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These developments paved the way for the [[Cradle of civilization|emergence of early civilizations]] in [[Mesopotamia]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], the [[Indus Valley]], and [[History of China|China]], marking the beginning of the [[Ancient period]] in 3500 BCE. These civilizations supported the establishment of regional empires and acted as a fertile ground for the advent of transformative philosophical and religious ideas, initially [[Hinduism]] during the late [[Bronze Age]], and later [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Greek philosophy]], [[Jainism]], [[Judaism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Zoroastrianism]] during the [[Axial Age]]. The following [[Post-classical history|post-classical period]], from about 500 to 1500 CE, witnessed the rise of [[Islam]] and the continued spread and consolidation of [[Christianity]] while civilization expanded to new parts of the world and trade between societies increased. These developments were accompanied by the rise and decline of major empires, such as the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Caliphate|Islamic Caliphates]], the [[Mongol Empire]], and various [[Dynasties of China|Chinese dynasties]]. This period's invention of [[gunpowder]] and of the [[printing press]] greatly affected subsequent history.
During the [[early modern period]], spanning from approximately 1500 to 1800 CE, [[Age of Discovery|European powers explored]] and [[Colonization|colonized]] regions worldwide, intensifying cultural and economic exchange. This era saw substantial intellectual, cultural, and technological advances in Europe driven by the [[Renaissance]], the [[Scientific Revolution]], and the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology had reached a [[Critical mass (sociodynamics)|critical mass]] that brought about the [[Industrial Revolution]], substantial to the [[Great Divergence]], and began the [[modern period]] starting around 1800 CE. The rapid growth in productive power further increased [[international trade]] and [[colonization]], linking the different civilizations in the process of [[globalization]], and cemented European dominance throughout the 19th century. Over the last quarter-millennium, despite the devastating effects of two [[world war]]s, there has been a great acceleration in the rates of growth of many domains, including [[Population growth|human population]], agriculture, industry, commerce, scientific knowledge, technology, communications, military capabilities, and [[environmental degradation]].
The study of human history relies on insights from academic disciplines including [[history]], [[archaeology]], [[anthropology]], [[linguistics]], and [[genetics]]. To provide an accessible overview, researchers divide human history by a variety of periodizations.
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[[File:San Lorenzo Monument 4 crop.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Olmec colossal heads|Olmec colossal head]], now at the Museo de Antropología de Xalapa|alt=A stone head]]
Speakers of the [[Bantu languages]] began [[Bantu expansion|expanding]] across Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa as early as 3000 BCE until 1000 CE.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|pp=646–647}}</ref> Their expansion and encounters with other groups resulted in the displacement of the [[African Pygmies|Pygmy peoples]] and the [[Khoisan]], and in the spread of [[mixed farming]] and [[Ferrous metallurgy|ironworking]] throughout sub-Saharan Africa, laying the foundations for later states.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=648}}</ref>
The [[Lapita culture]] emerged in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] near [[New Guinea]] around 1500 BCE and colonized many uninhabited islands of [[Remote Oceania]], reaching as far as [[Samoa]] by 700 BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Benjamin|2015|p=617}}</ref>
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Africa was home to many different civilizations.
[[File:Lalibela, san giorgio, esterno 24.jpg|thumb|One of the eleven [[Rock-hewn Churches of Lalibela]] constructed during the [[Zagwe dynasty]] in Ethiopia]]
In the [[Horn of Africa]], Islam spread among the [[Somali people|Somalis]], while the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] declined from the 7th century following Muslim dominance over the [[Red Sea]] trade, and collapsed in the 10th century
In the [[West Sudanian savanna|West African Sahel region]] the [[Ghana Empire]]
[[File:Head of an Oba MET DP231468.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.7|[[Benin Bronzes|Benin Bronze]] head from Nigeria|alt=Bronze head]]
In the [[Guinean forest–savanna mosaic|forest regions of West Africa]], various kingdoms and empires flourished, such as the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] empires of [[Ife Empire|Ife]] and [[Oyo Empire|Oyo]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akintoye |first=Stephen Adebanji |url=https://books.google.
