Hispanic and Latino Americans: Difference between revisions

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| related = {{hlist|[[Latin Americans]]|[[Spanish Americans]]|[[Portuguese Americans]]|[[White Latin Americans]]|[[White Hispanic and Latino Americans]]|[[Equatoguinean Americans]]|[[Afro-Latin Americans]]|[[Black Hispanic and Latino Americans]]|[[Native Americans in the United States|Indigenous Americans]]|[[Hispanos of New Mexico|Hispanos]]|[[Tejano]]s|[[Chicano]]s|[[Nuyorican]]s|[[Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans]]<ref name="Krogstad 2021">{{cite web |last1=Krogstad |first1=Jens M. |last2=Passel |first2=Jeffrey S. |last3=Lopez |first3=Mark H. |date=23 September 2021 |title=Who is Hispanic? |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/09/23/who-is-hispanic/ |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |access-date=1 October 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929011446/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/09/23/who-is-hispanic/ |archive-date=29 September 2021}}</ref>|}}

{{Template:Hispanic and Latino Americans|state=collapsed}}

'''Hispanic and Latino Americans''' ({{lang-es|Estadounidenses hispanos y latinos}}; {{lang-pt|Estadunidenses hispânicos e latinos}}) are [[Americans]] of full or partial [[Spaniards|Spanish]], [[Hispanic Africa|Hispanic African]] and/or [[Latin Americans|Latin American]] background, culture, or family origin.<ref name="Krogstad 2021" /><ref name="FragaGarcia2010">{{cite book |last1=Fraga |first1=Luis |author-link1=Luis Fraga |last2=Garcia |first2=John A. |name-list-style=amp |title=Latino Lives in America: Making It Home |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XaNluPNVEQcC&pg=PA145 |year=2010 |publisher=Temple University Press |isbn=978-1-4399-0050-5 |page=145}}</ref><ref name="Fisher1996">{{cite book|first=Nancy L. |last=Fisher |title=Cultural and Ethnic Diversity: A Guide for Genetics Professionals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mqXlA7e4VN8C&pg=PA19 |year=1996 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-5346-3|page=19}}</ref><ref name="HoldenVillars2012">{{cite book |last1=Holden |first1=Robert H. |last2=Villars |first2=Rina |name-list-style=amp |title=Contemporary Latin America: 1970 to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2oShLUAPTYQC&pg=PA18 |year=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-27487-3|page=18}}</ref> These demographics include all Americans who identify as [[Hispanic]] or [[Latino (demonym)|Latino]] regardless of race.<ref name="Federal Highway Administration">{{cite web |title=49 CFR Part 26 |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/hep/guidance/superseded/49cfr26.cfm |access-date=2012-10-22 |website=Federal Highway Administration |quote='Hispanic Americans,' which includes persons of [[Mexican Americans|Mexican]], [[Puerto Rican Americans|Puerto Rican]], [[Cuban Americans|Cuban]], [[Dominican Americans|Dominican]], [[Central America|Central]] or [[South America]]n, or other [[Spanish Americans|Spanish]] or [[Portuguese Americans|Portuguese]] culture or origin, regardless of race.}}</ref><ref name="SBA 8005">{{cite web |url=http://www.sbaonline.sba.gov/sops/8005/sop8005-3.pdf |title=US Small Business Administration 8(a) Program Standard Operating Procedure |access-date=2012-10-22 |quote=SBA has defined 'Hispanic American' as an individual whose ancestry and culture are rooted in South America, Central America, Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and Mexico. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925005103/http://www.sbaonline.sba.gov/sops/8005/sop8005-3.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-25}}</ref><ref name="c2010def">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf |title=Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010 |access-date=2011-03-28 |first1=Karen R. |last1=Humes |first2=Nicholas A. |last2=Jones |first3=Roberto R. |last3=Ramirez |website=U.S. Census Bureau |quote="Hispanic or Latino" refers to a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429214029/http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf |archive-date=2011-04-29}}</ref><ref name="hlorigin">{{cite web |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/help/en/hispanic_or_latino_origin.htm |title=American FactFinder Help: Hispanic or Latino origin |website=[[United States Census Bureau]] |access-date=2008-10-05 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200213004743/http://factfinder.census.gov/help/en/hispanic_or_latino_origin.htm |archive-date=2020-02-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="PewNov2019">{{cite web |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/11/11/who-is-hispanic/ |title=Who Is Hispanic? |last1=Lopez |first1=Mark Hugo |last2=Krogstad |first2=Jens M. |last3=Passel |first3=Jeffrey S. |name-list-style=amp |date=November 11, 2019 |website=Pew Research Center}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tello |first=Yvette |date=2024-01-08 |title=Hispanic with a Non-Spanish Last Name |url=https://laprensatexas.com/hispanic-with-a-non-spanish-last-name/ |access-date=2024-06-08 |website=La Prensa Texas |language=en-US}}</ref> As of 2020, the Census Bureau estimated that there were almost 65.3 million Hispanics and Latinos living in the [[United States]] and [[Territories of the United States|its territories]].

