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{{Short description|none}}
{{for|a navigational list|List of time periods}}
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These developments paved the way for the [[Cradle of civilization|emergence of early civilizations]] in [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], the [[Indus Valley]], and [[History of China|China]], marking the beginning of the [[Ancient period]] in 3500 BCE. These civilizations supported the establishment of regional empires and acted as a fertile ground for the advent of transformative philosophical and religious ideas, initially [[Hinduism]] during the late [[Bronze Age]], and later [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Greek philosophy]], [[Jainism]], [[Judaism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Zoroastrianism]] during the [[Axial Age]]. The following [[Post-classical history|post-classical period]], from about 500 to 1500 CE, witnessed the rise of [[Islam]] and the continued spread and consolidation of [[Christianity]] while civilization expanded to new parts of the world and trade between societies increased. These developments were accompanied by the rise and decline of major empires, such as the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Caliphate|Islamic Caliphates]], the [[Mongol Empire]], and various [[Dynasties of China|Chinese dynasties]]. This period's invention of [[gunpowder]] and of the [[printing press]] greatly affected subsequent history.
 
During the [[early modern period]], spanning from approximately 1500 to 1800 CE, [[Age of Discovery|European powers explored]] and [[Colonization|colonized]] regions worldwide, intensifying cultural and economic exchange. This era saw substantial intellectual, cultural, and technological advances in Europe driven by the [[Renaissance]], the [[Scientific Revolution]], and the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology had reached a [[Critical mass (sociodynamics)|critical mass]] that brought about the [[Industrial Revolution]], substantial to the [[Great Divergence]], and began the [[modern period]] starting around 1800 CE. The rapid growth in productive power further increased [[international trade]] and [[colonization]], linking the different civilizations in the process of [[globalization]], and cemented European dominance throughout the 19th century. Over the last quarter-millennium, despite the devastating effects of two [[world war]]s, there has been a great acceleration in the rates of growth of many domains, including [[Population growth|human population]], agriculture, industry, commerce, scientific knowledge, technology, communications, military capabilities, and [[environmental degradation]].
 
The study of human history relies on insights from academic disciplines including [[history]], [[archaeology]], [[anthropology]], [[linguistics]], and [[genetics]]. To provide an accessible overview, researchers divide human history by a variety of periodizations.
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[[File:San Lorenzo Monument 4 crop.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Olmec colossal heads|Olmec colossal head]], now at the Museo de Antropología de Xalapa|alt=A stone head]]
 
Speakers of the [[Bantu languages]] began [[Bantu expansion|expanding]] across Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa as early as 3000 BCE until 1000 CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=646–647}}</ref> Their expansion and encounters with other groups resulted in the displacement of the [[African Pygmies|Pygmy peoples]] and the [[Khoisan]], and in the spread of [[mixed farming]] and [[Ferrous metallurgy|ironworking]] throughout sub-Saharan Africa, and produced societies such aslaying the [[Nokfoundations culture]]for inlater modern [[Nigeria]] by 500 BCEstates.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=648}}</ref>

The [[Lapita culture]] emerged in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] near [[New Guinea]] around 1500 BCE and colonized many uninhabited islands of [[Remote Oceania]], reaching as far as [[Samoa]] by 700 BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=617}}</ref>
 
In the Americas, the Norte Chico culture emerged in Peru around 3100 BCE.<ref name="Benjamin 2015-3"/> The Norte Chico built public monumental architecture at the city of [[Caral]], dated 2627–1977 BCE.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=562}}|{{harvnb|Shady Solis|Haas|Creamer|2001|pp=[https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1059519 723–726]}}}}</ref> The later [[Chavín culture|Chavín]] polity is sometimes described as the first [[Andean civilizations|Andean]] state,<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=564}}</ref> centered on the religious site at [[Chavín de Huantar]].<ref>{{harvnb|Graeber|Wengrow|2021|p=389}}</ref> Other important Andean cultures include the [[Moche culture|Moche]], whose ceramics depict many aspects of daily life, and the [[Nazca culture|Nazca]], who created animal-shaped designs in the desert called [[Nazca lines]].<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=565}}</ref> The [[Olmecs]] of Mesoamerica developed by about 1200 BCE<ref>{{harvnb|Nichols|Pool|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AHWarqdXsfIC 118]}}</ref> and are known for the [[Olmec colossal heads|colossal stone heads]] that they carved from [[basalt]].<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2007|p=150}}</ref> They also devised the [[Mesoamerican calendars|Mesoamerican calendar]] that was used by later cultures such as the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] and [[Teotihuacan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2007|pp=150–153}}</ref> Societies in North America were primarily egalitarian hunter-gatherers, supplementing their diet with the plants of the [[Eastern Agricultural Complex]].<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=539–540}}</ref> They built earthworks such as [[Watson Brake]] (4000 BCE) and [[Poverty Point]] (3600 BCE), both in Louisiana.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=540–541}}</ref>
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Two major empires began in modern-day [[Greece]]. In the late 5th century BCE, several Greek [[city states]] checked the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]. These wars were followed by the [[Fifth-century Athens|Golden Age of Athens]], the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of [[Western civilization]], including the [[Theatre of ancient Greece|first theatrical performances]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Strauss|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQFtMcD5dOsC 1–11]}}|{{harvnb|Dynneson|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fk4lGzmhiwC&pg=PA54 54]}}|{{harvnb|Goldhill|1997|p=54}}}}</ref> The wars led to the creation of the [[Delian League]], founded in 477 BCE,<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2000|pp=[https://archive.org/details/ancientgreecefro00mart_1 106–107]}}</ref> and eventually the [[Athenian Empire]] (454–404 BCE), which was defeated by a Spartan-led coalition during the [[Peloponnesian War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=353}}</ref> [[Philip of Macedon]] unified the Greek city-states into the [[League of Corinth|Hellenic League]] and his son Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) founded an empire extending from present-day Greece to India.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Tignor et al.|2014|p=203}}|{{harvnb|Burstein|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lwFLDgAAQBAJ 57–58]}}}}</ref> The empire divided into several [[Diadochi|successor states]] shortly after his death, resulting in the founding of many cities and the spread of Greek culture throughout conquered regions, a process referred to as [[Hellenization]].<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=283–284}}</ref> The [[Hellenistic period]] lasted from the death of Alexander in 323 BCE to 31 BCE when [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] fell to Rome.<ref>{{harvnb|Hemingway|Hemingway|2007}}</ref>
 
In Europe, the [[Roman Republic]] was founded in the 6th century BCE<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=337–338}}</ref> and began expanding its territory in the 3rd century BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Kelly|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eUgSDAAAQBAJ 4–6]}}</ref> Priorly, the [[Carthaginian Empire]] had dominated the Mediterranean, however lost [[Punic Wars|three successive wars]] to the Romans. The Republic became [[Roman Empire|an empire]] and by the time of [[Augustus]] (63 BCE–14 CE), it had established dominion over most of the Mediterranean Sea.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=149, 152–153}}</ref> The empire continued to grow and reached its peak under [[Trajan]] (53–117 CE), controlling much of the land from England to Mesopotamia.<ref>{{harvnb|Beard|2015|p=[http://archive.org/details/spqrhistoryofanc0000bear_v4f6 483]}}</ref> The two centuries that followed are known as the ''[[Pax Romana]]'', a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity, and political stability in most of Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|McEvedy|1961}}</ref> Christianity was [[Constantine the Great and Christianity|legalized]] by [[Constantine I]] in 313 CE after three centuries of [[Persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire|imperial persecution]]. It became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 CE while the emperor [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]] outlawed pagan religions in 391–392 CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|Friell|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=I8KRAgAAQBAJ 105]}}</ref>
 