In the [[Congo Basin]] by the 13th century there were three main confederations of states: the [[Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza|Seven Kingdoms]], [[Mpemba]], and one led by [[Vungu]].<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=The Development of States in West Central Africa to 1540 |date=2020 |work=A History of West Central Africa to 1850 |pages=16–55 |editor-last=Thornton |editor-first=John K. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/history-of-west-central-africa-to-1850/development-of-states-in-west-central-africa-to-1540/CE71122CF8DFD7B4B188BA34F8F65BFC |access-date=2024-09-21 |series=New Approaches to African History |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-56593-7}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=24-25}} In the 14th century the [[Kingdom of Kongo]] emerged and dominated the region.<ref name=":2" /> Further east, the [[Luba Empire]] was founded in the [[Upemba Depression]] in the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vansina |first=Jan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Equatorial Africa and Angola: Migrations and the emergence of the first states}}</ref> In the northern [[African Great Lakes|Great Lakes]], the [[Empire of Kitara]] rose
On the [[Swahili coast]] the [[List of Swahili settlements of the East African coast|Swahili city-states]] thrived off of the [[Indian Ocean trade]] and gradually Islamised, giving rise to the [[Kilwa Sultanate]] from the 10th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Masao |first=Fidelis |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184282 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 3 |date=1988 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The East African coast and the Comoro Islands}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Matveiev |first=Victor |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |date=1984 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The development of Swahili civilization}}</ref> Madagascar was settled by [[Austronesian peoples]] between the 5th and 7th centuries, as societies organised at the behest of [[Hasina (Madagascar)|''hasina''
===South Asia===
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===Africa===
Throughout the 16th century the Ottomans conquered all of North Africa save for Morocco, which came under the rule of the [[Saadi Sultanate|Saadi dynasty]] at the same time, and then the [[Alawi dynasty]] in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vesely |first=Rudolf |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Ottoman conquest of Egypt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cherif |first=Mohammed |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Algeria, Tunisia and Libya: The Ottomans and their heirs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=El Fasi |first=Mohammad |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Morocco}}</ref> In the [[Horn of Africa]] there was the [[Oromo expansion]] in the 16th century, which weakened [[Ethiopian Empire|Ethiopia]] and caused [[Adal Sultanate|Adal]]'s collapse. [[Ajuran Sultanate|Ajuran]] was succeeded by the [[Sultanate of the Geledi|Geledi Sultanate]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haberland |first=Eike |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Horn of Africa}}</ref> In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Ethiopia rapidly expanded.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Ethiopia and Somalia}}</ref>
In West Africa, the [[Songhai Empire]] fell to [[Moroccan invasion of the Songhai Empire|Moroccan invasion]] in the late 16th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Abitbol |first=Michel |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The end of the Songhay empire}}</ref> They were succeeded by the [[Bamana Empire]]. The [[Fula jihads]] beginning in the 18th century led to the establishment of the [[Sokoto Caliphate]], the [[Massina Empire]], and the [[Tukulor Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Batran |first=Aziz |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The nineteenth-century Islamic revolutions in West Africa}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Last |first=Murray |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Sokoto caliphate and Borno}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ly-Tall |first=Madina |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Massina and Torodbe (Tukuloor) empire until 1878}}</ref> In the forest regions, the [[Asante Empire]] was established in present-day Ghana.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boahen |first=Albert |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The states and cultures of the Lower Guinea coast}}</ref> Between 1515 and 1800, 8 million Africans were exported in the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref name="Bulliet et al-5">{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=512}}</ref>