"Origin" can be viewed as the ancestry, nationality group, lineage or country of birth of the person or the person's parents or ancestors before their arrival in the United States of America. People who identify as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race, because similarly to what occurred during the colonization and post-independence of the United States, Latin American countries had their populations made up of [[White Latin Americans|descendants of white European colonizers]] (in this case [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and Spaniards), [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native peoples of the Americas]], [[African diaspora|descendants of black African slaves]], post-independence immigrants coming from [[Europe]], [[Middle East]], and [[East Asia]], as well as [[mixed race|descendants of multiracial unions]] between these different ethnic groups.<ref name=omb>{{cite web |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/omb/fedreg_1997standards |title=Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity. Federal Register Notice October 30, 1997 |author=[[Office of Management and Budget]] |website=White House Archives |access-date=2012-06-01 |via=[[NARA|National Archives]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121150512/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/omb/fedreg_1997standards/ |archive-date=January 21, 2017}}</ref><ref name=overview>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/cenbr01-1.pdf |title=Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2000 |last1=Grieco |first1=Elizabeth M. |last2=Cassidy |first2=Rachel C. |name-list-style=amp |website=U.S. Census Bureau |access-date=2008-04-27}}</ref><ref name=hlspec>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov |title=B03001. Hispanic or Latino origin by specific origin |work=2009 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates |access-date=2010-10-17 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html |title=CIA World Factbook – Field Listing: Ethnic groups |access-date=2010-11-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003008/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html |archive-date=June 13, 2007}}</ref> As one of the only two specifically designated categories of [[Race and ethnicity in the United States census|ethnicity in the United States]], Hispanics and Latinos form a [[pan-ethnicity]] incorporating a diversity of inter-related cultural and linguistic heritages, the use of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] languages being the most important of all. Most Hispanic and Latino Americans are of [[Mexicans|Mexican]], [[Puerto Ricans|Puerto Rican]], [[Cubans|Cuban]], [[Salvadorans|Salvadoran]], [[People of the Dominican Republic|Dominican]], [[Colombians|Colombian]], [[Guatemalans|Guatemalan]], [[Hondurans|Honduran]], [[Ecuadorians|Ecuadorian]], [[Peruvians|Peruvian]], [[Venezuelans|Venezuelan]], or [[Nicaraguans|Nicaraguan]] origin. The predominant origin of regional Hispanic and Latino populations varies widely in different locations across the country.<ref name=overview/><ref name=popest2007>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov |title=T4-2007. Hispanic or Latino By Race |work=2007 Population Estimates |publisher=U.S.United States Census Bureau}}</ref><ref name=b03002>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov |title=B03002. Hispanic or Latino origin by race |work=2007 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref><ref name=tafoya>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/reports/35.pdf |title=Shades of Belonging |last=Tafoya |first=Sonya |date=2004-12-06 |website=[[Pew Research Center|Pew Hispanic Center]] |access-date=2008-05-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303181019/http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/reports/35.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-03 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6fWnsUWBYgsC&q=Neomexicano+hispanic&pg=PA165 |title=The Contested Homeland: A Chicano History of New Mexico |first=David |last=Maciel |date=February 26, 2000 |publisher=UNM Press|isbn=978-0-826321992|via=Google Books}}</ref> In 2012, Hispanic Americans were the second fastest-growing ethnic group by percentage growth in the United States after [[Asian Americans]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marketingcharts.com/traditional/hispanics-were-not-the-fastest-growing-minority-group-last-year-35246/ |title=Hispanics Were Not The Fastest-Growing Minority Group Last Year |date=July 23, 2013|work=MarketingCharts |access-date=March 5, 2015}}</ref>

The terms "[[Hispanic]]" and "[[Latino (demonym)|Latino]]" refer to an [[ethnicity]]. "Hispanic" first came into popular use to refer to individuals with origins in Spanish-speaking countries after the Office of Management and Budget created the classification in 1977, as proposed by a subcommittee composed of three government employees, a Cuban, Mexican, and Puerto Rican American.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bernstein |first=David E. |author-link=David E. Bernstein |date=2022 |title=Classified: The Untold Story of Racial Classification in America |location=New York City |publisher=Bombardier Books |isbn=978-1-637581735}}</ref> The [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]] defines being Hispanic as being a member of an ethnicity, rather than being a member of a particular [[raceRace (human categorization)|race]] and thus, people who are members of this group may also be members of any race.<ref name="overview"/><ref name=BarreraLopez>{{cite web |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/06/15/is-being-hispanic-a-matter-of-race-ethnicity-or-both/ |title=Is being Hispanic a matter of race, ethnicity or both? |last1=Gonzales-Barrera |first1=Ana |last2=Lopez |first2=Mark Hugo |name-list-style=amp |date=June 15, 2015 |website=Pew Research Center}}</ref><ref name="compraceho">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/compraceho.html |title=U.S. Census Bureau Guidance on the Presentation and Comparison of Race and Hispanic Origin Data |website=UCensus.S. Census Bureaugov |access-date=2007-03-18 |quote=Race and Hispanic origin are two separate concepts in the federal statistical system. People who are Hispanic may also be members of any race. People in each racial group may either be Hispanic or they may not be Hispanic. Each person has two attributes, their race (or races) and whether or not they are Hispanic/Latino.}}</ref> In a 2015 national survey of self-identified Hispanics, 56% said that being Hispanic is part of both their racial and ethnic background, while smaller numbers considered it part of their ethnic background only (19%) or racial background only (11%).<ref name=BarreraLopez/> Hispanics may be of any linguistic background; in a 2015 survey, 71% of American Hispanics agreed that it "is not necessary for a person to speak Spanish to be considered Hispanic/Latino".<ref>{{cite web |title=Is speaking Spanish necessary to be Hispanic? Most Hispanics say no |last1=Lopez |first1=Mark Hugo |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/02/19/is-speaking-spanish-necessary-to-be-hispanic-most-hispanics-say-no/ |date=February 19, 2016 |website=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> Hispanic and Latino people may share some commonalities in their language, culture, history, and heritage. According to the [[Smithsonian Institution]], the term "Latino" includes peoples with Portuguese roots, such as [[Brazilians]], as well as those of Spanish-language origin.<ref name="sihistory">{{cite web |url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/mexicanamerica/glossary.html |title=Mexican America: Glossary |work=Smithsonian Institution |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621041320/http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/mexicanamerica/glossary.html |archive-date=June 21, 2008 |quote=Note: It defines "Hispanic" as meaning those with Spanish-speaking roots in the Americas and Spain, and "Latino" as meaning those from both Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking cultures in Latin America.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Excluded Voices: The Disenfranchisement of Ethnic Groups From Jury Service |last=Ramirez |first=Deborah A. |date=1993 |journal=[[Wisconsin Law Review]] |page=761 |quote=[T]he term 'Latino'&nbsp;... may be more inclusive than the term 'Hispanic.'}}</ref> The difference between the terms ''Hispanic'' and ''Latino'' is ambiguous to some people.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://diversityjournal.com/9724-hispanic-or-latino-which-is-correct/ |title=Hispanic or Latino: Which is Correct? |last=Austin |first=Grace |date=2012-08-17 |journal=Profiles in Diversity |language=en-US |access-date=2020-09-30}}</ref> The US Census Bureau equates the two terms and defines them as referring to anyone from Spain or the Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking countries of the Americas. After the [[Mexican–American War]] concluded in 1848, term ''Hispanic'' or ''Spanish American'' was primarily used to describe the [[Hispanos of New Mexico]] within the [[Southwestern United States|American Southwest]]. The [[1970 United States census]] controversially broadened the definition to "a person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race". This is now the common formal and colloquial definition of the term within the United States, outside of New Mexico.<ref name="Cobos-1">{{cite book |last=Cobos |first=Rubén |date=2003 |title=A Dictionary of New Mexico & Southern Colorado Spanish |chapter=Introduction |edition=2nd |location=Santa Fe |publisher=Museum of New Mexico Press |page=ix |isbn=0-89013-452-9}}</ref><ref name="OMB1997">{{cite web |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/1997standards.html |title=Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity. Federal Register Notice |website=[[White House|The White House]] |author=[[Office of Management and Budget]] |date=October 30, 1997 |access-date=2012-06-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040208185224/http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/1997standards.html |archive-date=February 8, 2004}}</ref> This definition is consistent with the 21st century usage by the US Census Bureau and [[Office of Management and Budget|OMB]], as the two agencies use both terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably. The [[Pew Research Center]] believes that the term "Hispanic" is strictly limited to [[Spain]], [[Puerto Rico]], and all countries where [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is the only official language whereas "Latino" includes all countries in [[Latin America]] (even [[Brazil]] regardless of the fact that Portuguese is its only official language), but it does not include Spain and Portugal.<ref name="Krogstad 2021"/>

