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In [[Radiation therapy#Effects on reproduction|very high doses]], it was known at the time that radiation could cause a physiological increase in the rate of pregnancy anomalies, but unlike the dominant [[linear no-threshold model]] of radiation and cancer rate increases, it was known, by researchers familiar with both the prior human exposure data and animal testing, that the "Malformation of organs appears to be a [[deterministic effect]] with a [[Dose–response relationship|threshold dose]]" below which, no rate increase is observed.<ref name="ecolo.org">{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/(sici)1096-9926(199908)60:2<100::aid-tera14>3.3.co;2-8 |pmid=10440782 |title=Teratogen update: Radiation and chernobyl |journal=Teratology |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=100–106 |year=1999 |last1=Castronovo |first1=Frank P.}}</ref> This [[teratology]] (birth defects) issue was discussed by Frank Castronovo of the [[Harvard Medical School]] in 1999, publishing a detailed review of [[dose reconstruction]]s and the available pregnancy data following the Chernobyl accident, inclusive of data from [[Kiev]]'s two largest [[obstetrics]] hospitals.<ref name="ecolo.org"/> Castronovo concludes that "the [[mass media|lay press]] with newspaper reporters playing up [[anecdotal]] stories of children with birth defects" is, together with dubious studies that show [[selection bias]], the two primary factors causing the persistent belief that Chernobyl increased the background rate of birth defects. When the vast amount of pregnancy data does not support this perception as no women took part in the most radioactive liquidator operations, no in-utero individuals would have been expected to have received a threshold dose.<ref name="ecolo.org"/>
Studies of low statistical significance on some of the most contaminated and proximal regions of Ukraine and Belarus, tentatively argue with some 50 children who were irradiated by the accident [[Uterus|in utero]] during weeks 8 to 25 of gestation had an increased rate of [[Intellectual disability|mental retardation]], lower verbal IQ, and possibly other negative effects. These findings may be due to confounding factors or annual variations in random chance.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0167-8760(98)00022-1 |pmid=9834886 |title=Psychophysiologic aftereffects of prenatal irradiation |journal=International Journal of Psychophysiology |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=303–311 |year=1998 |last1=Nyagu |first1=Angelina I |last2=Loganovsky |first2=Konstantin N |last3=Loganovskaja |first3=Tatiana K}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1155/2016/1243527 |pmid=27382490 |pmc=4921147 |title=Current Evidence for Developmental, Structural, and Functional Brain Defects following Prenatal Radiation Exposure |journal=Neural Plasticity |volume=2016 |pages=1–17 |year=2016 |last1=Verreet |first1=Tine |last2=Verslegers |first2=Mieke |last3=Quintens |first3=Roel |last4=Baatout |first4=Sarah |last5=Benotmane |first5=Mohammed A|doi-access=free }}</ref>
The [[Chernobyl liquidators]], essentially an all-male [[civil defense]] emergency workforce, would go on to father normal children, without an increase in developmental anomalies or a statistically significant increase in the frequencies of [[germline mutation]]s in their [[offspring|progeny]].<ref name=pmid15725606>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.mrgentox.2004.11.002 |pmid=15725606 |title=Microsatellite mutations show no increases in the children of the Chernobyl liquidators |journal=Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis |volume=581 |issue=1–2 |pages=69–82 |year=2005 |last1=Furitsu |first1=Katsumi |last2=Ryo |first2=Haruko |last3=Yeliseeva |first3=Klaudiya G. |last4=Thuy |first4=Le Thi Thanh |last5=Kawabata |first5=Hiroaki |last6=Krupnova |first6=Evelina V. |last7=Trusova |first7=Valentina D. |last8=Rzheutsky |first8=Valery A. |last9=Nakajima |first9=Hiroo |last10=Kartel |first10=Nikolai |last11=Nomura |first11=Taisei}}</ref> This normality is similarly seen in the children of the survivors of the [[Goiânia accident]].<ref name=pmid21712431>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/mutage/ger028 |pmid=21712431 |title=The effect of low-dose exposure on germline microsatellite mutation rates in humans accidentally exposed to caesium-137 in Goiania |journal=Mutagenesis |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=651–655 |year=2011 |last1=Costa |first1=E. O. A. |last2=Silva |first2=D. d. M. e. |last3=Melo |first3=A. V. d. |last4=Godoy |first4=F. R. |last5=Nunes |first5=H. F. |last6=Pedrosa |first6=E. R. |last7=Flores |first7=B. C. |last8=Rodovalho |first8=R. G. |last9=Da Silva |first9=C. C. |last10=Da Cruz |first10=A. D.|doi-access=free }}</ref>
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