In South Asia, [[Chandragupta Maurya]] founded the [[Maurya Empire]] (320–185 BCE), which flourished under [[Ashoka|Ashoka the Great]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Kulke|Rothermund|1990|pp=[https://archive.org/details/historyofindia0000kulk/page/60/mode/2up 61, 71]|ps=, "At any rate Chandragupta seems to have usurped the throne of Magadha in 320 BC...the last ruler of the Maurya dynasty, Brihadratha, was assassinated by his general, Pushyamitra Shunga, during a parade of his troops in the year 185 BC."}}|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=488–489}}}}</ref> From the 4th to 6th centuries CE, the [[Gupta Empire]] oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's golden age.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=502–505}}</ref> The resulting stability helped usher in a flourishing period for Hindu and Buddhist culture in the 4th and 5th centuries, as well as major advances in science and mathematics.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=503–505}}</ref> In [[South India]], three prominent [[Dravidian peoples|Dravidian]] kingdoms emerged: the [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]], [[Chola dynasty|Cholas]], and [[Pandya dynasty|Pandyas]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|p=187}}</ref>
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{{Main|History of Africa}}
 
Africa was home to many different civilizations.
Africa was home to many different civilizations. Beginning in the 7th century North Africa saw the the extinguishment of the [[Berbers|Berber]] [[Mauretania#Roman-Moorish kingdoms|kingdoms]] and [[Byzantine North Africa|Byzantine Africa]] in the [[Early Muslim conquests]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mones |first=H. |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The conquest of North Africa and the Berber resistance}}</ref> From the 10th century the Arabian empire's African territory was consumed by the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] who came to be centred on Egypt, who were supplanted by the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubids]] in the 12th century, and them later by the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hrbek |first=Ivan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The emergence of the Fatimids}}</ref> In the [[Maghreb]], the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] dominated from the 11th century and briefly had total control over the [[trans-Saharan trade]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hrbek |first=Ivan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 3 |last2=Devisse |first2=Jean |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Almovarids}}</ref> until it was subsumed by the [[Almohad Caliphate]] in the 12th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saidi |first=O. |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The unification of the Maghreb under the Alhomads}}</ref> The Almohad's collapse gave rise to the [[Marinid Sultanate|Marinids]] in Morocco (later overthrown by the [[Wattasids]]), the [[Kingdom of Tlemcen|Zayyanids]] in Algeria, and the [[Hafsid dynasty|Hafsids]] in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hrbek |first=Ivan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The disintegration of the political unity of the Maghreb}}</ref>▼
 
In the 7th century North Africa saw the extinguishment of [[NubiaByzantine North Africa|Byzantine Africa]] and the [[KingdomMauretania#Roman-Moorish ofkingdoms|Berber Kushkingdoms]] in the [[Early Muslim conquests]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mones |first=H. |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The conquest of North Africa and the Berber resistance}}</ref> From the 10th century the Arabian empire's African territory was succeededconsumed by the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] centred on Egypt, who were supplanted by the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubids]] in the 12th century, and them later by the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluks]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hrbek |first=Ivan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The emergence of the Fatimids}}</ref> In the [[Maghreb]] and [[Western Sahara]], the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] dominated from the 4th11th century,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hrbek |first1=Ivan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 3 |last2=Devisse |first2=Jean |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Almovarids}}</ref> until it was subsumed by the [[Almohad Caliphate]] in the 12th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saidi |first=O. |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The unification of the Maghreb under the Alhomads}}</ref> The Almohad's collapse gave rise to the [[Marinid Sultanate|Marinids]] in Morocco, the [[Kingdom of Tlemcen|Zayyanids]] in Algeria, and the [[Hafsid dynasty|Hafsids]] in Tunisia.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hrbek |first=Ivan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The disintegration of the political unity of the Maghreb}}</ref> In [[Nubia]] the [[Kingdom of Kush]] was succeeded by the Christian kingdoms of [[Makuria]], [[Alodia]], and [[Nobatia]]. In the 7th century Makuria conquered Nobatia to become the dominant power in the region and successfully[[First battle of Dongola|resisted]] Muslim expansion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jakobielski |first=Stefan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Christian Nubia at the height of its civilization}}</ref> They later entered a severe decline following civil war and [[Islamization of the Sudan region|Arab migrations to the Sudan]] and had disintegrated by the 15th century, giving rise to the [[Funj Sultanate]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kropacek |first=Lubos |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Nubia from the late 12th century to the Funj conquest in the early 15th century}}</ref>
[[File:Lalibela, san giorgio, esterno 24.jpg|thumb|One of the eleven [[Rock-hewn Churches of Lalibela]] constructed during the [[Zagwe dynasty]] in Ethiopia]]
In the [[Horn of Africa]], Islam spread among the [[Somali people|Somalis]], while the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] declined from the 7th century following Muslim dominance over the [[Red Sea]] trade, and collapsed in the 10th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mekouria |first=Tekle-Tsadik |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Horn of Africa}}</ref> The [[Zagwe dynasty]] emerged in the 12th century and contested hegemony with the [[Sultanate of Shewa]] and the powerful [[Kingdom of Damot]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tadesse |first=Tamrat |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Horn of Africa: The Solomonids in Ethiopia and the states of the Horn of Africa}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=423, 431}} In the 13th century the Zagwe were overthrown by the [[Solomonic dynasty]] of the [[Ethiopian Empire]], while Shewa gave way to the [[Walashma dynasty]] of the [[Sultanate of Ifat]].<ref name=":12">{{Citation |last=Tamrat |first=Taddesse |title=Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn |date=1977 |work=The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 3: From c.1050 to c.1600 |volume=3 |pages=98–182 |editor-last=Oliver |editor-first=Roland |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-africa/ethiopia-the-red-sea-and-the-horn/1518583A70723220B77296C39BC0F570 |access-date=2024-09-03 |series=The Cambridge History of Africa |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20981-6}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=123-134, 140}} Ethiopia emerged victorious against Ifat and occupied the Muslim states.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |last=Tamrat |first=Taddesse |title=Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn |date=1977 |work=The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 3: From c.1050 to c.1600 |volume=3 |pages=98–182 |editor-last=Oliver |editor-first=Roland |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-africa/ethiopia-the-red-sea-and-the-horn/1518583A70723220B77296C39BC0F570 |access-date=2024-09-03 |series=The Cambridge History of Africa |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20981-6}}</ref>{{Rp|page=143}} The [[Ajuran Sultanate]] rose on the Horn's east coast to dominate the [[Indian Ocean trade]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118455074 |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016-01-11 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |edition=1 |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe146 |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first2=John M}}</ref> Ifat was succeeded by the [[Adal Sultanate]] who reconquered much of the Muslim lands.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|pages=149}}
 