[[File:Iglesia_Nuestra_Senora_de_la_GuadalupeIglesia Nuestra Senora_de la Guadalupe.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe (Manhattan)|Church of Our Lady of Guadalupe]] in [[Little Spain]] on [[14th Street (Manhattan)|14th Street]] in [[Manhattan]], an important nucleus for many decades for the Spanish community in New York City<ref>{{cite web |url=https://guadalupeshrineny.org/who-are-we |title=Who are we?/ Quienes Somos? |website=Our Lady of Guadalupe Church in New York City}}</ref>]]

{{Expand section|more about the 19th and 20th centuries |date=January 2010}}{{mainMain|History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States}}

[[File:Cuadro por españa y por el rey, Galvez en America.jpg|thumb|300px|left|300px|Painting of [[Bernardo de Gálvez]] at the [[siege of Pensacola]] by [[Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau]]]]

{{See also|Battle of the Alamo|Mexican Cession|Gadsden Purchase|Treaty of Paris (1898)}}As late as 1783, at the end of the [[American Revolutionary War]] (a conflict in which Spain [[Spain in the American Revolutionary War|aided and fought]] alongside the rebels), Spain held claim to roughly half the territory of today's continental United States. From 1819 to 1848, the United States increased its area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, acquiring the present-day [[U.S. state|U.S states]] of [[California]], [[Texas]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], most of [[Colorado]], [[New Mexico]] and [[Arizona]], and parts of [[Oklahoma]], [[Kansas]], and [[Wyoming]] through the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] after the [[Mexican-American War]],<ref name="National Archives 2016 j863">{{cite web |date=2016-08-15 |title=The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo |url=https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/treaty-of-guadalupe-hidalgo |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=National Archives}}</ref> as well as [[Florida]] through the [[Adams-Onís treaty]],<ref name="Office of the Historian p620">{{cite web | title=Milestones: 1801–1829 | website=Office of the Historian | url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/florida | access-date=2024-01-30}}</ref> and the [[Territories of the United States|U.S territory]] of [[Puerto Rico]] through the [[Spanish–American War|Spanish-American War]] in 1898.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-01-14 |title=The Spanish-American War, 1898 - 1866–1898 - Milestones - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/spanish-american-war |access-date=2024-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114021444/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/spanish-american-war |archive-date=January 14, 2016 }}</ref> Many Latinos residing in those regions during that period gained U.S. citizenship. Nonetheless, many long-established Latino residents faced significant difficulties post-citizenship. With the arrival of [[Anglo|Anglo-Americans]] in these newly incorporated areas, Latino inhabitants struggled to maintain their land holdings, political influence, and cultural traditions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-04-21 |title=World Book Encyclopedia {{!}} Atlas {{!}} Homework Help |url=http://www.worldbook.com/wb/Students?content_spotlight/cinco/hispanic |access-date=2024-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421210323/http://www.worldbook.com/wb/Students?content_spotlight/cinco/hispanic |archive-date=April 21, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-10-08 |title=Justice Delayed: Mexican-Americans Win Stolen Oil Rights |url=http://www.commondreams.org/views/081200-104.htm |access-date=2024-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008212925/http://www.commondreams.org/views/081200-104.htm |archive-date=October 8, 2012 }}</ref>

