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{{Short description|President of the United States from 1797 to 1801}}
{{about|the second president of the United States|his son, the sixth president|John Quincy Adams|other uses}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move}}
{{featured article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2019}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = John Adams
| image = John Adams A18236.jpg
| caption = Portrait {{circa|1800–1815}}
| alt = Stout elderly Adams in his 60s with long white hair, facing partway leftward
| order = 2nd
| office = President of the United States
| vicepresident = Thomas Jefferson
| term_start = March 4, 1797
| term_end = March 4, 1801
| predecessor = [[George Washington]]
| successor = [[Thomas Jefferson]]
| order1 = 1st
| office1 = Vice President of the United States
| president1 = George Washington
| term_start1 = April 21, 1789
| term_end1 = March 4, 1797
| predecessor1 = ''Office established''
| successor1 = Thomas Jefferson
| order2 = 1st
| minister_from2 = United States
| country2 = Great Britain
| appointer2 = [[Congress of the Confederation]]
| term_start2 = April 1, 1785
| term_end2 = February 20, 1788<ref name="Office of the Historian">{{cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/adams-john |title=John Adams (1735–1826) |publisher=United States Department of State: Office of the Historian |access-date=September 30, 2018}}</ref>
| successor2 = [[Thomas Pinckney]]
| order3 = 1st
| minister_from3 = United States
| country3 = the Netherlands
| appointer3 = Congress of the Confederation
| term_start3 = April 19, 1782
| term_end3 = March 30, 1788<ref name="Office of the Historian"/>
| successor3 = [[Charles W. F. Dumas]] (acting)
| office6 = [[Chairman of the Marine Committee]]
| term_start6 = October 13, 1775
| term_end6 = October 28, 1779
| predecessor6 = ''Office established''
| successor6 = [[Francis Lewis]] (Continental Board of Admiralty)
| order7 = 12th
| office7 = Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature
| term_start7 = October 1775
| term_end7 = February 1777
| appointer7 = [[Massachusetts Provincial Congress|Provincial Congress]]
| predecessor7 = [[Peter Oliver (loyalist)|Peter Oliver]]
| successor7 = [[William Cushing]]
| office8 = [[List of delegates to the Continental Congress|Delegate]] from [[Massachusetts]] {{awrap|to the [[Continental Congress]]}}
| term_start8 = September 5, 1774
| term_end8 = November 28, 1777
| predecessor8 = ''Office established''
| successor8 = [[Samuel Holten]]
| birth_date = {{OldStyleDateDY|October 30,|1735|October 19, 1735}}
| birth_place = [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]], [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts Bay]], British America (now [[Quincy, Massachusetts|Quincy]])
| death_date = {{death date and age|1826|7|4|1735|10|30}}
| death_place = Quincy, Massachusetts, U.S.
| resting_place = [[United First Parish Church]]
| party = {{plainlist|
* [[Pro-Administration]] (before 1795)
* [[Federalist Party|Federalist]] (1795–{{circa|lk=no|1808}})
* [[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] (from {{circa|lk=no|1808}}){{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=599}}
}}
| parents = {{plainlist|
* [[John Adams Sr.]]
* [[Susanna Boylston]]
}}
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Abigail Adams|Abigail Smith]]|October 25, 1764|October 28, 1818|end=died}}
| children = 6, including [[Abigail Adams Smith|Abigail]], [[John Quincy Adams|John Quincy]], [[Charles Adams (1770–1800)|Charles]], and [[Thomas Boylston Adams (judge)|Thomas]]
| occupation = {{hlist|Politician|lawyer}}
| education = [[Harvard College]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|AB]], [[Master of Arts|AM]])
| signature = John Adams Sig 2.svg
| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink
}}
'''John Adams''' (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826), a [[Founding Father of the United States]], served as the second [[president of the United States]] from 1797 to 1801. Before [[Presidency of John Adams|his presidency]], he was a leader of the [[American Revolution]] that achieved independence from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]. During the latter part of the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] and in the early years of the new nation, he served the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. government]] as a senior diplomat in Europe. Adams was the first person to hold the office of [[vice president of the United States]], serving from 1789 to 1797. He was a dedicated diarist and regularly corresponded with important contemporaries, including his wife and adviser [[Abigail Adams]] and his friend and political rival [[Thomas Jefferson]].
A lawyer and political activist prior to the Revolution, Adams was devoted to the [[right to counsel]] and [[presumption of innocence]]. He defied anti-British sentiment and successfully defended British soldiers against murder charges arising from the [[Boston Massacre]]. Adams was a [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts]] delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] and became a leader of the revolution. He assisted Jefferson in drafting the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] in 1776 and was its primary advocate in Congress. As a diplomat, he helped negotiate a [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|peace treaty with Great Britain]] and secured vital governmental loans. Adams was the primary author of the [[Massachusetts Constitution]] in 1780, which influenced the [[Constitution of the United States|United States Constitution]], as did his essay ''[[Thoughts on Government]]''.
Adams was elected to two terms as vice president under President [[George Washington]] and was elected as the United States' second president [[1796 United States presidential election|in 1796]]. He was the only president elected under the banner of the [[Federalist Party]]. Adams's term was dominated by the issue of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], and his insistence on American neutrality led to fierce criticism from both the [[Democratic-Republican Party|Jeffersonian Republicans]] and from some in his own party, led by his rival [[Alexander Hamilton]]. Adams signed the controversial [[Alien and Sedition Acts]] and built up the [[United States Army|Army]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] in an [[Quasi-War|undeclared naval war]] with France. He was the first president to reside in the [[White House]].
In his bid in 1800 for [[1800 United States presidential election|reelection]] to the presidency, opposition from Federalists and accusations of despotism from Jeffersonians led to Adams losing to his vice president and former friend Jefferson, and he retired to Massachusetts. He eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson by initiating a continuing correspondence. He and Abigail started the [[Adams political family]], which includes their son [[John Quincy Adams]], the sixth president. John Adams died on July 4, 1826 – the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. [[New Englanders]] Adams and his son are the only [[List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves|presidents of the first twelve]] who never owned [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]]. Historians and scholars have [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|favorably ranked his administration]].