In the [[HornWest ofSudanian Africa]],savanna|West theAfrican [[Kingdom ofSahel Aksumregion]] declined from the 7th century following Muslim dominance over the [[RedGhana SeaEmpire]] trade,formed and collapsed infrom the 10th3rd century, while Islamfrom spreadthe among7th century the [[SomaliGao people|SomalisEmpire]] ruled to its east.<ref>{{Cite bookCitation |last=MekouriaGestrich |first=TekleNikolas |title=The Empire of Ghana |date=2019-03-Tsadik26 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |url=https://unesdocoxfordre.unescocom/africanhistory/display/10.org1093/ark:acrefore/482239780190277734.001.0001/pf0000184282acrefore-9780190277734-e-396 |titleaccess-date=General History of Africa: Volume 32024-10-06 |datelanguage=1988en |publisherdoi=UNESCO Publishing10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.396 |chapterisbn=The Horn of Africa978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> The [[Zagwe dynasty]] emerged in the 12th century and contested hegemony with the [[Sultanate of Shewa]] and the powerful [[Kingdom of Damot]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tadesse |first=Tamrat |url=https://unesdoconlinelibrary.unescowiley.orgcom/ark:doi/48223book/pf000018428710.1002/9781118455074 |title=GeneralThe HistoryEncyclopedia of Africa: Volume 4Empire |date=19842016-01-11 |publisher=UNESCOWiley Publishing|isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |chaptereditor-last=TheDalziel Horn|editor-first=Nigel of|edition=1 Africa:|language=en The|chapter=Gao SolomonidsEmpire in|pages=1–3 Ethiopia|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe312 and|editor-last2=MacKenzie the|editor-first2=John states of the Horn of AfricaM}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=423, 431}}Almoravid In the 13th century the Zagwe were overthrown by the [[Solomonic dynasty]]capture of theroyal [[Ethiopian EmpireAoudaghost]], whileled Shewato gaveGhana’s wayconversion to theIslam [[Walashma dynasty]] ofin the [[Sultanate11th of Ifat]].century,<ref name=":12">{{Citationcite journal |lastlast1=TamratConrad |firstfirst1=TaddesseDavid |titlelast2=Ethiopia,Fisher the Red Sea and the Horn|first2=Humphrey |dateyear=19771983 |worktitle=The CambridgeConquest HistoryThat ofNever AfricaWas: VolumeGhana 3:and Fromthe Almoravids, c1076.1050 to cI.1600 |volume=3The |pages=98–182External |editor-last=OliverArabic |editor-first=RolandSources |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/booksjournals/abs/cambridge-history-ofin-africa/ethiopiaarticle/conquest-thethat-rednever-was-seaghana-and-the-horn/1518583A70723220B77296C39BC0F570 |accessalmoravids-date=20241076-09i-03the-external-arabic-sources/4C43B158FD3D74BE744D8634781A4E0A |seriesjournal=The Cambridge History ofin Africa |placevolume=Cambridge10 |publisherdoi=Cambridge University Press10.2307/3171690 |isbnjstor=978-0-521-20981-63171690}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=123-134, 140}}and Ethiopiaclimatic emergedchanges victoriousled againstto IfatGhana's andconquest occupiedby its vassal [[Sosso Empire|Sosso]] in the Muslim13th statescentury.<ref name=":10">{{Citationcite journal |last=TamratMcIntosh |first=TaddesseSusan |year=2008 |title=Ethiopia,Reconceptualizing theEarly RedGhana Sea|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40380172 |journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies |publisher=Taylor and theFrancis Horn|volume=43 |dateissue=19772 |workpages=The347–373 Cambridge|jstor=40380172}}</ref> HistorySosso ofwas Africa:quickly Volumeoverthrown 3:by Fromthe c[[Mali Empire]] who conquered Gao and dominated the [[trans-Saharan trade]].1050<ref>{{Cite tobook c|last=Niane |first=Djibril |url=https://unesdoc.1600unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |volumetitle=3General History of Africa |pagesdate=98–1821984 |editor-lastpublisher=OliverUNESCO Publishing |editor-firstchapter=RolandMali and the second Mandingo expansion}}</ref> The [[Mossi Kingdoms]] were established to its south.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://wwwonlinelibrary.cambridgewiley.orgcom/coredoi/booksbook/abs10.1002/cambridge-history-9781118455074 |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016-africa/ethiopia01-the11 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-red1-sea118-and44064-the-horn/1518583A70723220B77296C39BC0F5703 |accesseditor-datelast=2024-09Dalziel |editor-03first=Nigel |seriesedition=The1 Cambridge|language=en History|chapter=Mossi of AfricaEmpire |placepages=Cambridge1–2 |publisherdoi=Cambridge University Press10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe127 |isbn=978editor-0last2=MacKenzie |editor-521-20981-6first2=John M}}</ref>{{Rp|page=143}} TheTo the east, the [[AjuranKanem–Bornu SultanateEmpire]] roseruled onfrom the Horn's6th eastcentury, coastand toprojected dominatepower over the [[IndianHausa Ocean tradeKingdoms]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118455074 |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016-01-11 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |edition=1 |language=en |chapter=Kanem-Bornu Empire |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe146wbeoe014 |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first2=John M}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Ifatbook was|last=Mahdi succeeded|first=Adamu by|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Hausa and their neighbours in central Sudan}}</ref> The 15th century saw the crumbling of the Mali Empire, with the dominant power in the region becoming the [[AdalSonghai SultanateEmpire]] whocentred reconqueredon much[[Gao]].<ref>{{Cite ofbook the|last=Ly-Tall Muslim|first=Madina lands|url=https://unesdoc.<refunesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 name|title="General History of Africa:1" />{{RpVolume 4 |pagesdate=1491984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The decline of the Mali empire}}</ref>
[[File:Head of an Oba MET DP231468.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.7|[[Benin Bronzes|Benin Bronze]] head from Nigeria|alt=Bronze head]]▼
In the [[Guinean forest–savanna mosaic|forest regions of West Africa]], various kingdoms and empires flourished, such as the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] empires of [[Ife Empire|Ife]] and [[Oyo Empire|Oyo]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akintoye |first=Stephen Adebanji |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iZcQEAAAQBAJ&dq=history+of+the+yoruba&pg=PT7 |title=A History of the Yoruba People |date=2010-01-01 |publisher=Amalion Publishing |isbn=978-2-35926-027-4 |language=en}}</ref> the [[Igbo people|Igbo]] [[Kingdom of Nri]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=M. Angulu Onwuejeogwu |url=https://archive.org/details/an-igbo-civilization-nri-kingdom-and-hegemony |title=An Igbo Civilization: Nri Kingdom and Hegemony |date=1980}}</ref> the [[Edo people|Edo]] [[Benin Empire|Kingdom of Benin]] (famous for [[Art of the Kingdom of Benin|its art]]),<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118455074 |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016-01-11 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |edition=1 |language=en |chapter=Benin (Edo city-state) |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe124 |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first2=John M}}</ref> the [[Dagomba people|Dagomba]] [[Kingdom of Dagbon]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-25 |title=Dagbon History: Kings, Towns, and Cultural Legacy |url=https://dagbonkingdom.com/dagbon-history/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |language=en-US}}</ref> and the [[Akan people|Akan]] kingdom of [[Bonoman]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Hargrove |first=Jarvis |title=Early Asante, Akan, and Mossi States |date=2024-07-17 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-1354 |access-date=2024-10-06 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-1354#acrefore-9780190277734-e-1354-div1-2 |doi-broken-date=5 November 2024 |isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref> They came into contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century which saw the start of the [[Atlantic slave trade]].
 