[[ImageFile:Dolores Huerta.jpg|thumb|[[Dolores Huerta]] in 2009. Huerta has received numerous awards for her community service and advocacy for workers', and women's rights. She was the first Hispanic inducted into the [[National Women's Hall of Fame]], in 1993.<ref name="makers_hof">{{cite web |url=http://www.makers.com/blog/makers-inducted-national-womens-hall-fame |title=Meet the 20 MAKERS Inducted Into the National Women's Hall of Fame |date=October 5, 2015 |website=Makers |access-date=31 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326153357/http://www.makers.com/blog/makers-inducted-national-womens-hall-fame |archive-date=March 26, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="adelante">{{cite web |url=http://action.theadelantemovement.com/legends/Dolores_Huerta/ |title=Dolores Huerta |website=The Adelante Movement |access-date=31 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320105851/http://action.theadelantemovement.com/legends/Dolores_Huerta/ |archive-date=March 20, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

{{mainMain|Demographics of Hispanic and Latino Americans}}

{{seeSee also|List of U.S. cities with large Hispanic populations}}
<gallery mode="packed" caption="Hispanic and Latino American population distribution over time">

In northern New Mexico and southern [[Colorado]], there is a large portion of Hispanics who trace their ancestry to settlers from [[New Spain]] (Mexico), and sometimes [[Spain]] itself, in the late 16th century through the 17th century. People from this background often self-identify as "Hispanos", "Spanish" or "Hispanic". Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Native Americans, creating a [[mestizo]] population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nmculturenet.org/heritage/cuartocentenario/spanish_view.php |title=A Spanish View of History: Spain's Legacy is not an Issue of Race |last=López |first=Antonio |date=April 24, 1998 |website=New Mexico CultureNet |access-date=2008-05-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071006190603/http://www.nmculturenet.org/heritage/cuartocentenario/spanish_view.php |archive-date=2007-10-06}}</ref> Likewise, southern [[Louisiana]] is home to communities of people of [[Canary Islands]] descent, known as [[Isleño]]s, in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry. [[Californio]]s, [[Hispanos of New Mexico|Nuevomexicanos]] and [[Tejano]]s are Americans of [[Spanish Americans|Spanish]] and/or [[Mexican Americans|Mexican]] descent, with subgroups that sometimes call themselves [[Chicanos]]. Nuevomexicanos and Tejanos are distinct southwest Hispanic cultures with their own cuisines, dialects and musical traditions.

{{seeSee also|Race and ethnicity in Latin America|Race and ethnicity in the United States|Race and ethnicity in the United States census}}

AlmostOver one-thirdhalf of the "[[Race and ethnicity in the United States census|two or more races]]" respondents were Hispanics.<ref name="ASKE">{{cite web |url=http://lrc.salemstate.edu/hispanics/race.htm |last=Aske |first=Jon |title=Hispanics and Race |website=Salem State University}}</ref> These Hispanics make up 20,299,960 people or 32.7% of the Hispanic population.

=== Genetics ===

An automosal DNA study published in 2019, focusing specifically on [[IndigenousNative peoplesAmericans ofin the AmericasUnited States|Native American]] ancestry in different ethnic/racial groups within the US, found that self-identified Hispanic Americans had a higher average amount of Native American ancestry compared to [[African Americans|Black]] and [[Non-Hispanic whites|non-Hispanic White]] Americans. On average, Hispanic Americans were found to be just over half European, around 38% Native American, and less than 10% African.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2019-09-23 |title=Native American admixture recapitulates population-specific migration and settlement of the continental United States |journal=PLOS Genetics |language=en |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=e1008225 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1008225 |doi-access=free |issn=1553-7404 |last1=Jordan |first1=I. King |last2=Rishishwar |first2=Lavanya |last3=Conley |first3=Andrew B. |pmid=31545791 |pmc=6756731 }}</ref><ref name="Jordan-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Jordan |first1=I. King |last2=Rishishwar |first2=Lavanya |last3=Conley |first3=Andrew B. |date=2019-09-23 |title=Native American admixture recapitulates population-specific migration and settlement of the continental United States |journal=PLOS Genetics |language=en |volume=15 |issue=9 |pages=e1008225 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1008225 |doi-access=free |pmid=31545791 |pmc=6756731 |issn=1553-7404}}</ref> However, these results, being an average of the entire Hispanic population, vary sharply between individuals and between regions. Hispanic participants from the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] and [[West South Central states|West South Central]] regions, where the Hispanic population is predominantly [[Mexican Americans|Mexican-American]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B03001 - Census Reporter |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B03001&geo_ids=03000US7&primary_geo_id=03000US7 |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref> had an average of 43% Native American ancestry.<ref name="Jordan-2019"/> On the other hand, those from the [[Mid-Atlantic (United States)|Mid-Atlantic]] region, where the Hispanic population is predominantly of [[Puerto Ricans|Puerto Rican]] or [[Dominican Americans|Dominican]] descent,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Census profile: Middle Atlantic Division |url=http://censusreporter.org/profiles/03000US2-middle-atlantic-division/ |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=Census Reporter |language=en}}</ref> averaged only 11% Native American ancestry.<ref name="Jordan-2019"/>

=== Age ===

== Education ==

==== English -language learners ====

== Health ==

=== Longevity ===

=== Healthcare ===

[[File:Rally_to_end_Family_Separation_ClevelandRally to end Family Separation Cleveland-03.jpg|thumb|Rally to end [[Trump administration family separation policy|family separation]] in Cleveland, Ohio]]

Some families who are in the process of illegally crossing borders can suffer being caught and separated by border patrol agents. Migrants are also in danger of separation if they do not bring sufficient resources such as water for all members to continue crossing. Once illegal migrants have arrived to the new country, they may fear workplace raids where illegal immigrants are detained and deported.

[[File:Ana_NavarroAna Navarro.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Ana Navarro]] a political strategist and commentator immigrated as a result of the [[Sandinista revolution]].]]

[[File:Little_Havana_EntranceLittle Havana Entrance._ -_panoramio panoramio.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Beginning of Calle Ocho (eighth Street) in [[Little Havana]] of Miami, Florida, United States.]]