==Early life and education==
{{Further|Adams political family}}
[[File:John Adams birthplace, Quincy, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|[[John Adams Birthplace|Adams's birthplace]] in present-day [[Quincy, Massachusetts]]|alt=Small wooden house with red-brick chimney in the middle|left]]
John Adams was born on October 30, 1735,{{efn|Contemporaneous records used the [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]] Julian calendar and the [[New Year#Historical European new year dates|Annunciation Style]] of enumerating years, recording his birth as October 19, 1735. The British [[Calendar (New Style) Act 1750]] implemented in 1752 altered the official British dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January{{nbsp}}1 (it had been March 25). These changes resulted in dates being moved forward 11 days and an advance of one year for those between January{{nbsp}}1 and March 25. For a further explanation, see [[Old Style and New Style dates]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The history of the calendar |url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/georgian/history-calendar-julian-gregorian-when-why/ |magazine=[[BBC History]] |issue=January 2014}}</ref>}} to [[John Adams Sr.]] and [[Susanna Boylston]]. He had two younger brothers, Peter and Elihu.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=11}} Adams was [[John Adams Birthplace|born on the family farm]] in [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]], Massachusetts.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=317}}{{efn|The site of the Adams house is now in [[Quincy, Massachusetts]], which was separated from Braintree and organized as a new town in 1792.}} His mother was from a leading medical family of present-day [[Brookline, Massachusetts]]. His father was a [[deacon]] in the [[Congregationalism in the United States|Congregational Church]], a farmer, a [[cordwainer]], and a lieutenant in the [[Massachusetts National Guard|militia]].{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=29–30}} Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=11–14}} Adams's great-great-grandfather [[Henry Adams (farmer)|Henry Adams]] immigrated to Massachusetts from [[Braintree, Essex]], England, around 1638.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=29–30}}
Adams's formal education began at age six at a [[dame school]], conducted at a teacher's home and centered on ''[[The New England Primer]]''. He then attended Braintree Latin School under Joseph Cleverly, where studies included Latin, rhetoric, logic, and arithmetic. Adams's early education included incidents of truancy, a dislike for his master, and a desire to become a farmer, but his father commanded that he remain in school. Deacon Adams hired a new schoolmaster named Joseph Marsh, and his son responded positively.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=12–14}} Adams later noted that "As a child I enjoyed perhaps the greatest of blessings that can be bestowed upon men – that of a mother who was anxious and capable to form the characters of her children."{{sfn|Kirtley|1910|p=366}}
===College education and adulthood===
At age sixteen, Adams entered [[Harvard College]] in 1751, studying under [[Joseph Mayhew]].{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=35}} As an adult, Adams was a keen scholar, studying the works of ancient writers such as [[Thucydides]], [[Plato]], [[Cicero]], and [[Tacitus]] in their original languages.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=13}} Though his father expected him to be a minister,{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=16}} after his 1755 graduation with an [[Bachelor of Arts|A.B. degree]], he taught school temporarily in [[Worcester, Massachusetts|Worcester]], while pondering his permanent vocation. In the next four years, he began to seek prestige, craving "Honour or Reputation" and "more {{sic|def|ference|hide=y}} from [his] fellows", and was determined to be "a great Man". He decided to become a lawyer, writing his father that he found among lawyers "noble and gallant achievements" but, among the clergy, the "pretended sanctity of some absolute dunces". He had reservations about his self-described "trumpery" and failure to share the "happiness of [his] fellow men".{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=17–18}}
When the [[French and Indian War]] began in 1754, Adams, aged nineteen, felt guilty he was the first in his family not to be a militia officer; he said "I longed more ardently to be a Soldier than I ever did to be a Lawyer".{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=21}}
===Law practice and marriage===
In 1756, Adams began [[reading law]] under James Putnam, a leading lawyer in Worcester.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=19}} In 1758, he earned an [[Master of Arts|A.M.]] from Harvard,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2008/11/obama-joins-list-of-seven-presidents-with-harvard-degrees/|title=Obama joins list of seven presidents with Harvard degrees|publisher=The Harvard Gazette|date=November 6, 2008|access-date=December 5, 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801190338/http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2008/11/obama-joins-list-of-seven-presidents-with-harvard-degrees/|archive-date=August 1, 2016}}</ref> and in 1759 was admitted to the bar.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=44}} He developed an early habit of diary writing; this included his impressions of [[James Otis Jr.]]'s 1761 challenge to the legality of British [[writs of assistance]], which allowed British officials to search a home without notice or reason. Otis's argument against the writs inspired Adams to the cause of the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]].{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=46}}
In 1763, Adams explored aspects of political theory in seven essays written for Boston newspapers. Under the [[pen name]] "Humphrey Ploughjogger", he ridiculed the selfish thirst for power he perceived among the Massachusetts colonial elite.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=36–39}} Adams was initially less well known than his older cousin [[Samuel Adams]], but his influence emerged from his work as a constitutional lawyer, his analysis of history, and his dedication to [[republicanism]]. Adams often found his own irascible nature a constraint in his political career.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=16}}
{{multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| align = right
| width =
| footer = Portraits of John and [[Abigail Adams]] by Benjamin Blyth, {{circa|1766}}
| width1 = 150
| image1 = Abigail Adams.jpg
| caption1 =
| alt1 = Woman with deep black hair and dark eyes wearing a blue and pink dress
| width2 = 150
| image2 = John Adams (1766).jpg
| caption2 =
| alt2 = Man in dark gray clothing with dark hair
}}
In the late 1750s, Adams fell in love with Hannah Quincy; he was poised to propose but was interrupted by friends, and the moment was lost. In 1759, he met 15-year-old [[Abigail Adams|Abigail Smith]], his third cousin,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vintag.es/2017/05/they-did-what-15-famous-people-who.html|title=They Did What? 15 Famous People Who Actually Married Their Cousins|language=en-US|access-date=August 24, 2019}}</ref> through his friend Richard Cranch, who was courting Abigail's older sister. Adams initially was not impressed with Abigail and her two sisters, writing that they were not "fond, nor frank, nor candid".{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=51–52}}
In time, Adams grew close to Abigail. They were married on October 25, 1764, despite the opposition of Abigail's mother. The pair shared a love of books and proved honest in their praise and criticism of each other. After his father's death in 1761, Adams had inherited a {{cvt|9+1/2|acre|ha|adj=on}} farm and [[John Quincy Adams Birthplace|a house]] where they lived until 1783.<ref name=Life1961 />{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=55–56}}
John and Abigail had six children: [[Abigail Adams Smith|Abigail]] (known "Nabby") in 1765,{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=58}} [[John Quincy Adams|John Quincy]] in 1767,{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=57}} Susanna in 1768, [[Charles Adams (1770–1800)|Charles]] in 1770, [[Thomas Boylston Adams (judge)|Thomas]] in 1772,{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=71}} and Elizabeth in 1777.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=171–172}} Susanna died when she was one year old,{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=71}} while Elizabeth was stillborn.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=171–172}} All three of Adams's sons became lawyers. Charles and Thomas were unsuccessful, became alcoholics, and died at a relatively young age. In contrast, John Quincy excelled and launched a political career, eventually becoming president himself.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=634–635}}
==Career before the Revolution==
===Opponent of Stamp Act===
{{Further|Stamp Act}}
