.]] <small>({{
and others. These doctor degrees are not to be confused with a Ph.D., although its holders are addressed "doctor". Applicants need a master's degree (5 years +) or a comparable degree with excellent grades. This degree is stated before names and awarded after writing a ''rigorous thesis'' of 50.000 to 80.000 words and defending it at a [[Oral exam|viva voce]] and ''(rigorous)'' exam in at least 2-3 related fields of doctoral studies.
* [[cz:MUDr.|MUDr.]] <small>({{
* [[cz:MVDr.|MVDr.]] <small>({{
* [[cz:RSDr.|RSDr.]] <small>({{
===
Granting CSc. was abolished in 1998 and replaced with Ph.D. or Th.D. ({{
===
Candidate was abolished in 1996 and replaced with PhD. ({{
▲Candidate was abolished in 1996 and replaced with PhD. ({{lang-sk|doktor}}, in 1996-2002 officially in Latin: ''philosophiae doctor''). Requirements are similar to the Czech system.
===Poland===
Since the medieval period, Polish tradition was to call Ph.D. equivalent as "doktor". Only for a short period of time between 1951 and 1958 the communist government tried to replace the title of "doktor" with "kandydat nauk" to follow the Soviet model.
===Former Soviet Union, Russia
[[File:Kandidat nauk sample.jpg|right|thumb|Sample contents of modern Candidate of Sciences diploma (here, Candidate of Engineering Sciences), 1999]]
In the USSR, there was required at least three original scientific papers published and/or submitted. At least one paper should be in one of the journals listed by the Higher Assessment Commission (VAK) of the Russian Ministry of Science.<ref name=vak>{{cite web |url=http://vak.ed.gov.ru/ |script-title=ru:Высшая аттестационная комиссия Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации |language=ru |access-date=2009-06-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201155403/http://vak.ed.gov.ru/ |archive-date=2018-12-01 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In Belarus
In 1971, there were 249,200 scientists holding the Candidate degree.<ref name="GSE">{{cite encyclopedia |first=M. N. |last=Volkov |title=Кандидат наук |encyclopedia=[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]] |edition=3rd |location=Moscow |publisher=Sovetskaya Enciklopediya |url=http://bse.sci-lib.com/article058504.html |language=ru |no-pp=true |page=Vol. 11 |access-date=19 June 2020 |archive-date=16 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516183024/http://bse.sci-lib.com/article058504.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
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According to [http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900/ "Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other countries"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220114131/http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900/ |date=2019-12-20 }}, in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of ''Candidate of Sciences'' should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree. In countries with only one doctoral degree, the degree of Candidate of Sciences should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this degree.
In 2014, with the adoption of the new Law of Ukraine "On Higher Education",<ref>{{Cite web|title=Про вищу освіту|url=https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/go/1556-18|access-date=2021-09-18|website=Офіційний вебпортал парламенту України|language=uk|archive-date=2023-02-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206222241/https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1556-18|url-status=live}}</ref> the degree of Candidate of Sciences was
In 2015, graduate students were enrolled in the Candidate of Sciences programs for the last time. The form "Candidate of Science" (singular) is used on the English-language page of bilingual diplomas of Candidate of Sciences issued since 2014 (until 2014, the Candidate of Sciences diplomas in Ukraine contained the Ukrainian text only).
====Branches of science====▼
Depending on the specialty of research in the dissertation, a candidate is awarded one of the following degrees:<ref name="DB-Informika">▼
As of 2024, those who were enrolled in the Candidate of Sciences programs until 2015 still may defend their theses and obtain the Candidate of Sciences degree.
▲Depending on the specialty of research in the dissertation, a candidate degree in Russia is awarded one of the following degrees:<ref name="DB-Informika">
{{Cite web |url=http://db.informika.ru/cgi-bin/vak/q1.plx |title=Номенклатура специальностей научных работников |access-date=2009-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305023836/http://db.informika.ru/cgi-bin/vak/q1.plx |archive-date=2009-03-05 |url-status=dead }} {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305023836/http://db.informika.ru/cgi-bin/vak/q1.plx |date=2009-03-05 }}
</ref>
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* engineering sciences (abbr.: к. т. н.);
* geographic sciences (abbr.: к. геогр. н.);
* geologo-mineralogical sciences (abbr.: к. г.-м. н.) [in the USSR, Russia, and Belarus] or geological sciences (abbr.: к. геол. н.) [in Ukraine];
* historical sciences (abbr.: к. ист. н.);
* juridical sciences (abbr.: к. ю. н.);
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* psychological sciences (abbr.: к. пс. н.);
* sociological sciences (abbr.: к. соц. н.);
*
* theology (abbr.: к. богосл.) [only in Russia];
* veterinary sciences (abbr.: к. ветеринар. н.).
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Some specialties permit the award of the candidate degree for several variants of branches of science, depending on the dominant subject area of the dissertation; e. g., specialty 02.00.04 ([[physical chemistry]])<ref name="DB-Informika" /> can be awarded the degree of candidate of physico-mathematical, technical, or chemical sciences. However, for each dissertation only one branch of science can be chosen.
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==See also==
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