[[File:El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro National Historic Trail by Samat Jain.jpg|thumb|264x264px264px|The section of the [[Camino Real de Tierra Adentro]] road that runs through US territory, a total of {{convert|646|km|mi}}, was declared a [[National Historic Trail]] in October 2000]]

== Economic outlook ==

=== Median income ===

In 2017, the [[United States census|US Censuscensus]] reported the median household incomes of Hispanic Americans to be $50,486. This is the third consecutive annual increase in median household income for Hispanic-origin households.<ref name="census.gov">{{cite web |url=https://census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2018/demo/p60-263.pdf |first1=Kayla |last1=Fontenot |first2=Jessica |last2=Semega |first3=Melissa |last3=Kollar |website=[[UCensus.S. Census Bureau]]gov |title=Current Population Reports, P60-263, Income and Poverty in the United States: 2017 |place=Washington, DC |date=2018}}</ref>

=== Poverty ===

According to the [[United States Census|US Census]]census, the [[povertyPoverty threshold|poverty rate]] Hispanics was 18.3 percent in 2017, down from 19.4 percent in 2016. Hispanics accounted for 10.8 million individuals in poverty.<ref name="census.gov"/> In comparison, the average poverty rates in 2017 for non-Hispanic White Americans was 8.7 percent with 17 million individuals in poverty, Asian Americans was 10.0 percent with 2 million individuals in poverty, and African Americans was 21.2 percent with 9 million individuals in poverty.<ref name="census.gov"/>

Among the largest Hispanic groups during 2015 was: Honduran Americans & Dominican Americans (27%), Guatemalan Americans (26%), Puerto Ricans (24%), Mexican Americans (23%), Salvadoran Americans (20%), Cuban Americans and Venezuelan Americans (17%), Ecuadorian Americans (15%), Nicaraguan Americans (14%), Colombian Americans (13%), Argentinian Americans (11%), and Peruvian Americans (10%).<ref>{{Citecite web |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/09/18/how-the-u-s-hispanic-population-is-changing/ |title=How the U.S. Hispanic population is changing |last=Flores |first=Antonio |date=September 18, 2017 |website=Pew Research Center}}</ref>

{{mainMain|American culture|Hispanic culture}}

[[File:Museum_of_Latin_American_ArtMuseum of Latin American Art.jpg|thumb|[[Museum of Latin American Art]].]]

[[File:Santa_Barbara_County_Courthouse.jpg|thumb|left|[[Spanish Colonial Revival architecture|Spanish Revival architecture]] in [[Santa Barbara, California]].]]

[[Image:ChristkindlmarketChicago.jpg|thumb|[[Chicago Picasso]] as seen at [[Christkindlmarket, Chicago|Christkindlmarket]].]]

{{seeSee also|Isleño Spanish|New Mexican Spanish}}

| colspan=3 | *-Projected; sources:<ref name="pewresearch.org">{{cite news |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/09/05/what-is-the-future-of-spanish-in-the-united-states/ |title=What is the future of Spanish in the United States? |date=September 5, 2013 |work=Pew Research Center |access-date=March 5, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Shin |first1=Hyon B. |last2=Bruno |first2=Rosalind |name-list-style=amp |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-29.pdf |title=Language Use and English-Speaking Ability: 2000 |website=U.S. Census Bureau |date=October 2003 |access-date=January 9, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.languagepolicy.net/archives/Castro1.htm |title=The Future of Spanish in the United States |website=Languagepolicy.net |access-date=March 5, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_S1601&prodType=table |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200212214642/http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_S1601&prodType=table |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 12, 2020 |title=American FactFinder – Results|author=Data Access and Dissemination Systems (DADS) |website=UCensus.S. Census Bureaugov |access-date=March 5, 2015}}</ref>

{{mainMain|Chicano English|Spanglish|Miami#Dialect|New York Latino English}}

{{seeSee also|List of English words of Spanish origin}}

=== Religion ===

[[File:Mission_Concepcion_San_AntonioMission Concepcion San Antonio.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[San Antonio Missions National Historical Park]] in Texas a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] comprises four missions, [[Mission San José (Texas)|Mission San José]], Mission San Juan, and [[Mission Espada]]. These missions are renowned for their architectural and cultural significance, reflecting the Spanish colonial heritage of the region.]]

=== Media ===

[[File:Latino_Cultural_Center_Dallas_1Latino Cultural Center Dallas 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Latino Cultural Center]]]]

* ''[[Vida Latina]]'', a Spanish-language entertainment magazine distributed throughout the [[Southern United States]]

[[File:CornmealProducts.jpg|right|thumb|right|upright|[[Mexican food]] has become part of the mainstream American market]]

[[File:Quinceañera. Santa Fe (14369403262).jpg|thumb|left|Mexican American girls at a [[Quinceañera]] celebration in [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]].]]

Hispanic culture places a strong value on family, and is commonly taught to Hispanic children as one of the most important values in life. Statistically, Hispanic families tend to have larger and closer knit families than the American average. Hispanic families tend to prefer to live near other family members. This may mean that three or sometimes four generations may be living in the same household or near each other, although four generations is uncommon in the United States. The role of [[grandparent]]s is believed to be very important in the upbringing of children.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://grandparents.about.com/od/grandparentingtoday/a/hispanic_family.htm |title=Grandparents Important in Hispanic Family Structure |first=Susan |last=Adcox |website=About.com Parenting |access-date=March 5, 2015 |archive-date=January 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110112336/http://grandparents.about.com/od/grandparentingtoday/a/hispanic_family.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Intermarriage ====

[[File:Mariah_Carey_2_by_David_ShankboneMariah Carey 2 by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Mariah Carey]]'s father was of [[African Americans|African- American]] and [[Afro-Venezuelans|Afro-Venezuelan]] descent, while her mother is of Irish descent.]]