In the [[Congo Basin]] by the 13th century there were three main confederations of states: the [[Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza|Seven Kingdoms]], [[Mpemba]], and one led by [[Vungu]].<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=The Development of States in West Central Africa to 1540 |date=2020 |work=A History of West Central Africa to 1850 |pages=16–55 |editor-last=Thornton |editor-first=John K. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/history-of-west-central-africa-to-1850/development-of-states-in-west-central-africa-to-1540/CE71122CF8DFD7B4B188BA34F8F65BFC |access-date=2024-09-21 |series=New Approaches to African History |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-56593-7}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=24-25}} In the 14th century the [[Kingdom of Kongo]] emerged and dominated the region.<ref name=":2" /> Further east, the [[Luba Empire]] was founded in the [[Upemba Depression]] in the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vansina |first=Jan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Equatorial Africa and Angola: Migrations and the emergence of the first states}}</ref> In the northern [[African Great Lakes|Great Lakes]], the [[Empire of Kitara]] rose around the 11th century, famed for its total lack of written record. It collapsed in the 15th century following [[Luo peoples#Uganda|Luo migrations]] to the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buchanan |first=Carole Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=70U1cAAACAAJ |title=The Kitara Complex: The Historical Tradition of Western Uganda to the 16th Century |date=1974 |publisher=Indiana University |language=en}}</ref>
▲[[File:Head of an Oba MET DP231468.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Benin Bronzes|Benin Bronze]] head from Nigeria|alt=Bronze head]]
 
On the [[Swahili coast]] the [[List of Swahili settlements of the East African coast|Swahili city-states]] thrived off of the [[Indian Ocean trade]] and gradually Islamised, giving rise to the [[Kilwa Sultanate]] from the 10th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Masao |first=Fidelis |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The East African coast and the Comoro Islands}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Matveiev |first=Victor |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The development of Swahili civilization}}</ref> Madagascar was settled by [[Austronesian peoples]] between the 5th and 7th centuries, as societies organised at the behest of [[Hasina (Madagascar)|''hasina'']].<ref name="Randrianja 2009">{{cite book |last=Randrianja |first=Solofo |title=Madagascar: A short history |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |chapter=Transforming the island (1100-1599) |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/madagascarshorth0000rand/page/42/mode/2up}}</ref>{{rp|pages=43, 52-53}} In the [[Zambezi Basin]], the [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]] was founded in the 11th century. It was followed by the [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]] in the 13th century, and the [[Mutapa Empire]] in the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fagan |first=Brian |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Zambezi and Limpopo basins: 1100–1500}}</ref>
In the [[West Sudanian savanna|West African Sahel region]] the [[Ghana Empire]] rose from c. 3rd century and dominated the trans-Saharan trade, while the [[Gao Empire]] ruled to its east from the 7th century.<ref>{{Citation |last=Gestrich |first=Nikolas |title=The Empire of Ghana |date=2019-03-26 |work=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History |url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-396 |access-date=2024-10-06 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-396 |isbn=978-0-19-027773-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118455074 |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016-01-11 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |edition=1 |language=en |chapter=Gao Empire |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe312 |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first2=John M}}</ref> Almoravid capture of royal [[Aoudaghost]] led to Ghana’s conversion to Islam in the 11th century,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Conrad |first1=David |last2=Fisher |first2=Humphrey |year=1983 |title=The Conquest That Never Was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. I. The External Arabic Sources |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/history-in-africa/article/conquest-that-never-was-ghana-and-the-almoravids-1076-i-the-external-arabic-sources/4C43B158FD3D74BE744D8634781A4E0A |journal=History in Africa |volume=10 |doi=10.2307/3171690 |jstor=3171690}}</ref> and climatic changes led to Ghana's conquest by its vassal [[Sosso Empire|Sosso]] in the 13th century.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last=McIntosh |first=Susan |year=2008 |title=Reconceptualizing Early Ghana |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40380172 |journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies |publisher=Taylor and Francis |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=347–373 |jstor=40380172}}</ref> They were quickly in turn overthrown by the [[Mali Empire]] who conquered Gao and dominated trade.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Niane |first=Djibril |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Mali and the second Mandingo expansion}}</ref> The [[Mossi Kingdoms]] were established to its south.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118455074 |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016-01-11 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |edition=1 |language=en |chapter=Mossi Empire |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe127 |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first2=John M}}</ref> West Africa became the world's largest gold exporter by the 14th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=245|ps=, "By the 14th century, and probably earlier, West Africa was producing and exporting more gold than anywhere else in the world."}}</ref> To the east, the [[Kanem–Bornu Empire]] ruled from the 6th century, and projected power over the [[Hausa Kingdoms]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118455074 |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016-01-11 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-44064-3 |editor-last=Dalziel |editor-first=Nigel |edition=1 |language=en |chapter=Kanem-Bornu Empire |doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe014 |editor-last2=MacKenzie |editor-first2=John M}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahdi |first=Adamu |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Hausa and their neighbours in central Sudan}}</ref> The 15th century saw the crumbling of the Mali Empire, releasing the [[Jolof Empire]], and the [[Songhai Empire]] centred on [[Gao]] who quickly became the dominant power in the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ly-Tall |first=Madina |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The decline of the Mali empire}}</ref>
 
In the [[Guinean forest–savanna mosaic|forest regions of West Africa]], various kingdoms and empires flourished, such as the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] empires of [[Ife Empire|Ife]] and [[Oyo Empire|Oyo]], the [[Igbo people|Igbo]] [[Kingdom of Nri]], the [[Edo people|Edo]] [[Benin Empire]] (famous for [[Art of the Kingdom of Benin|its art]]), the [[Dagomba people|Dagomba]] [[Kingdom of Dagbon]], and the [[Akan people|Akan]] kingdom of [[Bonoman]].
 
In the [[Congo Basin]] by the 13th century there were three main confederations of states: the [[Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza|Seven Kingdoms]], [[Mpemba]], and one led by [[Vungu]]. In the 13th century the [[Kingdom of Kongo]] emerged and dominated the region. Further east, the [[Luba Empire]] was founded in the [[Upemba Depression]] in the 15th century.
 
In the northern [[African Great Lakes|Great Lakes]], the [[Empire of Kitara]] rose c. 11th century, famed for its total lack of written record. It collapsed in the 15th century following [[Luo peoples#Uganda|Luo migrations]] to the region. The end of the 15th century saw the kingdoms of [[Bunyoro-Kitara]], [[Nkore]], [[Buganda]], and [[Kingdom of Rwanda|Rwanda]] among others.
 