Adams rose to prominence leading widespread opposition to the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]]. The Act was imposed by the [[Parliament of Great Britain|British Parliament]] without consulting the American legislatures. It required payment of a direct tax by the colonies for stamped documents,<ref name="Declaration of Independence">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration-transcript|title=Declaration of Independence: A Transcription|publisher=United States National Archives|access-date=October 1, 2018|date=November 2015}}</ref><ref name="Stamp Act">{{cite web|url=http://www.john-adams-heritage.com/political-activism/|title=Stamp Act and the beginning of political activism|date=April 3, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160614042234/http://www.john-adams-heritage.com/political-activism/|publisher=John Adams Historical Society|archive-date=June 14, 2016|url-status=live|access-date=July 5, 2016}}</ref> and was designed to pay for the costs of Britain's war with France. Power of enforcement was given to British [[vice admiralty court]]s, rather than [[common law]] courts.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|pp=72–76}}<ref name="Stamp Act"/> These Admiralty courts acted without juries and were greatly disliked.<ref name="Declaration of Independence"/> The Act was despised for both its monetary cost and implementation without colonial consent, and encountered violent resistance, preventing its enforcement.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|pp=72–76}} Adams authored the "[[Braintree Instructions]]" in 1765, in a letter sent to the representatives of Braintree in the Massachusetts legislature. It explained that the Act should be opposed since it denied two fundamental rights guaranteed to all Englishmen (and which all free men deserved): to be taxed only by consent and to be tried by a jury of one's peers. The instructions were a succinct and forthright defense of colonial rights and liberties, and served as a model for other towns.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=55–56}}
Adams also reprised his pen name "Humphrey Ploughjogger" in opposition to the Stamp Act in August of that year. Included were four articles to the ''[[Boston Gazette]]''. The articles were republished in [[London Chronicle|''The London Chronicle'']] in 1768 as ''True Sentiments of America'', or ''A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law''. He also spoke in December before the governor and council, pronouncing the Stamp Act invalid in the absence of Massachusetts representation at Parliament.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=39}}{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=59–61}} He noted that many protests were sparked by a popular sermon of Boston minister [[Jonathan Mayhew]], invoking [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans 13]] to justify insurrection.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=905|title=Discourse Concerning Unlimited Submission and Non-resistance to the Higher Powers|first=Rev. Jonathan|last=Mayhew|publisher=Ashbrook Center|year=1750|access-date=August 22, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415082838/http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=905|archive-date=April 15, 2013}}</ref> While Adams strongly opposed the Act in writing, he rebuffed attempts by Samuel Adams, a leader in the popular protest movements, to involve him in mob actions and public demonstrations.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=47–49}} In 1766, a town meeting of Braintree elected Adams as a selectman.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=63}}
With the repeal of the Stamp Act in early 1766, tensions with Britain temporarily eased.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=62–63}} Putting politics aside, Adams moved his family to Boston in April 1768 to focus on his law practice. The family rented a house on [[Brattle Street (Boston)|Brattle Street]] that was known locally as the "White House". He, Abigail, and the children lived there for a year, then moved to Cold Lane; later they moved again to a larger house in Brattle Square in the center of the city.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=57}} In 1768, Adams successfully defended the merchant [[John Hancock]], who was accused of violating British acts of trade in the [[Liberty Affair]].{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=59}} With the death of [[Jeremiah Gridley]] and the mental collapse of [[James Otis Jr.]], Adams became Boston's most prominent lawyer.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=63}}
===Counsel for the British: Boston Massacre===
{{Further|Boston Massacre}}
[[File:BostonMassacre byAlonzoChappel1878.png|thumb|''Boston Massacre of 1770'', an 1878 portrait by [[Alonzo Chappel]] depicting the [[Boston Massacre]]|alt=Depiction of chaotic confrontation between British soldiers and Bostonians]]
Britain's passage of the [[Townshend Acts]] in 1767 revived tensions, and an increase in mob violence led the British to dispatch more troops to the colonies.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=57–59}} On March 5, 1770, when a lone British sentry was accosted by a mob, eight of his fellow [[29th (Worcestershire) Regiment of Foot|soldiers]] reinforced him, and the crowd around them grew to several hundred. The soldiers were struck with snowballs, ice, and stones, and in the chaos the soldiers opened fire, killing five civilians, in the infamous [[Boston Massacre]]. The accused soldiers were arrested on charges of murder. When no other attorneys would come to their defense, Adams was impelled to do so despite the risk to his reputation. He believed no person should be denied the right to counsel and a fair trial. The trials were delayed so that passions could cool.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=65–66}}
The week-long trial of the commander, Captain [[Thomas Preston (British Army officer)|Thomas Preston]], began on October 24 and ended in his acquittal, because it was impossible to prove that he had ordered his soldiers to fire.{{sfn|Morse|1884|p=39}} The remaining soldiers were tried in December when Adams made his famed argument regarding jury decisions: "Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our passion, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence."<ref>{{cite book|last=Adams|first=John|title=Argument in Defense of the Soldiers in the Boston Massacre Trials|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/05-03-02-0001-0004-0016|publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society|date=December 1770|access-date=July 29, 2018}}</ref> Adams won an acquittal for six of the soldiers. Two, who had fired directly into the crowd, were convicted of manslaughter. Adams was paid a small sum by his clients.<ref name=Life1961>{{cite magazine|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=June 30, 1961|title=Private Thoughts of a Founding Father|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V1QEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA82|magazine=[[Life (magazine)|Life]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407141509/http://books.google.com/books?id=V1QEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA82|archive-date=April 7, 2015|access-date=June 7, 2015|page=82}}</ref>
According to biographer [[John E. Ferling]], during [[Voir dire|jury selection]] Adams "expertly exercised his right to challenge individual jurors and contrived what amounted to a packed jury. Not only were several jurors closely tied through business arrangements to the British army, but five ultimately became Loyalist exiles." While Adams's defense was helped by a weak prosecution, he "performed brilliantly."{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=69}} Ferling surmises that Adams was encouraged to take the case in exchange for political office; one of Boston's seats opened three months later in the [[Massachusetts General Court|Massachusetts legislature]], and Adams was the town's choice to fill the vacancy.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=67–68}}
The prosperity of his law practice increased from this exposure, as did the demands on his time. In 1771, Adams moved his family to [[Braintree, Massachusetts]], but kept his office in [[Boston]]; he noted "Now my family is away, I feel no Inclination at all, no Temptation, to be any where but at my Office." After some time in the capital, he became disenchanted with the rural and "vulgar" Braintree as a home for his family – in August 1772, he moved them back to Boston. He purchased a large brick house on [[Court Street (Boston)|Queen Street]], not far from his office.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=74}} In 1774, Adams and Abigail returned the family to the farm due to the increasingly unstable situation in Boston, and Braintree remained their permanent Massachusetts home.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/adams/peopleevents/p_callender.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906091054/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/adams/peopleevents/p_callender.html|archive-date=September 6, 2015|title=American Experience – John & Abigail Adams – Timeline|publisher=PBS|access-date=September 7, 2015}}</ref>
===American Revolution===
Adams, who had been among the more conservative of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]], persistently held that while British actions against the colonies had been wrong, open insurrection was unwarranted and peaceful petition with the view of remaining part of Great Britain was preferable.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=72–73}} His ideas began to change around 1772, as the British Crown assumed payment of the salaries of Governor [[Thomas Hutchinson (governor)|Thomas Hutchinson]] and his judges instead of the Massachusetts legislature. Adams wrote in the ''Gazette'' that these measures would destroy judicial independence and place the colonial government in closer subjugation to the Crown. After discontent among members of the legislature, Hutchinson delivered a speech warning that Parliament's powers over the colonies were absolute and that any resistance was illegal. John Adams, Samuel, and [[Joseph Hawley (Massachusetts politician)|Joseph Hawley]] drafted a resolution adopted by the [[Massachusetts General Court|House of Representatives]] threatening independence as an alternative to tyranny. The resolution argued that the colonists had never been under the sovereignty of [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]]: their charter, as well as their allegiance, was exclusive to the King.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=78–80}}