[[File:Rosa_Salazar_by_Gage_SkidmoreRosa Salazar by Gage Skidmore.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Rosa Salazar]] is of [[Peruvians|Peruvian]] and [[French people|French]] descent.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/rosa-salazar-abbreviated-bird-box-role-james-camerons-alita-1174582 |title=Rosa Salazar: From "Abbreviated" 'Bird Box' Role to James Cameron's 'Alita'|magazine=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=January 11, 2019 |access-date=January 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114030948/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/rosa-salazar-abbreviated-bird-box-role-james-camerons-alita-1174582 |archive-date=January 14, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Unlike intermarriage with other racial groups, intermarriage with non-Hispanic Black people varies by nationality of origin. Puerto Ricans have by far the highest rates of intermarriage with Black people, of all major Hispanic national groups, who also has the highest overall intermarriage rate among Hispanics.<ref name="nancys.landale"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Sharon M. |last2=Edmonston |first2=Barry |name-list-style=amp |url=http://www.prb.org/pdf05/60.2newmarriages.pdf |title=New Marriages, New Families: U.S. Racial and Hispanic Intermarriage |journal=Population Reference Bureau Population Bulletin |volume=6 |issue=2 |issn=0032-468X |date=June 2005 |access-date=January 9, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202603/http://www.prb.org/pdf05/60.2NewMarriages.pdf |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Jeffrey S. Passel |author2=Wendy Wang |author3=Paul Taylor |url=http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/10/755-marrying-out.pdf |title=Marrying Out: One-in-Seven New U.S. Marriages is Interracial or Interethnic |work=Pew Research Center |date=June 4, 2010 |access-date=January 9, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131171421/http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/10/755-marrying-out.pdf |archive-date=January 31, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VAdsYl5xgGwC&q=puerto+rican+and+black+intermarriage&pg=PA129 |title=We are All Multiculturalists Now |page=129 |access-date=March 5, 2015|isbn=978-0-674948365 |last1=Glazer |first1=Nathan |year=1998|publisher=Harvard University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2011-06-21/features/os-multiracial-population-grows-20110621_1_interracial-hispanic-population-number-of-multiracial-people |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110625132249/http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2011-06-21/features/os-multiracial-population-grows-20110621_1_interracial-hispanic-population-number-of-multiracial-people |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 25, 2011 |title=Multiracial population grows in Orlando |work=Orlando Sentinel |access-date=March 5, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.beinglatino.us/lifestyle/how-interracial-relationships-shape-the-latino-community/ |title=How interracial relationships shape the Latino community |work=Being Latino |access-date=March 5, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102213615/http://www.beinglatino.us/lifestyle/how-interracial-relationships-shape-the-latino-community/ |archive-date=November 2, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://imdiversity.com/villages/hispanic/explorations-in-black-and-tan/ |title=Explorations in Black and Tan |website=Imdiversity.com |access-date=March 5, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/lifestyle/2014/02/26/new-generation-afro-latinos-is-confronting-issues-race-and-identity-head-on/ |title=Black History Month: New Generation Of Afro-Latinos Tackles Race And Identity |first=Hilary S. |last=Szot |work=Fox News Latino |access-date=March 5, 2015 |date=February 26, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q17Vwdwm1-wC&q=puerto+rican+and+african+american+relationships&pg=PA97 |title=Black and Multiracial Politics in America|page=97 |access-date=March 5, 2015|isbn=9780814706633 |last1=Alex-Assensoh |first1=Yvette Marie |last2=Hanks |first2=Lawrence J. |date=November 2000|publisher=NYU Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-m3TKL__amYC&q=puerto+rican+and+african+american+relationships&pg=PA4 |title=Between Melting Pot and Mosaic|page=4 |access-date=March 5, 2015|isbn=978-1-566392808 |last1=Torres |first1=Andrés |year=1995|publisher=Temple University Press }}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=January 2023}} Cubans have the highest rate of intermarriage with non-Hispanic White people, of all major Hispanic national groups, and are the most assimilated into White American culture.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2012/04/the-case-of-the-white-cubans/#.VFZ4TjCJOuY |title=The case of the white Cubans |work=Gene Expression |access-date=March 5, 2015 |archive-date=April 6, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406134134/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2012/04/the-case-of-the-white-cubans/#.VFZ4TjCJOuY |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://desdelahabanaivan.wordpress.com/2012/02/25/whitening-the-children-a-desire-of-many-cuban-families/ |title='Whitening' the children: a desire of many Cuban families|work=Iván's File Cabinet |date=February 25, 2012 |access-date=March 5, 2015}}</ref>

=== Cultural adjustment ===

==== Transnationalism ====

==== Gender roles ====

[[File:Mexican_woman_washing_in_front_of_house_in_corralMexican woman washing in front of house in corral._Mexican_section Mexican section,_San_Antonio San Antonio,_Texas Texas.jpg|thumb|left|Hispanic woman washing, doing household chores]]

==== Sexuality ====

[[File:Santa_Fe_PlazaSanta Fe Plaza.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Santa Fe Plaza]]]]

=== Relations with other minority groups ===

[[File:Sunny_Hostin_Sunny Hostin (49469995906).jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Sunny Hostin]] American lawyer, columnist, journalist, and television host. Hostin was born to a Puerto Rican mother and an African- American father, and her maternal grandfather was of [[Sephardic Jews|Sephardic Jewish]] descent.]]

== Politics ==

{{mainMain|Hispanic and Latino American politics}}

[[File:Octaviano Larrazolo, bw photo portrait, 1919.jpg|right|thumb|173x173pxright|173px|Republican politician [[Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo]], elected in 1928, the first Mexican- American and first Latino United States senator.]]

[[File:Barbara_vucanovichBarbara vucanovich.jpg|thumb|right|125px|[[Barbara Vucanovich]] the first Hispanic woman elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]], in which she served representing [[Nevada]].]]

