Council of Florence: Difference between revisions

| caption = Council of Florence in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' (1493)

| presided_by = Cardinal [[Julian Cesarini]]]

| topics = [[Hussites]], [[East-WestEast–West Schism]], [[Western Schism]]

After becoming the '''Council of Florence''' (having moved to avoid [[bubonic plague|the plague]] in Ferrara), the Council concluded in 1445 after negotiating [[Eastern Catholic Churches|unions]] with the various [[Eastern Christianity|eastern churches]]. This bridging of the [[East–West Schism|Great Schism]] proved fleeting, but was a political coup for the papacy. In 1447, Sigismund's successor [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]] commanded the city of [[Basel]] to expel the Council of Basel; the [[rump organization|rump]] Council reconvened in [[Lausanne]] before dissolving itself in 1449.

TheOn 6 July 1439 the union was proclaimed (in both Latin and Greek) in the document ''[[Bull of Union with the Greeks|Laetentur Caeli]]'' ("Let the Heavens Rejoice") onwhich 6was July 1439, composedsigned by Pope Eugene and signed by the [[Byzantine Emperor]] Sigismund[[John andVIII allPalaiologos]]. All but one of the bishops were present. Some Greek bishops, perhaps feeling political pressure from the Byzantine Emperor, reluctantly accepted the decrees of the Council. Other Eastern bishops did so by sincere conviction, such as [[Isidore of Kiev]], who subsequently suffered greatly for it. Only one Eastern Bishop refused to accept the union, [[Mark of Ephesus]], who became the leader of opposition back in Byzantium; the Serbian patriarch did not even attend the council. The [[Russian Orthodox Church]], upon learning of the union, angrily rejected it and ousted any prelate who was even remotely sympathetic to it, declaring itself [[Autocephaly|autocephalous]] (i.e., autonomous).

|title= John Argyropoulos.|publisher= www.britannica.comEncyclopedia Britannica

In early April 1438, the Byzantine contingent, over 700 strong, arrived at Ferrara. On 9 April 1438, the first solemn session at Ferrara began, with the Eastern Roman Emperor, the Patriarch of Constantinople and representatives of the [[Patriarchate of Antioch|Patriarchal Sees of Antioch]], [[Patriarchate of Alexandria|Alexandria]] and [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] in attendance and Pope Eugene IV presiding. The early sessions lasted until 17 July 1438 with each [[Theological differences between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church|theological issue of the East–West Schism]] (1054) hotly debated, including the Processions of the Holy Spirit, the ''[[Filioque]]'' clause in the [[Nicene Creed]], [[purgatory]], and [[papal primacy]]. Resuming proceedings on 8 October 1438, the Council focused exclusively on the Filioque matter. Even as it became clear that the Byzantine Church would nevernot consent to the Filioque clause, the Byzantine Emperor continued to press for a reconciliation.

Initially, the seating arrangements were meant to feature the pope in the middle with the Latins on one side and Greeks on the other, but the Greeks protested. It was decided to have the altar with the open Bible in the center of the one end of the chamber, and the two high ranking delegations facing each other on the sides of the altar, while the rest of the delegations were below further in chamber. The Byzantine Emperor's throne was opposite that of the Holy Roman Emperor (who never attended), while the Patriarch of Constantinople faced opposite a cardinal, and the other high-ranking cardinals and bishops faced the Greek metropolitans. The throne of the pope was slightly set aslightly partapart and higher.<ref name=":0" />

