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[[Rifle]] and [[machine-gun]] [[bullet]]s were used against early military aircraft during [[World War I]]. [[Artillery]] was used when aircraft flew above the range of rifle and machine-gun cartridges. Since the probability of actually striking the aircraft was small, artillery shells were designed to explode at the approximate altitude of the aircraft to throw a shower of [[fragmentation (weaponry)|fragments]] in the vicinity of the explosion. Similar anti-aircraft weaponry with larger calibers, higher rates of fire, and improved [[fuze]]s continued to be used through [[World War II]]. These bullets and small fragments often made small holes in the airframe. Unless a bullet or fragment struck the pilot, or some critical part of the airframe, (such as a fuel line, part of the engine coolant system, a critical wire or hydraulic line actuating control surfaces), the aircraft remained operational.
Some anti-aircraft artillery projectiles were designed to fragment into long, thin pieces in an attempt to inflict damage on the airframe. Holes made by such fragments were more likely to cause destructive disruption of airflow around high-speed aircraft, but the hit probability was lowered for the smaller number of fragments from a warhead of equal size. The problem became more significant as anti-aircraft missiles were developed to replace guns after World War II. A smaller number of missiles would require an improved warhead to match the aircraft destruction probability of the larger number of artillery projectiles potentially carried by a weapon of the same size and cost. Some [[:Category:Nuclear anti-aircraft weapons|early AA missiles had nuclear warheads]]<nowiki> to increase the probability of aircraft destruction. The concept of a folded continuous rod warhead was suggested in 1952. The Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University invented the Continuous Expanding Rod Warhead as part of its Navy-contracted development of the U. S. Navy's anti-air missile defense program. The details of the warhead were Top Secret until its use was no longer needed.(4) {{cite web|url=</nowiki>https://www.jhuapl.edu/Content/techdigest/pdf/V03-N02/03-02-Brown.pdf&sa=U&ved=2ahUKEwii07iPmPfnAhXZknIEHbdGD7EQFjACegQICBAB&usg=AOvVaw3JuTTDoNU7aRlMyEsLWwbx<nowiki> }}</nowiki>
ref name="talos">{{cite web|url=http://www.okieboat.com/Warhead%20history.html|title=Talos Missile Warhead History|accessdate=2011-01-27}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki>
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