[[File:George_W_Bush_and_Alberto_GonzalesGeorge W Bush and Alberto Gonzales.jpg|thumb|left|175px|U.S.US President [[George W. Bush]] announces [[Alberto Gonzales]] nomination as the [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]].]]

[[File:Ileana_RosIleana Ros-Lehtinen_official_photoLehtinen official photo.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Ileana Ros-Lehtinen]] became the first [[Cuban American]] Hispanic in congress and first Hispanic chair of the [[Congressional Hispanic Conference]].]]

{{mainMain|Latino vote#2020 election}}

[[File:Julie_Chavez_RodriguezJulie Chavez Rodriguez.jpg|thumb|245x245px245px|[[Julie Chavez Rodriguez]] the granddaughter of American labor leader, [[Cesar Chavez]] and American labor activist [[Helen Fabela Chávez]] became the director of the [[White House Office of Intergovernmental Affairs]] in 2021.]]

{{mainMain|Hispanic music in the United States}}

Hispanic music imported from Cuba ([[chachachá]], [[mambo (music)|mambo]], and [[rhumba]]) and Mexico ([[ranchera]] and [[mariachi]]) had brief periods of popularity during the 1950s. Examples of artists include [[Celia Cruz]], who was a Cuban- American singer and the most popular Latin artist of the 20th century, gaining twenty-three [[gold album]]s during her career. Bill Clinton awarded her the National Medal of Arts in 1994.

{{seeSee also|List of Hispanic Americans in the United States Congress}}

As of 2007, there were more than five thousand elected officeholders in the United States who were of Hispanic origin.<ref>{{Citationcitation |url=http://www.naleo.org/directory.html |title=Directory of Latino Elected Officials |website=[[NALEO]] |access-date=2010-01-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090531084712/http://www.naleo.org/directory.html |archive-date=May 31, 2009}}</ref>

* [[Marie Arana]] (''[[American Chica]]'', ''[[Bolívar: American Liberator]]'', and ''[[Silver, Sword, and Stone]]''

* [[Micol Ostow]] (''"Mind Your Manners, Dick and Jane"'', and ''"Emily Goldberg Learns to Salsa"'')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.princeton.lib.nj.us/children/festival/2007AuthorsAttending.htm |title=Princeton's Children's Book Festival |work=Princeton Library |date=September 15, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226235452/http://www.princeton.lib.nj.us/children/festival/2007AuthorsAttending.htm |archive-date=February 26, 2010}}</ref>

* [[Alberto Alvaro Rios]] (''Capirotada'', ''Elk Heads on the Wall'', and ''The Iguana Killer'')

{{mainMain|Hispanics in the American Civil War}}

[[File:GEN CAVAZOS.jpg|thumb|upright| [[Richard E. Cavazos]], first Hispanic [[Four-star rank|four-star general]].]]

[[File:VADM Antonia Novello.jpg|thumb|upright|right|upright|[[Antonia Novello]], first woman and first Hispanic to serve as [[Surgeon General of the United States|Surgeon General]].]]

{{mainMain|List of Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients}}

Dr. [[Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas]] discovered the bacteria that cause dental cavity. Dr. [[Gualberto Ruaño]] is a biotechnology pioneer in the field of personalized medicine and the inventor of molecular diagnostic systems, [[Coupled Amplification and Sequencing]] (CAS) System, used worldwide for the management of viral diseases.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hartfordbusiness.com/news11113.html |title=Genetic Roadmap Targets Drug Therapies |last=Seay |first=Gregory |date=November 30, 2009 |website=Hartford Business Review |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901033005/http://www.hartfordbusiness.com/news11113.html |archive-date=2010-09-01}}</ref> [[Fermín Tangüis]] was an agriculturist and scientist who developed the Tangüis Cotton in Peru and saved that nation's cotton industry.<ref name="MV">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ftanguis.edu.pe/modelodevida.html |title=Un Modelo de Vida |trans-title=A role model in his lifetime |website=Colegio Fermín Tangüis |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512063013/http://www.ftanguis.edu.pe/modelodevida.html |archive-date=May 12, 2008}}</ref> [[Severo Ochoa]], born in Spain, was a co-winner of the 1959 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]. Dr. [[Sarah Stewart (cancer researcher)|Sarah Stewart]], a Mexican-American microbiologist, is credited with the discovery of the Polyomavirus and successfully demonstrating that cancer causing viruses could be transmitted from animal to animal. Mexican-American psychiatrist Dr. [[Nora Volkow]], whose brain imaging studies helped characterize the mechanisms of drug addiction, is the current director of the [[National Institute on Drug Abuse]]. Dr. [[Helen Rodríguez Trías]], an early advocate for women's reproductive rights, helped drive and draft U.S. federal sterilization guidelines in 1979. She was awarded the [[Presidential Citizens Medal]] by President Bill Clinton, and was the first Hispanic president of the American Public Health Association.

[[File:Tony_Romo_2015Tony Romo 2015.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Tony Romo]], [[NFL]] [[quarterback]] known for his career with the [[Dallas Cowboys]] and current role as a popular football analyst for CBS Sports.]]

[[File:Lee_TrevinoLee Trevino.jpg|right|thumb|right|130px|[[Lee Trevino]] retired professional golfer who won numerous [[PGA Tour]] events, including several major championships]]

== Anti-Latino sentiment ==

{{mainMain||Anti-Mexican sentiment}}

{{seeSee also|Perpetual foreigner#United States}}

[[File:Inside_the_Equality_BookInside the Equality_Book.jpg|thumb|right|The story of [[Mendez v. Westminster]] book monument.]]