On the [[Swahili coast]] the [[List of Swahili settlements of the East African coast|Swahili city-states]] thrived off of the [[Indian Ocean trade]] and gradually Islamised, giving rise to the [[Kilwa Sultanate]] from the 10th century. Madagascar was settled by [[Austronesian peoples]] between the 5th and 7th centuries, as societies organised at the behest of [[Hasina (Madagascar)|''hasina'']] and competed over the [[List of rivers of Madagascar|island's estuaries]].
 
In the southern Great Lakes near the [[Zambezi]], the [[Kingdom of Mapungubwe]] was founded in the 11th century. It was followed by the [[Kingdom of Zimbabwe]] in the 13th century, and the [[Mutapa Empire]] in the 15th century.
 
===South Asia===
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[[File:Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|alt=Stone statues of human heads and torsos|[[Moai]], [[Easter Island]]<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=625}}|{{harvnb|Flenley|Bahn|2003|p=109|ps=, "From the islanders' testimony and other Polynesian ethnography it is virtually certain that the statues represented high-ranking ancestors, often served as their funerary monument, and kept their memory alive–like the simple upright slabs in front of platforms in the Society Islands, which represented clan ancestors, or the statues dominating the terraces of sanctuaries in the Marquesas, which were famous old chiefs or priests."}}}}</ref>]]
 
The [[Polynesians]], descendants of the [[Lapita culture|Lapita peoples]], colonized vast reaches of [[Remote Oceania]] beginning around 1000 CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=621–22}}</ref>{{efn|They traveled the open ocean in double-hulled canoes up to {{convert|37|m|ft|sp=us}} long, each canoe carrying as many as 50 people and their livestock.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=406–07}}</ref>}} Their voyages resulted in the colonization of hundreds of islands including the [[Marquesas Islands|Marquesas]], Hawaii, [[Easter Island|Rapa Nui]] (Easter Island), and New Zealand.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=622}}</ref>
 
The [[Tu{{fakau'a}}i Tonga Empire]] was founded in the 10th century CE and expanded between 1250 and 1500.<ref>{{harvnb|Burley|1998|pp=368–9, 375}}</ref> Tongan culture, language, and hegemony spread widely throughout eastern [[Melanesia]], [[Micronesia]], and central [[Polynesia]] during this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Kirch|Green|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WRapfjQ_iTEC&pg=PA87 87]}}</ref> They influenced east [['Uvea]], [[Rotuma]], [[Futuna (Wallis and Futuna)|Futuna]], [[Samoan Islands|Samoa]], and [[Niue]], as well as specific islands and parts of [[Micronesia]], [[Vanuatu]], and [[New Caledonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Geraghty|1994|pp=236–239|loc=Linguistic Evidence for the Tongan Empire}}</ref> In Northern Australia, there is evidence that [[Aboriginal Australians]] regularly [[Makassan contact with Australia|traded with Makassan trepangers]] from Indonesia before the arrival of Europeans.<ref>{{harvnb|MacKnight|1986|pp=69–75}}</ref> In Aboriginal societies, leadership was [[Achieved status|based on achievement]] while the social structure of Polynesian societies was characterized by hereditary [[chiefdom]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|McNiven|2017|pp=603–604, 629}}</ref>
 
===Americas===
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[[File:Machu Picchu, Perú, 2015-07-30, DD 47.JPG|thumb|[[Machu Picchu]], [[Inca Empire]], Peru|alt=Stone ruins in the mountains]]
 
In North America, this period saw the rise of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the modern-day United States {{c.|950|lk=no}} CE,<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=546–547}}</ref> marked by the extensive 11th-century urban complex at [[Cahokia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Yoffee|2015|p=437}}</ref> The [[Ancestral Puebloans]] and their predecessors (9th–13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that remained the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Fagan|2005|p=35}}</ref>
 
In Mesoamerica, the [[Teotihuacan#History|Teotihuacan civilization]] fell and the [[classic Maya collapse]] occurred.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=205, 208}}</ref> The [[Aztec Empire]] came to dominate much of Mesoamerica in the 14th and 15th centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=622}}</ref>
 
In South America, the 15th century saw the rise of the Inca.<ref name="Bulliet et al-6"/> The [[Inca Empire]], with its capital at [[Cusco]], spanned the entire [[Andes]], making it the most extensive [[Pre-Columbian Civilizations|pre-Columbian civilization]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=638}}</ref> The Inca were prosperous and advanced, known for an excellent [[Inca road system|road system]] and elegant stonework.<ref>{{harvnb|Kedar|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=644, 658}}</ref>
 
==Early modern period==
Line 244 ⟶ 239:
[[File:NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg|thumb|left|Japanese depiction of a Portuguese [[carrack]]. European maritime innovations led to proto-globalization.|alt=Painting of a ship]]
 
[[Capitalism|Capitalist]] economies emerged, initially in the [[Maritime republics|northern Italian republics]] and some Asian port cities.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=192|ps=, "The Italian city-states developed business procedures that have been described as early capitalism, although this was already business as usual in Asian port-cities such as Cambay, Calicut and Zayton."}}</ref> European states practiced [[mercantilism]] by implementing one-sided trade policies designed to benefit the mother country at the expense of its colonies.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=448, 460, 501}}|{{harvnb|Horn|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qhbHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 68–69]}}}}</ref> Starting at the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese established [[Factory (trading post)|trading posts]] across Africa, Asia, and Brazil, for commodities like gold and spices while also practicing slavery.<ref>{{harvnb|Kazeroony|2023|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KIvXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1981 § European Colonialism]}}</ref> In the 17th century, private [[Chartered company|chartered companies]] were established, such as the [[East India Company|English East India Company]] in 1600 – often described as the first [[multinational corporation]] – and the [[Dutch East India Company]] in 1602.<ref name="Bentley">{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=194}}</ref> Meanwhile, in much of the European sphere, serfdom declined and eventually disappeared while the power of the Catholic Church waned.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=448, 460, 501}}</ref>
 
The [[Age of Discovery]] was the first period in which the [[Old World]] engaged in substantial cultural, material, and biological exchange with the [[New World]]. It began in the late 15th century, when [[History of Portugal (1415–1578)|Portugal]] and [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] sent the first exploratory voyages to the Americas, where [[Christopher Columbus]] first arrived in 1492. Global integration continued as [[European colonization of the Americas]] initiated the [[Columbian exchange]]: the exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations (including slaves), [[Infection|communicable diseases]], and culture between the [[Eastern Hemisphere|Eastern]] and [[Western Hemisphere]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015b|pp=103–134}}</ref> It was one of history's most important global events, involving ecology and agriculture.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=38}}</ref> New crops brought from the Americas by 16th-century European seafarers substantially contributed to world population growth.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2011|p=383|ps=, "Because such crops flourished where more familiar staples grew less well, American crops effectively increased the area under cultivation and thereby made possible population growth in many parts of Afro-Eurasia from the 16th century onward."}}</ref>
 