The [[Boston Tea Party]], a demonstration against the [[Tea Act]] and the British [[East India Company]]'s tea monopoly over American merchants, took place on December 16, 1773. Protestors demolished 342 chests of tea worth about ten thousand pounds on the British schooner ''Dartmouth'', anchored in Boston harbor. The ''Dartmouth'' owners briefly retained Adams as legal counsel regarding their liability for the destroyed shipment. Adams applauded the destruction of the tea, calling it the "grandest Event" in the history of the colonial protest movement,{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=92–94}} and writing in his diary that it was an "absolutely and indispensably" necessary action.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/01-02-02-0003-0008-0001 |title=1773. Decr. 17th. [from the Diary of John Adams]|publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society|access-date=November 15, 2017}}</ref>
==Continental Congress==
===Member of Continental Congress===
[[File:Declaration independence.jpg|thumb|[[John Trumbull]]'s ''[[Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)|Declaration of Independence]]'' depicting the [[Committee of Five]] presenting its draft of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration]] to the [[Second Continental Congress|Congress]] in [[Philadelphia]]; Adams appears in the center with his hand on his hip.|alt=56 figures stand or sit in a room. Five lay papers on a table.<!-- alt=Depiction of the five-man committee presenting the draft of the Declaration of Independence to Congress -->]]
In 1774, at the instigation of Samuel Adams, the [[First Continental Congress]] was convened in response to the [[Intolerable Acts]], a series of deeply unpopular measures intended to punish Massachusetts, centralize authority in Britain, and prevent rebellion in other colonies. Four delegates were chosen by the Massachusetts legislature, including John Adams, who agreed to attend,{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=95–97}} despite an emotional plea from his friend, Attorney General [[Jonathan Sewall]], not to.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=71}}
Shortly after he arrived in [[Philadelphia]], Adams was placed on the 23-member Grand Committee tasked with drafting a letter of grievances to [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]]. The committee soon split into conservative and radical factions.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=107–108}} Although the Massachusetts delegation was largely passive, Adams criticized conservatives such as [[Joseph Galloway]], [[James Duane]], and [[Peter Oliver (loyalist)|Peter Oliver]] who advocated a conciliatory policy towards the British or felt that the colonies had a duty to remain loyal to Britain, although his views at the time aligned with those of conservative [[John Dickinson (Pennsylvania and Delaware)|John Dickinson]]. Adams sought the repeal of objectionable policies, but at this stage he continued to see benefits in maintaining the ties with Britain.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=128–130}} He renewed his push for the right to a jury trial.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Elrod |first=Jennifer |journal=68 Wash. & Lee L. Rev. |volume=3 |page=8 |year=2011 |url=http://law2.wlu.edu/deptimages/Law%20Review/68-1ElrodPowellLecture.pdf |title=W(h)ither the Jury? The Diminishing Role of the Jury Trial in Our Legal System |accessdate=July 5, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806171225/http://law2.wlu.edu/deptimages/Law%20Review/68-1ElrodPowellLecture.pdf |archive-date=August 6, 2016}} (quoting Thomas J. Methvin (2001) "Alabama – The Arbitration State", ''62 Ala. Law.'' '''48''': 49).</ref> He complained of what he considered the pretentiousness of the other delegates, writing to Abigail, "I believe if it was moved and seconded that We should come to a Resolution that Three and two make five We should be entertained with Logick and Rhetorick, Law, History, Politicks and Mathematicks, concerning the Subject for two whole Days, and then We should pass the Resolution unanimously in the Affirmative."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-01-02-0111|title=John Adams to Abigail Adams, 9 October 1774|publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society|access-date=October 8, 2017}}</ref> Adams ultimately helped engineer a compromise between the conservatives and the radicals.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=112}} The Congress disbanded in October after sending the petition to the King and showing its displeasure with the Intolerable Acts by endorsing the [[Suffolk Resolves]], which called for a boycott of British goods.<ref>"The First Continental Congress,"John Adams Historical Society, accessed 2016. {{cite web|url=http://www.john-adams-heritage.com/first-continental-congress/|title=First Continental Congress | John Adams Historical Society|date=April 23, 2012 |access-date=July 5, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624164458/http://www.john-adams-heritage.com/first-continental-congress/|archive-date=June 24, 2016}}</ref>
Adams's absence was hard on Abigail, who was left alone to care for the family. She still encouraged her husband in his task, writing: "You cannot be, I know, nor do I wish to see you an inactive Spectator, but if the Sword be drawn I bid adieu to all domestick felicity, and look forward to that Country where there is neither wars nor rumors of War in a firm belief that thro the mercy of its King we shall both rejoice there together."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-01-02-0116 |title=Abigail Adams to John Adams, 16 October 1774 |publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society |access-date=September 22, 2017}}</ref>
News of the opening hostilities with the British at the [[Battles of Lexington and Concord]] made Adams hope that independence would soon become a reality. Three days after the battle, he rode into a militia camp and, while reflecting positively on the high spirits of the men, was distressed by their poor condition and lack of discipline.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|p=196}} A month later, Adams returned to Philadelphia for the [[Second Continental Congress]] as the leader of the Massachusetts delegation.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=87–88}} He moved cautiously at first, noting that the Congress was divided between [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]], those favoring independence, and those hesitant to take any position.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=90}} He became convinced that Congress was moving in the proper direction – away from Great Britain. Publicly, Adams supported "reconciliation if practicable," but privately agreed with [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s confidential observation that independence was inevitable.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=136}}
In June 1775, with a view of promoting union among the colonies against Great Britain, he nominated [[George Washington]] of Virginia as commander-in-chief of the [[Continental Army|army]] then assembled around Boston.<ref name="Time Line">{{cite web|url=http://masshist.org/adams/timeline.cfm |title=Adams Time Line |publisher=Massachusetts Historical Society |access-date=August 22, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324015852/http://masshist.org/adams/timeline.cfm |archive-date=March 24, 2009 }}</ref> He praised Washington's "skill and experience" as well as his "excellent universal character."{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=124}} Adams opposed various attempts, including the [[Olive Branch Petition]], aimed at finding peace.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=94–95}} Invoking the already-long list of British actions against the colonies, he wrote, "In my opinion Powder and Artillery are the most efficacious, Sure, and infallibly conciliatory Measures We can adopt."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/06-03-02-0014 |title=From John Adams to Moses Gill, 10 June 1775 |publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society |access-date=October 11, 2017}}</ref> After his failure to prevent the petition from being enacted, he wrote a private letter derisively referring to Dickinson as a "piddling genius." The letter was intercepted and published in Loyalist newspapers. The well-respected Dickinson refused to greet Adams and he was for a time largely ostracized.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=95–96}} Ferling writes, "By the fall of 1775 no one in Congress labored more ardently than Adams to hasten the day when America would be separate from Great Britain."{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=136}} In October 1775, Adams was appointed chief judge of the Massachusetts Superior Court, but he never served, and resigned in February 1777.<ref name="Time Line"/> In response to queries from other delegates, Adams wrote the 1776 pamphlet ''[[Thoughts on Government]]'', which laid out an influential framework for republican constitutions.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=155–157}}
===Independence===
[[File:Independence Hall Assembly Room.jpg|thumb|The Assembly Room at [[Independence Hall (United States)|Independence Hall]] in [[Philadelphia]], where the [[Second Continental Congress]] adopted the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]]]
Throughout the first half of 1776, Adams grew increasingly impatient with what he perceived to be the slow pace of declaring independence.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|p=263}} In the [[Second Continental Congress]] in Philadelphia, he helped push through a plan to outfit armed ships to launch raids on enemy vessels. Later in the year, he drafted the first set of regulations for the provisional navy.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=99–100}} Adams drafted the preamble to the [[Lee Resolution]] of colleague [[Richard Henry Lee]].{{sfn|Maier|1998|p=37}} He developed a rapport with delegate [[Thomas Jefferson]] of Virginia, who had been slower to support independence but by early 1776 agreed that it was necessary.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=113–117}} On June 7, 1776, Adams [[Second (parliamentary procedure)|seconded the Lee Resolution]], which stated that the colonies were "free and independent states."{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=146}}