In the Congo Basin, [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]] fought three wars against the Portuguese who had begun [[Colonization of Angola|colonising Angola]], ending in the conquest of [[Kingdom of Ndongo|Ndongo]] in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vansina |first=Jan |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Kongo kingdom and its neighbours}}</ref> Further east, the [[Lunda Empire]] rose to dominate the region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nzieme |first=Isidore |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The political system of the Luba and Lunda: its emergence and expansion}}</ref> It fell to the [[Chokwe people#History|Chokwe]] in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vellut |first=Jean-Luc |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Congo basin and Angola}}</ref> In the northern [[African Great Lakes|Great Lakes]], there were the kingdoms of [[Bunyoro-Kitara]], [[Buganda]], and [[Kingdom of Rwanda|Rwanda]] among others.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Webster |first1=James |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |last2=Ogot |first2=Bethwell |last3=Chretien |first3=Jean-Pierre |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Great Lakes region: 1500–1800}}</ref>
[[Kilwa Sultanate|Kilwa]] was conquered by the Portuguese in the 16th century as they began [[Portuguese Mozambique|colonising Mozambique]]. They were defeated by the [[Omani Empire]] who took control of the [[Swahili coast]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salim |first=Ahmed |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=East Africa: The coast}}</ref> In Madagascar the 16th century onwards saw the emergence of [[Imerina]], the [[Betsileo people#History|Betsileo kingdoms]], and the [[Sakalava people#History|Sakalava empire]];<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kent |first=Raymond |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Madagascar and the islands of the Indian Ocean}}</ref> Imerina conquered most of the island in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mutibwa |first=Phares |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Madagascar 1800–80}}</ref> In the Zambezi Basin [[Kingdom of Mutapa|Mutapa]] was followed by the [[Rozvi Empire]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bhila |first=Hoyini |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Southern Zambezia}}</ref> with [[Maravi]] around [[Lake Malawi]] to its north.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Phiri |first1=Kings |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |last2=Kalinga |first2=Owen |last3=Bhila |first3=Hoyini |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The northern Zambezia-Lake Malawi region}}</ref> [[Mthwakazi]] succeeded Rozvi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isaacman |first=Allen |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1989 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The countries of the Zambezi basin}}</ref> Further south, the Dutch began [[History of South Africa|colonising South Africa]] in the 16th century, who lost it to the British.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Denoon |first=Donald |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121577 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 5 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=Southern Africa}}</ref> In the 19th century the [[Mfecane]] ravaged the region and led to the establishment of the [[Zulu Kingdom]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ncgongco |first=Leonard |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184295 |title=General History of Africa: Volume 6 |date=1992 |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |chapter=The Mfecane and the rise of the new African states}}</ref>
===South Asia===
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In 1511, the Portuguese overthrew the [[Malacca Sultanate]] in present-day Malaysia and Indonesian [[Sumatra]].<ref>{{harvnb|Yoffee|2015|p=74|ps=, "When the Portuguese admiral Alfonso de Albuquerque conquered the sultanate of Melaka (Malacca) on August 24, 1511, he brought under Portuguese control a Southeast Asian polity whose reach stretched across the Malay peninsula."}}</ref> The Portuguese held this important trading territory (and the valuable associated navigational strait) until overthrown by the Dutch in 1641.<ref name="Bentley"/> The [[Johor Sultanate]], centered on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region.<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015b|p=257|ps=, "As of about 1500, the power in this region, and the main enemy of the ''Estado da Índia'', was the sultanate of Johor."}}</ref>
[[European colonisation of Southeast Asia|European colonization]] expanded with the Dutch in [[Dutch East Indies|Indonesia]], the Portuguese in [[Portuguese Timor|Timor]], and the Spanish in the [[Spanish East Indies|Philippines]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bentley|Subrahmanyam|Wiesner-Hanks|2015a|pp=200, 276, 381–382}}</ref>
===Oceania===