== Immigration reform ==

=== 1965: Immigration and Nationality Act (Hart-Celler Act) ===

The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), enacted in 1952, serves as a foundational piece of U.S.US immigration law by consolidating and reorganizing various provisions into a unified framework. Since its enactment, the INA has undergone numerous amendments, reflecting its evolving role in immigration policy. It is codified in Title 8 of the United States Code (U.S.C.USC), which is the comprehensive collection of U.S.US laws. Title 8 specifically addresses "Aliens and Nationality," and the INA's sections are aligned with corresponding U.S.US Code sections for clarity. For accuracy, the official U.S. Code is provided by the Office of the Law Revision Counsel of the U.S.US House of Representatives, with links available through USCIS.<ref>{{Citecite web |date=2019-07-10 |title=Immigration and Nationality Act {{!}} USCIS |url=https://www.uscis.gov/laws-and-policy/legislation/immigration-and-nationality-act |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=www.uscis.gov |language=en}}</ref>

=== 1986: Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) ===

The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA), detailed in House Report 99-1000, introduced significant changes to U.S.US immigration law. Title I of the Act focused on controlling illegal immigration by making it unlawful for employers to hire or continue employing unauthorized aliens without verifying their work status.<ref name="congress.gov">{{Cite web |title=S.1200 - Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/99th-congress/senate-bill/1200 |website=congress.gov}}</ref> It established an employment verification system requiring employers to attest to and maintain records of employees' work eligibility. The Act also set up procedures for monitoring the verification system and addressing violations, while explicitly prohibiting the use of such verification for national identity purposes. Additionally, Title I outlined employer sanctions, including a public education period and a phased enforcement approach. Title II of the Act provided a legalization program for certain undocumented aliens who met specific criteria, including continuous residence in the U.S. since January 1, 1982.<ref name="congress.gov"/> It authorized adjustment from temporary to permanent resident status under certain conditions and required the Attorney General to manage and disseminate information about the program. Title III addressed the reform of legal immigration, including provisions for temporary agricultural workers and adjustments to visa programs. The Act also established various commissions and reports to assess and improve immigration policies and enforcement measures.

=== 1996: Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) ===

The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 expanded the definition of "qualified alien" under section 431 of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996 (8 U.S.C.USC 1641) to include certain categories of battered aliens. The new provisions added to 8 U.S.C.USC 1641 recognize battered aliens.<ref name="The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996">{{Citecite web|url=https://www.justice.gov/archive/ovw/docs/welfare_reform_law.pdf|title=The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996}}</ref> Those who have experienced battery or extreme cruelty by a spouse or parent, or by a member of their family residing with them. As eligible for benefits if there is a substantial connection between the abuse and the need for assistance. This includes aliens with pending petitions for various statuses under the Immigration and Nationality Act, such as spousal or child status of a U.S.US citizen or applications for suspension of deportation. The act extends protections to aliens whose children have been subjected to similar abuse, provided there is no active participation by the alien in the abuse. It also includes alien children who reside with a parent who has been abused. These provisions do not apply if the abuser resides in the same household as the victim. The Attorney General is tasked with issuing guidance on the interpretation of "battery" and "extreme cruelty" and establishing standards for determining the connection between such abuse and the need for benefits.<ref name="The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996"/>

=== 2012: Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) ===

[[File:DACA_rally_SF_20170905DACA rally SF 20170905-8471.jpg|thumb|At a Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals ([[DACA]]) rally in [[San Francisco]], protesters displayed a variety of [[sign]]s and [[banner]]s advocating for the protection and expansion of the DACA program.]]

[[Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals]] (DACA) is a policy established on June 15, 2012, by [[Janet Napolitano]], then [[Secretary of Homeland Security]], under the [[Obama administration]]. The policy provides temporary relief from deportation and work authorization to certain young undocumented immigrants who meet specific criteria. DACA does not offer a pathway to permanent legal status. Instead, it grants temporary protection that requires renewal every two years. To be eligible, applicants must have arrived in the United States before the age of 16, be currently under the age of 31, and have continuously resided in the U.S.US since June 15, 2007. They must also be enrolled in school, have graduated from [[high school]], or have been honorably discharged from the [[U.S.US Armed Forces]] or [[Coast Guard]]. Upon its implementation, DACA initially benefited approximately 832,881 individuals. The policy has been associated with various socioeconomic improvements among its recipients. According to a 2019 survey, DACA recipients experienced an 86 percent increase in their average hourly wage. This rise in wages has contributed to enhanced financial independence and increased consumer spending, which in turn has had positive economic effects. Recipients also reported improved job conditions and expanded educational opportunities, reflecting the broader impact of the policy on their quality of life. Overall, DACA has been a significant, though temporary, measure aimed at addressing the status of undocumented young immigrants and has had notable effects on their economic and educational outcomes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-05 |title=Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA): An Overview |url=https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/deferred-action-childhood-arrivals-daca-overview |access-date=2024-07-27 |website=American Immigration Council |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==

{{notelistNotelist}}

=== Surveys and historiography ===

* {{cite book | last=Jr. | first=Robert Eli Sanchez | editor-first1=Robert Eli | editor-last1=Sanchez | title=Latin American and Latinx Philosophy | publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group | publication-place=New York London | publication-date=2019-08-26 | isbn=9781138295865|doi=10.4324/9781315100401|oclc=1112422733 | url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Latin_American_and_Latinx_Philosophy.html?id=Re2oDwAAQBAJ&source=kp_book_description}}

=== Pre -1965 ===

===Culture and politics, post -1965===

* {{cite book | author-last=Thananopavarn | author-first=Susan | title=LatinAsian Cartographies: History, Writing, and the National Imaginary | date=Mar 19, 2018 | series=Latinidad: Transnational Cultures in the United States | publisher=Rutgers University Press | isbn=9780813589848 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E0xODwAAQBAJ}}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120102074700/http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/HHBindex.htm Hubert Howe Bancroft. ''The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft''],**