==Council transferred to Florence and the near East-WestEast–West union==

The Council soon became even more international. The signature of this agreement for the union of the Latins and the Byzantines encouraged Pope Eugenius to announce the good news to the [[Copt]]ic Christians, and invite them to send a delegation to Florence. He wrote a letter on 7 July 1439, and to deliver it, sent [[Alberto da Sarteano]] as an apostolic delegate. On 26 August 1441, Sarteano returned with four [[People of Ethiopia|Ethiopians]] from Emperor [[Zara Yaqob]] and Copts.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Dg-8ZOeBqcYC&dq=Coucil+Florence+Ethiopians&pg=PA81|title=The European Outthrust and Encounter: The First Phase C.1400-c.1700 : Essays in Tribute to David Beers Quinn on His 85th Birthday|first1=David B.|last1=Quinn|first2=Cecil H.|last2=Clough|first3=P. E. H.|last3=Hair|first4=Paul Edward Hedley|last4=Hair|date=Jan 1, 1994|publisher=[[Liverpool University Press]]|isbn=9780853232292 |accessdate=Dec 27, 2022|via=Google Books}}</ref> According to aA contemporary observer described the Ethiopians saying "They were black men and dry and very awkward in their bearing (...) really, to see them they appeared to be very weak".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YLmhCHtydKMC&dq=Coucil+Florence+Ethiopians&pg=PA128|title=The Journey of the Magi: Meanings in History of a Christian Story|first=Richard C.|last=Trexler|date=Dec 27, 1997|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=0691011265 |accessdate=Dec 27, 2022|via=Google Books}}</ref> At that time, Rome had delegates from a multitude of nations, from [[Medieval Armenia|Armenia]] to [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Russia]], [[Frankokratia|Greece]] and various parts of north and east [[Africa]].<ref>Trexler ''The journey of the Magi'' p. 129</ref>

The struggle for East-WestEast–West union at Ferrara and Florence, while promising, never bore fruit. While progress toward union in the East continued to be made in the following decades, all hopes for a proximate reconciliation were dashed with the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Following their conquest, the Ottomans encouraged hardline anti-unionist Orthodox clerics in order to divide European Christians.<ref name="veconomist">{{cite news|title=Lessons for Theresa May and the EU from 15th-century Florence|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2017/09/europe-s-religious-history|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|date=24 September 2017}}</ref>

;===Primary sources===

;===Secondary literature===

* Geanakoplos, Deno J. Geanakoplos,(1980). '"The Council of Florence (1438–9) and the Problem of Union between the Byzantine and Latin Churches'," in ''Church History'' 24 (1955), 324–346 and; reprinted in D.J. Geanakoplos, ''Constantinople and the West'' (Madison, Wisconsin, 1989), pp.&nbsp;224–254.

* [[J. C. L. Gieseler|Gieseler, J. C. L.]], ''Ecclesiastical History'', vol. iv. pp.&nbsp;312ff (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1853).

* Joseph Gill, Joseph (1959). ''The Council of Florence'' Cambridge, 1959.

* Joseph Gill, Joseph (1964). ''Personalities of the Council, of Florence and other Essays'', Oxford, 1964.

* [[Johannes Haller|Haller, Johannes]] ed., ''Concilium Basiliense'', vol. i–v, Basel, 1896–1904.

* [[Karl Josef von Hefele|Hefele, K.J.]], Conciliengeschichte, vol. vii., Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1874.

* Jonathan Harris, Jonathan (2010). ''The End of Byzantium'', New Haven and London, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-300-11786-8}}

* Jonathan Harris, Jonathan (1995). ''Greek Emigres in the West c. 1400–1520'', Camberley, 1995, pp.&nbsp;72–84.

* Sebastian Kolditz, Sebastian. ''Johannes VIII. Palaiologos und das Konzil von Ferrara-Florenz (1438/39).'' 2 Vol., Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann Verlag 2013–2014, {{ISBN|978-3-7772-1319-4}}.

* Stuart M. McManus, 'Byzantines in the Florentine polis: Ideology, Statecraft and Ritual during the Council of Florence', [[Journal of the Oxford University History Society]], 6 (Michaelmas 2008/Hilary 2009) {{cite web |url=http://jouhsinfo.googlepages.com/issue6(michaelmashilary2009) |title=issue6(michaelmashilary2009) (jouhsinfo) |publisher=Jouhsinfo.googlepages.com |date=2009-03-14 |access-date=2010-01-18 |archive-date=2009-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420140440/http://jouhsinfo.googlepages.com/issue6(michaelmashilary2009) |url-status=dead }}

'''Attribution:'''

* [http://jouhsinfo.googlepages.com/McManus3.pdf Byzantines in the Florentine polis: Ideology, Statecraft and ritual during the Council of Florence] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090424051804/http://jouhsinfo.googlepages.com/McManus3.pdf |date=2009-04-24 }}