Prior to independence being declared, Adams organized a [[Committee of Five]] charged with drafting a [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]. He chose himself, Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, [[Robert R. Livingston (chancellor)|Robert R. Livingston]] and [[Roger Sherman]].{{sfn|Boyd|Gawalt|1999|p=21}} Jefferson thought Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson. Many years later, Adams recorded his reasoning to Jefferson: "Reason first, you are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second, I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third, you can write ten times better than I can."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=119}} The Committee left no minutes, and the drafting process itself remains uncertain. Accounts written years later by Jefferson and Adams, although frequently cited, are often contradictory.{{sfn|Maier|1998|pp=97–105}} Although the first draft was written primarily by Jefferson, Adams assumed a major role.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=130–135}} On July 1, the resolution was debated in Congress. It was expected to pass, but opponents such as Dickinson made a strong effort to oppose it. Jefferson, a poor debater, remained silent while Adams argued for its adoption.{{sfn|Morse|1884|pp=127–128}} Many years later, Jefferson hailed Adams as "the pillar of [the Declaration's] support on the floor of Congress, [its] ablest advocate and defender against the multifarious assaults it encountered."<ref>Jefferson, Thomas. To William P. Gardner. ''The Works of Thomas Jefferson''. Federal Edition (New York and London, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1904–05). Vol. 11.</ref> On July 2, Congress officially voted for independence. Twelve colonies voted in the affirmative, while New York abstained. Dickinson was absent.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=136}}{{sfn|Smith|1962a|pp=270–272}} On July 3, Adams wrote to Abigail that "yesterday was decided the greatest question which was ever debated in America, and a greater perhaps never was nor will be decided among men." He predicted that "[t]he second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America," and would be celebrated annually.{{sfn|Morse|1884|p=128}} Congress approved the Declaration of Independence on July 4.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|pp=272–273}}
During the congress, Adams sat on ninety committees, chairing twenty-five, an unmatched workload among the congressmen. As [[Benjamin Rush]] reported, he was acknowledged "to be the first man in the House."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=163}} In June 1776, Adams became head of the [[Board of War and Ordnance]], charged with recording the officers in the army and their ranks, the disposition of troops throughout the colonies, and ammunition.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|pp=266–267}} He was referred to as a "one man war department," working up to eighteen-hour days and mastering the details of raising, equipping and fielding an army under civilian control.{{sfn|Ellis|1993|pp=41–42}} Adams functioned as a ''de facto'' Secretary of War. He kept extensive correspondences with [[Continental Army]] officers concerning supplies, munitions, and tactics. Adams emphasized to them the role of discipline in keeping an army orderly.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|pp=298–305}} He authored the "Plan of Treaties," laying out Congress's requirements for a treaty with France.{{sfn|Ellis|1993|pp=41–42}} He was worn out by the rigor of his duties and longed to return home. His finances were unsteady, and the money that he received as a delegate failed to cover his expenses. However, the crisis caused by the defeat of the American soldiers kept him at his post.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|p=298}}
After defeating the Continental Army at the [[Battle of Long Island]] on August 27, 1776, British Admiral [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Richard Howe]] determined that a strategic advantage was at hand, and requested that Congress send representatives to negotiate peace. A delegation consisting of Adams, Franklin, and [[Edward Rutledge]] met with Howe at the [[Staten Island Peace Conference]] on September 11.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=153–157}}{{sfn|Smith|1962a|p=301}} Howe's authority was premised on the states' submission, so the parties found no common ground. When Lord Howe stated he could view the American delegates only as British subjects, Adams replied, "Your lordship may consider me in what light you please, ... except that of a British subject."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=157}} Adams learned many years later that his name was on a list of people specifically excluded from Howe's pardon-granting authority.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=158}} Adams was unimpressed with Howe and predicted American success.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=164–165}} He was able to return home to Braintree in October before leaving in January 1777 to resume his duties in Congress.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|pp=308–312}}
==Diplomatic service==
{{main|Diplomacy of John Adams}}
===Commissioner to France===
Adams advocated in [[United States Congress|Congress]] that independence was necessary to establish trade, and conversely, trade was essential for the attainment of independence; he specifically urged negotiation of a commercial treaty with France. He was appointed, along with Franklin, Dickinson, [[Benjamin Harrison V|Benjamin Harrison]] from [[Virginia]], and [[Robert Morris (financier)|Robert Morris]] from [[Pennsylvania]], "to prepare a plan of treaties to be proposed to foreign powers." While Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Independence, Adams worked on the [[Model Treaty]], which authorized a commercial agreement with France but contained no provisions for formal recognition or military assistance. The treaty adhered to the provision that "[[freedom of navigation|free ships make free goods]]," allowing neutral nations to trade reciprocally while exempting an agreed-upon list of contraband. By late 1777, America's finances were in tatters, and that September a British army had [[Battle of Brandywine|defeated]] General Washington and captured Philadelphia. More Americans came to determine that mere commercial ties between the U.S. and France would not be enough, and that military assistance would be needed. The defeat of the British at [[Battles of Saratoga|Saratoga]] was expected to help induce France to agree to an alliance.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=189–190}}
In November 1777, Adams learned that he was to be named commissioner to France, replacing [[Silas Deane]] and joining Franklin and [[Arthur Lee (diplomat)|Arthur Lee]] in Paris to negotiate an alliance with the French. [[James Lovell (politician)|James Lovell]] invoked Adams's "inflexible integrity" and the need to have a youthful man who could counterbalance Franklin's age. On November 27, Adams accepted, wasting no time. Abigail was left in Massachusetts to manage their home, but it was agreed that 10-year-old John Quincy would go with Adams, for the experience was "of inestimable value" to his maturation.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=174–176}} On February 17, 1778, Adams set sail aboard the frigate ''[[USS Boston (1777)|Boston]]'', commanded by Captain [[Samuel Tucker (naval officer)|Samuel Tucker]].{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=177–179}} The trip was stormy and treacherous. The ship was pursued by British vessels, with Adams personally taking up arms to help capture one. A cannon malfunction wounded several sailors and killed one. On April 1, the ''Boston'' arrived in France, where Adams learned that France had agreed to an [[Treaty of Alliance (1778)|alliance]] with the United States on February 6.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=186–187}} Adams was annoyed by the other two commissioners: Lee, whom he thought paranoid and cynical, and the popular and influential Franklin, whom he found lethargic and overly deferential to the French.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=198, 209}} He assumed a less visible role but helped manage the delegation's finances and record-keeping.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=199}} Frustrated by the perceived lack of commitment on the part of the French, Adams wrote a letter to French foreign minister [[Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes|Vergennes]] in December, arguing for French naval support in North America. Franklin toned down the letter, but Vergennes ignored it.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=210}} In September 1778, Congress increased Franklin's powers by naming him [[minister plenipotentiary]] to France while Lee was sent to Spain. Adams received no instructions. Frustrated by the apparent slight, he departed France with John Quincy on March 8, 1779.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=210–213}} On August 2, they arrived in Braintree.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=218}}
[[File:Joseph Siffrein Duplessis - Benjamin Franklin - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.9|Adams frequently clashed with [[Benjamin Franklin]] over how to manage relations with [[France in the early modern period|France]].]]