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In North America, Britain colonized the east coast while France settled the central region.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Ackermann|Schroeder|Terry|Upshur|2008c|p=xxi}}|{{harvnb|Wiesner|2015|loc=§ Colonization, Empires, and Trade}}|{{harvnb|Springer Nature Limited|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uDvsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1157 1157]}}}}</ref> Russia made incursions into the northwest coast of North America, with its first colony in present-day [[History of Alaska|Alaska]] in 1784,<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Wheeler|1971|p=441|ps=, "This view overlooks the fact that, in the forty years since Shelikhov had founded the first permanent settlement on Kodiak Island in 1784, only eight additional settlements had been established, none of which was south of 57° north latitude."}}|{{harvnb|Gilbert|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yz5PEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 44]}}}}</ref> and the outpost of [[Fort Ross, California|Fort Ross]] in present-day [[History of California|California]] in 1812.<ref>{{harvnb|Chapman|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q_qdriEP_UC&pg=PA36 36]}}</ref> France lost its North American territory to England and Spain after the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=482|ps=, "The peace agreement forced France to yield Canada to the English and cede Louisiana to Spain."}}|{{harvnb|Wiesner|2015|loc=§ Colonization, Empires, and Trade}}}}</ref> Britain's [[Thirteen Colonies]] [[American Revolution|declared independence as the United States]] in 1776, ratified by the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] in 1783, ending the [[American Revolutionary War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Tindall & Shi 2010|pp=219, 254}}</ref> In 1791, African slaves [[Haitian Revolution|launched a successful rebellion]] in the French colony of [[Saint-Domingue]]. France won back its continental claims from Spain in 1800, but sold them to the United States in the [[Louisiana Purchase]] of 1803.<ref>{{harvnb|Tindall & Shi 2010|p=352}}</ref>
==Modern
{{Main|Modern era|19th century|20th century|21st century}}
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[[File:World 1898 empires colonies territory.png|thumb|upright=1.9|Empires of the world in 1898|alt=A world map colored to show imperial control]]
European empires [[Decolonization of the Americas|lost territories in Latin America]], which [[Spanish American wars of independence|won independence]] by the 1820s through military campaigns,<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=529, 532}}</ref> but expanded elsewhere as their industrial economies gave them an advantage over the rest of the world.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=563|ps=, "The first countries to industrialize grew rich and powerful, facilitating a second great wave of European imperialism in the 19th century."}}</ref> Britain gained control of the Indian subcontinent, Burma, Malaya, North Borneo, [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], and [[Aden Province|Aden]]; the French took Indochina; and the Dutch cemented their rule over Indonesia.<ref name="McNeill-2">{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=336}}</ref> The British also colonized Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|pp=532, 676–8, 692}}</ref> Russia colonized large pre-agricultural areas of Siberia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bulliet et al.|2015b|p=448}}</ref> The United States completed its [[American frontier|westward expansion]], establishing control over the territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast.<ref>{{harvnb|Greene|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LBjHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR12 xii]}}</ref> In the late 19th century to early 20th century, the European powers, driven by the [[Second Industrial Revolution]], rapidly [[Scramble for Africa|conquered and colonised almost the entirety of Africa]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=562}}</ref> Only Ethiopia and [[Liberia]] remained independent.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=532}}</ref> Imperial rule in Africa involved many atrocities such as [[Atrocities in the Congo Free State|those in the Congo Free State]] and the [[Herero and Nama genocide]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=429}}|{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=2}}}}</ref>
Within Europe, economic and military competition fostered the creation and consolidation of nation-states, and other ethno-cultural communities began to identify themselves as distinctive nations with aspirations for their own cultural and political autonomy.<ref>{{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|pp=306, 310–311}}</ref> This [[nationalism]] became important to peoples across the world in the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015a|p=312}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|pp=41–44}} }}</ref> The [[Waves of democracy|first wave of democratization]] occurred between 1828 and 1926, during which democratic institutions were established in 33 countries worldwide.<ref>{{harvnb|Huntington|1991|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IMjyTFG04JYC 15–16]}}</ref> Most of the world [[Abolitionism|abolished slavery]] and serfdom in the 19th century.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McNeill|Pomeranz|2015b|p=112}} | {{harvnb|Stearns|2010|p=42}} }}</ref> Over several decades, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing throughout the 20th,<ref>{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=35}}</ref> in many countries the [[women's suffrage]] movement won women the right to vote,<ref>{{harvnb|Schoppa|2021|p=95}}</ref> and women began to enjoy greater access to education and to professions beyond domestic employment.<ref>{{harvnb|Christian|2011|p=448}}</ref>