===West and Central Asia===
The Ottoman Empire quickly came to dominate the Middle East after conquering Constantinople in 1453, which marked the end of the Byzantine Empire.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=417}}|{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008c|p=xv}}}}</ref> Persia came under the rule of the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]] in 1501,<ref>{{harvnb|Axworthy|2008|p=121}}</ref> succeeded by the [[Afsharid dynasty|Afshars]] in 1736, the [[Zand dynasty|Zands]] in 1751, and the [[Qajar dynasty|Qajars]] in 1794.<ref>{{harvnb|Axworthy|2008|p=171}}</ref> The Safavids [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|established]] [[Shia Islam]] as Persia's official religion, thus giving Persia a separate identity from its [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] neighbors.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=469|ps=, "Having determined to build a distinctive Iranian, Shi'a identity for their empire, the Safavids forced the conversion of all Muslims in their territory to Shi'ism."}}</ref> Along with the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] in India, the Ottomans and Safavids are known as the [[gunpowder empires]] because of their early adoption of firearms.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=456|ps=, "In the Middle East, Central Asia and India, the Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal empires adopted firearms so enthusiastically that they are often referred to as 'gunpowder empires.'"}}</ref> At the end of the 18th century, the [[Russian Empire]] began its [[Russian conquest of the Caucasus|conquest]] of the Caucasus.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=626|ps=, "In the region of the Caucasus Mountains, the third area of southward expansion, Russia first took over Christian Georgia (1786), Muslim Azerbaijan (1801), and Christian Armenia (1813) before gobbling up the many small principalities in the heart of the mountains."}}</ref> The [[Uzbek Khanate|Uzbeks]] replaced the [[Timurid Empire|Timurids]] as the preeminent power in Central Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=358|ps=, "Political and military instability, succession disputes and conflicts with the Türkmen and Uzbeks vitiated these remarkable economic achievements, weakening the Timurids and making them vulnerable to the previously nomadic Uzbeks, who became the dominant force in Central Asia from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth century."}}</ref>
 
===Europe===
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[[File:10 2599 Wittenberg - Marktplatz.jpg|thumb|[[Wittenberg]], birthplace of [[Protestantism]]]]
 
The early modern period in Europe was an era of intense intellectual ferment. The [[Renaissance]] – the "rebirth" of classical culture, beginning [[Italian Renaissance|in Italy]] in the 14th century and extending into the 16th{{efn|Some scholars date the period later, to the 15th and 16th centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Carter|Butt|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mHJvKVq0vXoC 4]|ps=, "Historians of different kinds will often make some choice between a long Renaissance (say, 1300–1600), a short one (1453–1527), or somewhere in between (the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, as is commonly adopted in music histories)."}}</ref>}} – comprised the rediscovery of the [[classical world]]'s cultural, scientific, and technological achievements, and the economic and social rise of Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=363, 368}}</ref> This period is also celebrated for its artistic and literary attainments.<ref name="Bulliet et al-2">{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015a|pp=365–8}}</ref> [[Petrarch]]'s poetry, [[Giovanni Boccaccio]]'s ''[[The Decameron|Decameron]]'', and the paintings and sculptures of [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Michelangelo]] are some of the great works of the age.<ref name="Bulliet et al-2"/> After the Renaissance came the [[Reformation]], an anti-clerical theological and social movement that resulted in the creation of [[Protestantism|Protestant Christianity]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015b|pp=338–339, 345}}</ref> The Renaissance also engendered a culture of inquisitiveness which ultimately led to [[humanism]]<ref>{{harvnb|Tignor et al.|2014|pp=426–427}}</ref> and the [[Scientific Revolution]], an effort to understand the natural world through direct observation and experiment.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Roberts|Westad|2013|pp=683–685}}|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=436}}}}</ref> The success of the new scientific techniques inspired attempts to apply them to political and social affairs, known as the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], by thinkers such as [[John Locke]] and [[Immanuel Kant]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=444}}|{{harvnb|Bristow|2023|loc=Lead Section}} }}</ref> This development was accompanied by [[secularization]] as a continued decline of the influence of religious beliefs and authorities in the public and private spheres.<ref>{{harvnb|Schulman|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4vOoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}}</ref> [[Johannes Gutenberg]]'s invention of [[movable type]] printing in 1440{{efn|The Chinese invented movable type centuries earlier, but it was better suited to the alphabetical writing systems of European languages.<ref>{{harvnb|Headrick|2009|p=85}}</ref>}} helped spread the ideas of the new intellectual movements.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Headrick|2009|p=85}}|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=436}}|{{harvnb|Chrisp|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tbbjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA267 267]}}}}</ref>
 
[[File:Badia fiorentina, campanile, veduta da, duomo 01.jpg|thumb|[[Florence]], birthplace of the [[Italian Renaissance]]|alt=A city with red roofs and a larger domed building in the center.]]
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===Africa===
Throughout the 16th century the Ottomans conquered all of North Africa save for Morocco, which came under the rule of the [[Saadi Sultanate|Saadi dynasty]] at the same time, and then the [[Alawi dynasty]] in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vesely |first=Rudolf |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Ottoman conquest of Egypt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cherif |first=Mohammed |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Algeria, Tunisia and Libya: The Ottomans and their heirs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=El Fasi |first=Mohammad |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Morocco}}</ref> In the [[Horn of Africa]] there was the [[Oromo expansion]] in the 16th century, which weakened [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] and caused [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]]'s collapse. [[Ajuran Sultanate|Ajuran]] was succeeded by the [[Sultanate of the Geledi|Geledi Sultanate]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haberland |first=Eike |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Horn of Africa}}</ref> In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Ethiopia rapidly expanded.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Ethiopia and Somalia}}</ref>
Between 1515 and 1800, Africa lost eight million people to the [[Atlantic slave trade]], and two million to the Arab slave trade.<ref name="Bulliet et al-5">{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=512}}</ref> The Atlantic trade was the transport of enslaved Africans to the Americas, while the Arab trade consisted of the [[Trans-Saharan slave trade|trans-Saharan]] and [[Indian Ocean slave trade]]s.<ref name="Bulliet et al-5"/> The [[Swahili coast|Swahili Coast]] was influenced by trade with the Portuguese and later the [[Omani Empire|Omanis]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=537}}</ref> In West Africa, the Songhai Empire fell after an [[Saadian invasion of the Songhai Empire|invasion]] by the Moroccans.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=323}}</ref> [[Bono state|Bonoman]] gave birth to numerous Akan states such as [[Akwamu]], [[Akyem]], [[Fante people|Fante]], and [[Adansi]], among others.<ref>{{harvnb|Meyerowitz|1975|pp=87, 125–126, 137, 139}}</ref> The Kingdom of Zimbabwe gave way to smaller kingdoms such as Mutapa,<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=260}}</ref> Butua,<ref>{{harvnb|Fage|Tordoff|2002|p=133}}</ref> and [[Rozvi Empire|Rozvi]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|p=261}}</ref>
 