In late 1779, Adams was appointed as the sole minister charged with negotiations to establish a commercial treaty with Britain and end the war.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=221}} Following the Massachusetts constitutional convention, he departed for France in November,{{sfn|Smith|1962a|p=451}} accompanied by his sons John Quincy and 9-year-old Charles.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=218}} A leak forced the ship to land in [[Ferrol, Spain]], and Adams and his party spent six weeks travelling overland to Paris.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|pp=452–459}} Constant disagreement between Lee and Franklin eventually resulted in Adams assuming the role of tie-breaker in almost all votes on commission business. He increased his usefulness by mastering French. Lee was eventually recalled. Adams closely supervised his sons' education while writing to Abigail about once every ten days.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=219–222}}
In contrast to Franklin, Adams viewed the Franco-American alliance pessimistically. The French, he believed, were involved for their own self-interest, and he grew frustrated by what he saw as their sluggishness in providing substantial aid. The French, Adams wrote, meant to keep their hands "above our chin to prevent us from drowning, but not to lift our heads out of water."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=233}} In March 1780, Congress, trying to curb inflation, voted to devalue the dollar. Vergennes summoned Adams for a meeting. In a letter sent in June, he insisted that fluctuation of the dollar value without an exception for French merchants was unacceptable and requested that Adams write to Congress asking it to "retrace its steps." Adams bluntly defended the decision, not only claiming that the French merchants were doing better than Vergennes implied but voicing other grievances he had with the French. The alliance had been made over two years before. During that period, an army under the [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau|comte de Rochambeau]] had been sent to assist Washington, but it had yet to do anything of significance and America was expecting French warships. These were needed, Adams wrote, to contain the British armies in the port cities and contend with the powerful British Navy. However, the French Navy had been sent not to the United States but to the West Indies to protect French interests there. France, Adams believed, needed to commit itself more fully to the alliance. Vergennes responded that he would deal only with Franklin, who sent a letter back to Congress critical of Adams.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=239–241}} Adams then left France of his own accord.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=242}}
===
In mid-1780, Adams traveled to the [[Dutch Republic]]. One of the few other republics at the time, Adams thought it might be sympathetic to the American cause. Securing a Dutch loan could increase American independence from France and pressure Britain into peace. At first, Adams had no official status, but in July he was formally given permission to negotiate for a loan and took up residence in [[Amsterdam]] in August. Adams was originally optimistic and greatly enjoyed the city, but soon became disappointed. The Dutch, fearing British retaliation, refused to meet Adams. Before he had arrived, the British found out about secret aid the Dutch had sent to the Americans and authorized reprisals against their ships, which only increased their apprehension. Word had also reached Europe of American battlefield defeats. After five months of not meeting with a single Dutch official, Adams in early 1781 pronounced Amsterdam "the capital of the reign of [[Mammon]]."{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=228–230}} He was finally invited to present his credentials as ambassador to the Dutch government at [[The Hague]] on April 19, 1781, but they did not promise any assistance. In the meantime, Adams thwarted an attempt by neutral European powers to mediate the war without consulting the United States.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=254–255}} In July, Adams consented to the departure of both of his sons; John Quincy went with Adams's secretary [[Francis Dana]] to [[Saint Petersburg]] as a French interpreter, in an effort to seek recognition from [[Russia]], and a homesick Charles returned home with Adams's friend [[Benjamin Waterhouse]].{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=262}} In August, shortly after being removed from his position of sole head of peace treaty negotiations, Adams had "a major nervous breakdown."{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=236}} That November, he learned that American and French troops had decisively defeated the British at [[Siege of Yorktown|Yorktown]]. The victory was in large part due to the assistance of the French Navy, which vindicated Adams's stand for increased naval assistance.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=239–240}}
News of the American triumph at Yorktown convulsed Europe. In January 1782, after recovering, Adams arrived at The Hague to demand that the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]] answer his petitions. His efforts stalled, and he took his cause to the people, successfully capitalizing on popular pro-American sentiment. Several provinces began recognizing American independence. On April 19, the States General formally recognized American independence and acknowledged Adams as ambassador.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=268–270}} On June 11, with the aid of the Dutch [[Patriottentijd|''Patriotten'']] leader [[Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol]], Adams negotiated a loan of five million guilders. In October, he negotiated a treaty of amity and commerce.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=171–173}} The house that Adams bought during this stay in the [[Netherlands]] became the first American embassy on foreign soil.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thehague.usembassy.gov/friendship_days2.html |title=Dutch American Friendship Day / Heritage Day – U.S. Embassy The Hague, Netherlands |publisher=U.S. Embassy |date=November 16, 1991 |access-date=March 2, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527103140/http://thehague.usembassy.gov/friendship_days2.html |archive-date=May 27, 2010 }}</ref>
===Treaty of Paris===
[[File:Treaty of Paris by Benjamin West 1783.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|''[[Treaty of Paris (painting)|Treaty of Paris]]'', an unfinished 1783 portrait by [[Benjamin West]] with Adams seated in front]]
After negotiating the loan with the Dutch, Adams was re-appointed as the American commissioner to negotiate the war-ending treaty, the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]]. Vergennes and France's minister to the United States, [[Anne-César de La Luzerne]], disapproved of Adams, so Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, [[John Jay]], and [[Henry Laurens]] were appointed to collaborate with Adams, although Jefferson did not initially go to Europe and Laurens was posted to the Dutch Republic following his imprisonment in the Tower of London.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=185–242}}
In the final negotiations, securing fishing rights off [[Newfoundland]] and [[Cape Breton Island]] proved both very important and very difficult. In response to very strict restrictions proposed by the British, Adams insisted that not only should American fishermen be allowed to travel as close to shore as desired, but that they should be allowed to cure their fish on the shores of Newfoundland.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|pp=545–546}} This, and other statements, prompted Vergennes to secretly inform the British that France did not feel compelled to "sustain [these] pretentious ambitions." Overruling Franklin and distrustful of Vergennes, Jay and Adams decided not to consult with France, instead dealing directly with the British.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=281–284}} During these negotiations, Adams mentioned to the British that his proposed fishing terms were more generous than those offered by France in 1778 and that accepting would foster goodwill between Britain and the United States while putting pressure on France. Britain agreed, and the two sides worked out other provisions afterward. Vergennes was angered when he learned from Franklin of the American duplicity, but did not demand renegotiation. He was surprised at how much the Americans could extract. The independent negotiations also allowed the French to plead innocence to their Spanish allies, whose demands for [[Gibraltar]] might have caused significant problems.{{sfn|Smith|1962a|pp=546–547}} On September 3, 1783, the treaty was signed and American independence was recognized.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=285}}
===Ambassador to Great Britain===