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The study of human history has a long tradition and early precursors were already practiced in the ancient period as attempts to provide comprehensive accounts of the history of the world.{{efn|Some historian use the terms ''[[World history (field)|world history]]'' and ''global history'' to refer to all these attempts while others understand world history and global history in a more narrow sense as one among several competing approaches to study the development of the world on a global scale.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Clavin|2005|pp=435–436}}|{{harvnb|Christian|2015a|p=3}}|{{harvnb|Hughes-Warrington|2015|p=41}}|{{harvnb|Conrad|2016|pp=217–219}}}}</ref>}} Most research before the 20th century focused on histories of individual communities and societies after the prehistoric period. This changed in the late 20th century, when attempts to integrate the diverse narratives into a common context reaching back to the emergence of the first humans became a central research topic.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Christian|2015a|pp=1–4}}|{{harvnb|Northrup|2015|pp=111–112}}| {{harvnb|Cajani|2013|loc=§ Current Trends}}|{{harvnb|Andrea|Neel|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s5X3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> This transition to a widened perspective was accompanied by questioning [[Eurocentrism]] and the Western-focused perspective that had previously dominated academic history.<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Christian|2015a|pp=2–4}}|{{harvnb|Northrup|2015|pp=110–111}}}}</ref>
Like in other historical disciplines, the [[Historical method|methodology]] of analyzing textual sources to construct narratives and interpretations of past events plays a central role in the study of human history. The scope of its topic poses the unique challenge of synthesizing a coherent and comprehensive narrative spanning different cultures, regions, and time periods while taking diverse individual perspectives into account. This is also reflected in its [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary approach]] by integrating insights from fields belonging to the [[humanities]] and the [[Social sciences|social]], biological, and [[physical sciences]], such as other [[History|historical disciplines]], [[archaeology]], [[anthropology]], [[linguistics]], [[genetics]], [[paleontology]], and [[geology]]. The interdisciplinary approach
===Periodization===
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* {{cite book |last=Beard |first=Mary |author-link=Mary Beard (classicist) |url=http://archive.org/details/spqrhistoryofanc0000bear_v4f6 |title=SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome |date=2015 |publisher=Profile Books |isbn=978-1-84668-380-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Becker |first1=Tobias |last2=Platt |first2=Len |title=Popular Culture in Europe Since 1800 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-41259-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkHUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT25 |chapter=Reading Cultures – Modernity and the Word |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book|series=[[The Cambridge World History]]|volume=4|title=A World with States, Empires, and Networks, 1200 BCE–900 CE|editor1-last=Benjamin|editor1-first=Craig|editor1-link=Craig Benjamin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LAFuCAAAQBAJ|year=2015|isbn=978-1-107-01572-2|publisher=Cambridge University Press|access-date=28 October 2022|archive-date=28 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028085203/https://books.google.com/books?id=LAFuCAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Bennett |first=Matthew |display-authors=et al. |title=Evidence of Humans in North America During the Last Glacial Maximum |journal=Science |date=2021 |volume=373 |issue=6562 |pages=1528–1531 |doi=10.1126/science.abg7586 |pmid=34554787 |bibcode=2021Sci...373.1528B |s2cid=237616125 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abg7586 |access-date=24 September 2021 |archive-date=15 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220915182214/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abg7586 |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book |title=A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change |last1=Bideleux |first1=Robert |last2=Jeffries |first2=Ian |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-16112-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U39AYJm1L94C |year=1998 |access-date=10 February 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429044459/https://books.google.com/books?id=U39AYJm1L94C |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide |volume=2: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2023 |editor1-last=Blackhawk |editor1-first=Ned |editor1-link=Ned Blackhawk |editor2-last=Kiernan |editor2-first=Ben |editor2-link=Ben Kiernan |editor3-last=Madley |editor3-first=Benjamin |editor4-last=Taylor |editor4-first=Rebe |editor4-link=Rebe Taylor |isbn=978-1-108-76548-0 |doi=10.1017/9781108765480}}