▲AfricaIn was home to many different civilizations. Beginning in the 7th century NorthWest Africa saw the the extinguishment of, the [[Berbers|BerberSonghai Empire]] fell to [[Mauretania#Roman-MoorishMoroccan kingdoms|kingdoms]]invasion andof [[Byzantinethe NorthSonghai AfricaEmpire|ByzantineMoroccan Africainvasion]] in the [[Earlylate Muslim16th conquests]]century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MonesAbitbol |first=H.Michel |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 35 |date=19881992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The conquestend of North Africa and the BerberSonghay resistanceempire}}</ref> FromThey thewere 10thsucceeded centuryby the Arabian[[Bamana empire'sEmpire]]. African territory was consumed by theThe [[FatimidFula Caliphatejihads]] whobeginning camein tothe be18th centredcentury onled Egypt,to whothe wereestablishment supplanted byof the [[AyyubidSokoto dynasty|AyyubidsCaliphate]] in, the 12th[[Massina centuryEmpire]], and them later by the [[MamlukTukulor Sultanate|MamluksEmpire]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=HrbekBatran |first=IvanAziz |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 36 |date=19881989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The emergencenineteenth-century ofIslamic therevolutions Fatimidsin West Africa}}</ref> In the [[Maghreb]], the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] dominated from the 11th century and briefly had total control over the [[trans-Saharan trade]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=HrbekLast |first=IvanMurray |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 3 |last2=Devisse |first2=Jean6 |date=19881989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The AlmovaridsSokoto caliphate and Borno}}</ref> until it was subsumed by the [[Almohad Caliphate]] in the 12th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=SaidiLy-Tall |first=O.Madina |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 46 |date=19841989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=TheMassina unificationand ofTorodbe the(Tukuloor) Maghrebempire underuntil the Alhomads1878}}</ref> The Almohad's collapse gave rise toIn the [[Marinidforest Sultanate|Marinids]] in Morocco (later overthrown by the [[Wattasids]])regions, the [[KingdomAsante of Tlemcen|ZayyanidsEmpire]] inwas Algeria,established andin the [[Hafsid dynasty|Hafsids]] inpresent-day TunisiaGhana.<ref>{{Cite book |last=HrbekBoahen |first=IvanAlbert |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 46 |date=19841989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The disintegrationstates and cultures of the politicalLower unityGuinea ofcoast}}</ref> Between 1515 and 1800, 8 million Africans were exported in the Maghreb[[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref name="Bulliet et al-5">{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=512}}</ref>
 
In the Congo Basin, [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]] fought three wars against the Portuguese who had begun [[Colonization of Angola|colonising Angola]], ending in the conquest of [[Kingdom of Ndongo|Ndongo]] in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vansina |first=Jan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Kongo kingdom and its neighbours}}</ref> Further east, the [[Lunda Empire]] rose to dominate the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nzieme |first=Isidore |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The political system of the Luba and Lunda: its emergence and expansion}}</ref> It fell to the [[Chokwe people#History|Chokwe]] in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vellut |first=Jean-Luc |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Congo basin and Angola}}</ref> In the northern [[African Great Lakes|Great Lakes]], there were the kingdoms of [[Bunyoro-Kitara]], [[Buganda]], and [[Kingdom of Rwanda|Rwanda]] among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Webster |first1=James |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |last2=Ogot |first2=Bethwell |last3=Chretien |first3=Jean-Pierre |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Great Lakes region: 1500–1800}}</ref>
 
[[Kilwa Sultanate|Kilwa]] was conquered by the Portuguese in the 16th century as they began [[Portuguese Mozambique|colonising Mozambique]]. They were defeated by the [[Omani Empire]] who took control of the [[Swahili coast]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salim |first=Ahmed |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=East Africa: The coast}}</ref> In Madagascar the 16th century onwards saw the emergence of [[Imerina]], the [[Betsileo people#History|Betsileo kingdoms]], and the [[Sakalava people#History|Sakalava empire]];<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kent |first=Raymond |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Madagascar and the islands of the Indian Ocean}}</ref> Imerina conquered most of the island in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mutibwa |first=Phares |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Madagascar 1800–80}}</ref> In the Zambezi Basin [[Kingdom of Mutapa|Mutapa]] was followed by the [[Rozvi Empire]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhila |first=Hoyini |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Southern Zambezia}}</ref> with [[Maravi]] around [[Lake Malawi]] to its north.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Phiri |first1=Kings |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |last2=Kalinga |first2=Owen |last3=Bhila |first3=Hoyini |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The northern Zambezia-Lake Malawi region}}</ref> [[Mthwakazi]] succeeded Rozvi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isaacman |first=Allen |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The countries of the Zambezi basin}}</ref> Further south, the Dutch began [[History of South Africa|colonising South Africa]] in the 16th century, who lost it to the British.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Denoon |first=Donald |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Southern Africa}}</ref> In the 19th century the [[Mfecane]] ravaged the region and led to the establishment of the [[Zulu Kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ncgongco |first=Leonard |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Mfecane and the rise of the new African states}}</ref>
In North Africa, the Berbers remained in control of independent states until the 16th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Fage|Tordoff|2002|pp=176–177}}</ref> In the Horn of Africa, the [[Ajuran Sultanate]] declined in the 18th century and was succeeded by the [[Sultanate of the Geledi|Geledi Sultanate]].<ref>{{harvnb|Njoku|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C&pg=PA41 41]}}</ref> The [[Ethiopian Empire]] suffered from the 1531 invasion by the neighboring Muslim [[Adal Sultanate]],<ref>{{harvnb|Trimmingham|1952|pp=[https://archive.org/details/islaminethiopia0000trim_r6g6/page/86/mode/2up 87, 89–90]}}</ref> and in 1769 entered the [[Zemene Mesafint]] (Age of Princes) during which the Emperor became a figurehead and the country was ruled by warlords, though the royal line later recovered under Emperor [[Tewodros II]].<ref>{{harvnb|Uhlig|Appleyard|Bausi|Hahn|2017|pp=117, 121}}</ref> Other civilizations in Africa advanced during this period. The Oyo Empire experienced its golden age, as did the Kingdom of Benin.<ref>{{harvnb|Fage|Tordoff|2002|pp=101, 285}}</ref> The [[Ashanti Empire]] rose to power in modern-day [[Ghana]] in the late 17th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Fage|Tordoff|2002|p=277}}</ref> The Kingdom of Kongo also thrived during this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Fage|Tordoff|2002|pp=134–135}}</ref>
 
===South Asia===
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===Southeast Asia===
In 1511, the Portuguese overthrew the [[Malacca Sultanate]] in present-day Malaysia and Indonesian [[Sumatra]].<ref>{{harvnb|Yoffee|2015|p=74|ps=, "When the Portuguese admiral Alfonso de Albuquerque conquered the sultanate of Melaka (Malacca) on August 24, 1511, he brought under Portuguese control a Southeast Asian polity whose reach stretched across the Malay peninsula."}}</ref> The Portuguese held this important trading territory (and the valuable associated navigational strait) until overthrown by the Dutch in 1641.<ref name="Bentley"/> The [[Johor Sultanate]], centered on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015b|p=257|ps=, "As of about 1500, the power in this region, and the main enemy of the ''Estado da Índia'', was the sultanate of Johor."}}</ref>
 
[[European colonisation of Southeast Asia|European colonization]] expanded with the Dutch in [[Dutch East Indies|Indonesia]], the Portuguese in [[Portuguese Timor|Timor]], and the Spanish in the [[Spanish East Indies|Philippines]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|pp=200, 276, 381–382}}</ref> Into the 19th century, European expansion affected the whole of Southeast Asia, with the British in [[British rule in Burma|Burma]], [[British Malaya|Malaya]], and [[British Borneo|North Borneo]], and the French in [[French Indochina|Indochina]].<ref name="McNeill-2">{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=336}}</ref> Only [[History of Thailand|Thailand]] successfully resisted colonization.<ref name="McNeill-2"/>
 