Adams was appointed the first [[List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom|American ambassador to Great Britain]] in 1785.{{sfn|Adams|Adams|1851|p=392}} After arriving in London from Paris, Adams had his first audience with [[King George III]] on June 1, which he meticulously recorded in a letter to Foreign Minister Jay the next day. The pair's exchange was respectful; Adams promised to do all that he could to restore friendship and cordiality "between People who, tho {{sic|Sep|erated}} by an Ocean and under different Governments have the Same Language, a Similar Religion and kindred Blood," and the King agreed to "receive with Pleasure, the Assurances of the friendly Dispositions of the United States." The King added that although "he had been the last to consent" to American independence, he had always done what he thought was right. He startled Adams by commenting that "There is an Opinion, among Some People, that you are not the most attached of all Your Countrymen, to the manners of France." Adams replied, "That Opinion sir, is not mistaken... I have no Attachments but to my own Country." King George responded, "An honest Man will never have any other."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/06-17-02-0078#ADMS-06-17-02-0078-fn-0013 |title=From John Adams to John Jay, 2 June 1785 |publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society |access-date=September 18, 2017}}</ref>
[[File:JohnAdams.png|thumb|left|upright=.9|''Adams – 1785'', a portrait by [[Mather Brown]]]]
Adams was joined by Abigail in London. Suffering the hostility of the King's courtiers, they escaped when they could by seeking out [[Richard Price]], minister of [[Newington Green Unitarian Church]] and instigator of the [[Revolution Controversy|debate over the Revolution]] within Britain.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=343–344}} Adams corresponded with his sons John Quincy and Charles, both of whom were at Harvard, cautioning the former against the "smell of the midnight lamp" while admonishing the latter to devote sufficient time to study.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=364–365}} Jefferson visited Adams in 1786 while serving as Minister to France; the two toured the countryside and saw many historical sites.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=354–357}} While in London, Adams met his old friend [[Jonathan Sewall]], but the two discovered that they had grown too far apart to renew their friendship. Adams considered Sewall one of the war's casualties, and Sewall critiqued him as an ambassador:
{{blockquote|His abilities are undoubtedly equal to the mechanical parts of his business as ambassador, but this is not enough. He cannot dance, drink, game, flatter, promise, dress, swear with the gentlemen, and small talk and flirt with the ladies; in short, he has none of those essential arts or ornaments which constitute a courtier. There are thousands who, with a tenth of his understanding and without a spark of his honesty, would distance him infinitely in any court in Europe.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=348–350}}}}
While in London Adams wrote his three-volume ''[[A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America]]'', a response to those he had met in Europe who criticized the government systems of the American states.{{sfn|Chinard|1933|p=203}}
Adams's tenure in Britain was complicated by both countries failing to follow their treaty obligations. The American states had been delinquent in paying debts owed to British merchants, and in response, the British refused to vacate forts in the northwest as promised. Adams's attempts to resolve this dispute failed, and he was often frustrated by a lack of news of progress from home.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=655}} The news he received of tumult at home, such as [[Shays' Rebellion]], heightened his anxiety. He asked Jay to be relieved;{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=702}} in 1788, he took his leave of George III, who promised to uphold his end of the treaty once America did the same.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=729}} Adams then went to The Hague to take formal leave of his ambassadorship there and to secure refinancing from the Dutch, allowing the United States to meet obligations on earlier loans.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=382}}
==Vice presidency (1789–1797)==
===Election===
{{Main|1788–1789 United States presidential election}}
On June 17, 1788, Adams returned to a triumphant welcome in Massachusetts. He returned to farming life in the months after. The nation's first [[1788–89 United States presidential election|presidential election]] was soon to take place. Because George Washington was widely expected to win the presidency, many felt that the vice presidency should go to a northerner. Although he made no public comments on the matter, Adams was the primary contender.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=389–392}} Each state's [[Electoral College (United States)|presidential electors]] gathered on February 4, 1789, to cast their [[Article Two of the United States Constitution#Clause 3: Electors|two votes for the president]]. The person with the most votes would be president and the second would become vice president.{{sfn|Ferling|2009|pp=270–274}} Adams received 34 [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]] votes in the election, second behind Washington, who was a unanimous choice with 69 votes. As a result, Washington became the nation's [[List of presidents of the United States|first president]], and Adams became its first [[List of vice presidents of the United States|vice president]]. Adams finished well ahead of all others except Washington, but was still offended by Washington receiving more than twice as many votes.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=393–394}} In an effort to ensure that Adams did not accidentally become president and that Washington would have an overwhelming victory, [[Alexander Hamilton]] convinced at least 7 of the 69 electors not to cast their vote for Adams. After finding out about the manipulation but not Hamilton's role in it, Adams wrote to Benjamin Rush that his election was "a curse rather than a blessing."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=393–394}}{{sfn|Chernow|2004|pp=272–273}}
Although his term started on March 4, 1789, Adams did not begin serving as vice president until April 21, because he did not arrive in New York in time.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|pp=742–745}}{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=398–401}}
===Tenure===
[[File:Official Presidential portrait of John Adams (by John Trumbull, circa 1792).jpg|thumb|upright=.9|A 1793 portrait of Adams by [[John Trumbull]]]]
The sole constitutionally prescribed responsibility of the [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]] is to preside over the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]], where they were empowered to cast a tie-breaking vote.<ref name="USSadamsdoc">{{Include-USGov| agency= United States Senate| article= Vice President of the United States (President of the Senate)| url= https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Vice_President.htm#2| access-date= July 23, 2017}}</ref> Early in his term, Adams became deeply involved in a lengthy Senate controversy over the official titles for the president and executive officers of the new government. Although the House agreed that the president should be addressed simply as "George Washington, President of the United States", the Senate debated the issue at some length. Adams favored the style of ''Highness'' (as well as the title of ''Protector of Their [the United States'] Liberties'') for the president.{{sfn|Hutson|1968|pp=30–39}} Some senators favored a variant of ''Highness'' or the lesser ''Excellency''.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=404–405}} [[Anti-Federalism|Anti-federalists]] in the Senate objected to the monarchical sound of them all; Jefferson described them as "superlatively ridiculous."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=410}} They argued that these "distinctions," as Adams called them, violated the Constitution's [[Title of Nobility Clause|prohibition on titles of nobility]]. Adams said that the distinctions were necessary because the highest office of the United States must be marked with "dignity and splendor". He was widely derided for his combative nature and stubbornness, especially as he actively debated and lectured the senators. "For forty minutes he harangued us from the chair," wrote Senator [[William Maclay (Pennsylvania senator)|William Maclay]] of Pennsylvania. Maclay became Adams's fiercest opponent and repeatedly expressed personal contempt for him in public and private. He likened Adams to "a monkey just put into breeches."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=406–408}} [[Ralph Izard]] suggested that Adams be referred to as "His Rotundity," a joke which soon became popular.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=408}} On May 14, 1789, the Senate decided that the title of "[[Mr. President (title)|Mr. President]]" would be used.{{sfn|Wood|2006|p=54}} Privately, Adams conceded that his vice presidency had begun poorly and that perhaps he had been out of the country too long to know the sentiment of the people. Washington quietly expressed his displeasure with the fuss.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=408–409}}
[[File:George Washington 1795.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|''Portrait of George Washington'' by [[Gilbert Stuart]], 1795. Washington rarely consulted Vice President Adams, who often felt marginalized and overshadowed by Washington's prestige.]]