* {{cite book |chapter=Early Chinese Writing |title=The World's Writing Systems |editor1-last=Bright |editor1-first=Peter |editor2-last=Daniels |editor2-first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/worldswritingsys0000unse/ |last=Boltz |first=William G. |year=1996 |isbn=0-19-507993-0 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bozarslan |first1=Hamit |last2=Duclert |first2=Vincent |last3=Kévorkian |first3=Raymond H. |author1-link=:fr:Hamit Bozarslan |author2-link=:fr:Vincent Duclert |title=Comprendre le Génocide des Arméniens—1915 à nos Jours |date=2015 |publisher=[[Groupe Artémis|Tallandier]] |isbn=979-10-210-0681-2 |language=fr |trans-title=Understanding the Armenian Genocide: 1915 to the Present Day }}
* {{cite web |last1=Bristow |first1=William |title=Enlightenment |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 June 2024 |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Cynthia Stokes |url=http://archive.org/details/bighistoryfrombi0000brow |title=Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present |date=2007 |publisher=New Press |author-link=Cynthia Stokes Brown |isbn=978-1-59558-196-9 }}
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* {{cite book |last1=Deming |first1=David |title=Science and Technology in World History, Volume 1: The Ancient World and Classical Civilization |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-0-7864-5657-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZONR6frqcQC&pg=PA174 |language=en |date=2014 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Denemark |first1=Robert Allen |title=World System History: The Social Science of Long-term Change |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-23276-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjpKFSq9VD0C&pg=PA32 |language=en |date=2000 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Diener |first1=Alexander C. |last2=Hagen |first2=Joshua |editor1-last=Diener |editor1-first=Alexander C. |title=Borderlines and Borderlands: Political Oddities at the Edge of the Nation-State |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-5635-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cl2C2v7-nQC&pg=PA123 |language=en |chapter=Russia's Kaliningrad Exclave: Discontinuity as a Threat to Sovereignty |date=2010 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Dinan |first1=Desmond |title=Europe Recast: A History of European Union |date=2004 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=0-333-98734-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/europerecasthist0000dina_u0v7/ }}
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* {{cite book |last1=Haynes |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Hough |first2=Peter |last3=Pilbeam |first3=Bruce |title=World Politics |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-5297-7459-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJGREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43 |language=en |date=2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Headrick |first=Daniel R. |author-link=Daniel R. Headrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_WgSDAAAQBAJ |title=Technology: A World History |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533821-8 |access-date=30 September 2023 |archive-date=5 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005092533/https://books.google.com/books?id=_WgSDAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haht/hd_haht.htm |title=Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition |last1=Hemingway |first1=Colette |last2=Hemingway |first2=Seán |date=2007 |website=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=18 November 2016 |archive-date=31 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531025138/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/haht/hd_haht.htm |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book|last=Henshall|first=Kenneth|title=A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower|isbn=0-312-21986-5|publisher=St. Martin's Press|year=1999|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjapan00kenn/}}
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* {{cite book|title=America: A Narrative History|volume=1|edition=8th|ref={{harvid|Tindall & Shi 2010}}|year=2010|last1=Tindall|first1=George|last2=Shi|first2=David|isbn=978-0-393-93406-9|publisher=Norton}}
* {{cite journal |title=The Islamization of Central Asia in the Sāmānid Era and the Reshaping of the Muslim World |last=Tor |first=Deborah |date=2009 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=279–299 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/S0041977X09000524 |jstor=40379005 |s2cid=153554938}}
* {{cite book |first=Conrad |last=Totman |year=2002 |title=A History of Japan |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-2359-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACAAJ |access-date=22 July 2022 |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116111039/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z_a_QgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tozzo |first1=Brandon |title=American Hegemony after the Great Recession: A Transformation in World Order |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-57539-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iH86DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |language=en |date=2017 }}
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