===Oceania===
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In North America, Britain colonized the east coast while France settled the central region.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008c|p=xxi}}|{{harvnb|Wiesner|2015|loc=§ Colonization, Empires, and Trade}}|{{harvnb|Springer Nature Limited|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uDvsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1157 1157]}}}}</ref> Russia made incursions into the northwest coast of North America, with its first colony in present-day [[History of Alaska|Alaska]] in 1784,<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Wheeler|1971|p=441|ps=, "This view overlooks the fact that, in the forty years since Shelikhov had founded the first permanent settlement on Kodiak Island in 1784, only eight additional settlements had been established, none of which was south of 57° north latitude."}}|{{harvnb|Gilbert|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yz5PEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 44]}}}}</ref> and the outpost of [[Fort Ross, California|Fort Ross]] in present-day [[History of California|California]] in 1812.<ref>{{harvnb|Chapman|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q_qdriEP_UC&pg=PA36 36]}}</ref> France lost its North American territory to England and Spain after the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=482|ps=, "The peace agreement forced France to yield Canada to the English and cede Louisiana to Spain."}}|{{harvnb|Wiesner|2015|loc=§ Colonization, Empires, and Trade}}}}</ref> Britain's [[Thirteen Colonies]] [[American Revolution|declared independence as the United States]] in 1776, ratified by the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] in 1783, ending the [[American Revolutionary War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Tindall & Shi 2010|pp=219, 254}}</ref> In 1791, African slaves [[Haitian Revolution|launched a successful rebellion]] in the French colony of [[Saint-Domingue]]. France won back its continental claims from Spain in 1800, but sold them to the United States in the [[Louisiana Purchase]] of 1803.<ref>{{harvnb|Tindall & Shi 2010|p=352}}</ref>
 
==Modern periodera==
{{Main|Modern era|19th century|20th century|21st century}}
 
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[[File:World 1898 empires colonies territory.png|thumb|upright=1.9|Empires of the world in 1898|alt=A world map colored to show imperial control]]
 
European empires [[Decolonization of the Americas|lost territories in Latin America]], which [[Spanish American wars of independence|won independence]] by the 1820s through military campaigns,<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=529, 532}}</ref> but expanded elsewhere as their industrial economies gave them an advantage over the rest of the world.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=563|ps=, "The first countries to industrialize grew rich and powerful, facilitating a second great wave of European imperialism in the 19th century."}}</ref> Britain gained control of the Indian subcontinent, Burma, Malaya, North Borneo, [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], and [[Aden Province|Aden]]; the French took Indochina; and the Dutch cemented their rule over Indonesia.<ref name="McNeill-2">{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=336}}</ref> The British also colonized Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=532, 676–8, 692}}</ref> Russia colonized large pre-agricultural areas of Siberia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=448}}</ref> The United States completed its [[American frontier|westward expansion]], establishing control over the territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Greene|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LBjHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}}</ref> In the late 19th century to early 20th century, the European powers, driven by the [[Second Industrial Revolution]], rapidly [[Scramble for Africa|dividedconquered theand remainingcolonised areasalmost the entirety of Africa]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=562}}</ref> Only Ethiopia and [[Liberia]] remained independent.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=532}}</ref> Imperial rule in Africa involved many atrocities such as [[Atrocities in the Congo Free State|those in the Congo Free State]] and the [[Herero and Nama genocide]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=429}}|{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=2}}}}</ref>
 
Within Europe, economic and military competition fostered the creation and consolidation of nation-states, and other ethno-cultural communities began to identify themselves as distinctive nations with aspirations for their own cultural and political autonomy.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=306, 310–311}}</ref> This [[nationalism]] became important to peoples across the world in the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=312}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=41–44}} }}</ref> The [[Waves of democracy|first wave of democratization]] occurred between 1828 and 1926, during which democratic institutions were established in 33 countries worldwide.<ref>{{harvnb|Huntington|1991|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IMjyTFG04JYC 15–16]}}</ref> Most of the world [[Abolitionism|abolished slavery]] and serfdom in the 19th century.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=112}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|p=42}} }}</ref> Over several decades, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing throughout the 20th,<ref>{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=35}}</ref> in many countries the [[women's suffrage]] movement won women the right to vote,<ref>{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=95}}</ref> and women began to enjoy greater access to education and to professions beyond domestic employment.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2011|p=448}}</ref>
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* {{cite book |title=A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change |last1=Bideleux |first1=Robert |last2=Jeffries |first2=Ian |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-16112-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U39AYJm1L94C |year=1998 |access-date=10 February 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429044459/https://books.google.com/books?id=U39AYJm1L94C |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Dinan |first1=Desmond |title=Europe Recast: A History of European Union |date=2004 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=0-333-98734-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/europerecasthist0000dina_u0v7/ }}
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* {{cite book |last1=Haynes |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Hough |first2=Peter |last3=Pilbeam |first3=Bruce |title=World Politics |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5297-7459-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJGREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |language=en |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Headrick |first=Daniel R. |author-link=Daniel R. Headrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_WgSDAAAQBAJ |title=Technology: A World History |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533821-8 |access-date=30 September 2023 |archive-date=5 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005092533/https://books.google.com/books?id=_WgSDAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Heldman |first1=Marylin |last2=Haile |first2=Getatchew |date=1987 |title=WHO IS WHO IN ETHIOPIA'S PAST, PART III: Founders of Ethiopia's Solomonic Dynasty |journal=Northeast African Studies |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |publisher=[[Michigan State University Press]] |jstor=43661131}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haht/hd_haht.htm |title=Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition |last1=Hemingway |first1=Colette |last2=Hemingway |first2=Seán |date=2007 |website=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=18 November 2016 |archive-date=31 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531025138/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haht/hd_haht.htm |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Henshall|first=Kenneth|title=A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower|isbn=0-312-21986-5|publisher=St. Martin's Press|year=1999|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjapan00kenn/}}
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* {{cite book|title=America: A Narrative History|volume=1|edition=8th|ref={{harvid|Tindall & Shi 2010}}|year=2010|last1=Tindall|first1=George|last2=Shi|first2=David|isbn=978-0-393-93406-9|publisher=Norton}}
* {{cite journal |title=The Islamization of Central Asia in the Sāmānid Era and the Reshaping of the Muslim World |last=Tor |first=Deborah |date=2009 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=279–299 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/S0041977X09000524 |jstor=40379005 |s2cid=153554938}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.tota.world/article/68/ |title=Architecture of Akan Societies |author=TOTA |website=tota.world |publisher=TOTA |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=17 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917165201/https://www.tota.world/article/68/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |first=Conrad |last=Totman |year=2002 |title=A History of Japan |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-2359-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACAAJ |access-date=22 July 2022 |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116111039/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tozzo |first1=Brandon |title=American Hegemony after the Great Recession: A Transformation in World Order |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-57539-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iH86DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |language=en |date=2017 }}
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