As vice president, Adams largely sided with the Washington administration and the emerging [[Federalist Party]]. He supported Washington's policies against opposition from [[Democratic-Republican Party|anti-Federalist Republicans]].{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=460}} He cast 29 [[List of tie-breaking votes cast by vice presidents of the United States|tie-breaking votes]], and is one of only three vice presidents who have cast more than 20 during their tenure.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ballotpedia.org/Tie-breaking_votes_cast_by_vice_presidents_in_the_Senate| title=Tie-breaking votes cast by vice presidents in the Senate |website=ballotpedia.org |access-date=April 25, 2023}}</ref> He voted against a bill sponsored by Maclay that would have required Senate consent for the removal of executive branch officials who had been confirmed by the Senate.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=413–414}} In 1790, Jefferson, [[James Madison]], and Hamilton struck a [[Compromise of 1790|bargain]] guaranteeing Republican support for Hamilton's [[Funding Act of 1790|debt assumption plan]] in exchange for the capital being temporarily moved from New York to [[Philadelphia]], and then to a permanent site on the [[Potomac River]] to placate Southerners. In the Senate, Adams cast a tie-breaking vote against a last-minute motion to keep the capital in New York.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=425–426}}
Adams played a minor role in politics as vice president. He attended few [[Presidency of George Washington#Cabinet|cabinet]] meetings, and the President sought his counsel infrequently.<ref name=USSadamsdoc/> While Adams brought energy and dedication to the office,{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=769}} by mid-1789 he had already found it "not quite adapted to my character ... too inactive, and mechanical."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-08-02-0209 |title=John Adams to John Quincy Adams, 9 July 1789 |publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society |access-date=December 24, 2019}}</ref> He wrote, "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/doc?id=L17931219ja |title=John Adams to Abigail Adams, 19 December 1793 |publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society |access-date=September 1, 2020}}</ref> Adams's initial behavior in the Senate made him a target for critics of the Washington administration. Toward the end of his first term, he grew accustomed to a marginal role, and rarely intervened in debate.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=434}} Adams never questioned Washington's courage or patriotism, but Washington did join Franklin and others as the object of Adams's ire or envy. "The History of our Revolution will be one continued lie," Adams declared. "The essence of the whole will be that Dr. Franklin's [[Lightning rod#America|electrical Rod]] smote the Earth and out sprung General Washington. That Franklin electrified him with his Rod – and henceforth these two conducted all the Policy, Negotiations, Legislatures and War."{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=310}} Adams won reelection with little difficulty in [[1792 United States presidential election|1792]] with 77 votes. His strongest challenger, [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]], had 50.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=439}}
On July 14, 1789, the [[French Revolution]] began. Republicans were jubilant. Adams at first expressed cautious optimism, but soon began denouncing the revolutionaries as barbarous and tyrannical.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=416–417}} Washington eventually consulted Adams more often, but not until near the end of his administration, by which point distinguished cabinet members Hamilton and Jefferson had resigned.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=878}} The British had been raiding American trading vessels, and John Jay was sent to London to negotiate an end to hostilities. When he returned in 1795 with a [[Jay Treaty|peace treaty]] on terms unfavorable to the United States, Adams urged Washington to sign it to prevent war. Washington did so, igniting protests and riots. He was accused of surrendering American honor to a tyrannical monarchy and of turning his back on the French Republic.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=456–457}} John Adams predicted in a letter to Abigail that ratification would deeply divide the nation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-11-02-0132 |title=John Adams to Abigail Adams, 16 April 1796 |publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society |access-date=July 5, 2018}}</ref>
===Election of 1796===
{{Main|1796 United States presidential election}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1796.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[1796 United States presidential election|1796 presidential election]] results in which Adams narrowly defeated [[Thomas Jefferson]]]]
The [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 election]] was the first contested American presidential election.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bomboy |first=Scott |title=Inside America's first dirty presidential campaign, 1796 style |work=Constitution Daily |date=October 22, 2012 |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/inside-americas-first-dirty-presidential-campaign-1796-style/ |publisher=National Constitution Center |location=Philadelphia, PA |access-date=August 18, 2017 |archive-date=August 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821004345/https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/inside-americas-first-dirty-presidential-campaign-1796-style/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Twice, George Washington had been elected to office unanimously but, during [[presidency of George Washington|his presidency]], deep philosophical differences between the two leading figures in the administration – Hamilton and Jefferson – had caused a rift, leading to the founding of the Federalist and Republican parties.<ref name=FerlingTime>{{cite magazine |url=http://time.com/4210440/jefferson-hamilton-excerpt/ |title=How the Rivalry Between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton Changed History |first=John |last=Ferling |magazine=Time Magazine |date=February 15, 2016 |access-date=March 11, 2017}}</ref> When Washington announced that he would not stand for a third term, an intense [[Partisan (political)|partisan]] struggle for control of Congress and the presidency began.{{sfn|Flexner|1974|pp=360–361}}
As in the previous two presidential elections, no candidates were put forward for voters to choose between in 1796. The Constitution provided for the selection of electors who would then choose a president.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|pp=898–899}} In seven states voters chose the presidential electors. In the remaining nine states, they were chosen by the state's legislature.<ref name=JAelections>{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/adams/campaigns-and-elections |title=John Adams: Campaigns and Elections |last=Taylor |first=C. James |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |location=Charlottesville, VA |access-date=August 3, 2017|date=October 4, 2016 }}</ref> The clear Republican favorite was Jefferson.{{sfn|McDonald|1974|pp=178–181}} Adams was the Federalist frontrunner.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|pp=898–899}} The Republicans held a [[congressional nominating caucus]] and named Jefferson and [[Aaron Burr]] as their presidential choices.{{sfn|Diggins|2003|pp=83–88}} Jefferson at first declined the nomination, but he agreed to run a few weeks later. Federalist members of Congress held an informal nominating caucus and named Adams and [[Thomas Pinckney]] as their candidates.{{sfn|McDonald|1974|pp=178–181}}{{sfn|Hoadley|1986|p=54}} The campaign was mostly confined to newspaper attacks, pamphlets, and political rallies;{{sfn|Smith|1962b|pp=898–899}} of the four contenders, only Burr actively campaigned. The practice of not campaigning for office would persist for decades.<ref name=JAelections/> Adams stated that he wanted to stay out of the "silly and wicked game" of electioneering.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-11-02-0086 |title=John Adams to Abigail Adams, 10 February 1796|publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref>
As the campaign progressed, fears grew among Hamilton and his supporters that Adams was too vain, opinionated, unpredictable and stubborn to follow their directions.{{sfn|Elkins|McKitrick|1993|pp=513–537}} Indeed, Adams did not consider himself a strong member of the Federalist Party. He had remarked that Hamilton's economic program, centered around banks, would "swindle" the poor and unleash the "gangrene of avarice."{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=521}} Desiring "a more pliant president than Adams," Hamilton maneuvered to tip the election to Pinckney. He coerced South Carolina Federalist electors, pledged to vote for "[[favorite son]]" Pinckney, to scatter their second votes among candidates other than Adams. Hamilton's scheme was undone when several [[New England]] state electors heard of it and agreed not to vote for Pinckney.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=902}} Adams wrote shortly after the election that Hamilton was a "proud Spirited, conceited, aspiring Mortal always pretending to Morality, with as debauched Morals as old Franklin who is more his Model than any one I know."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/04-11-02-0251|title=John Adams to Abigail Adams, 9 January 1797|publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society|access-date=September 26, 2017}}</ref> Throughout his life, Adams made highly critical statements about Hamilton. He made derogatory references to his womanizing, real or alleged, and slurred him as the "[[Creole peoples|Creole]] bastard."{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=522}}
Adams won the presidency by a narrow margin, receiving 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson, who became the vice president; Pinckney finished third with 59 votes, and Burr came fourth with 30. The balance of the votes were dispersed among nine other candidates.<ref name=ECscore>{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/scores.html#1789|title=Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996|publisher=[[Office of the Federal Register]], [[National Archives and Records Administration]]|location=College Park, MD|access-date=August 20, 2017}}</ref> This is the only election to date in which a president and vice president were elected from opposing tickets.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/opinion/la-oe-amar22-2008oct22-story.html|title=Vice president: a split-ticket vote?|last=Amar|first=Vikram David|date=October 22, 2008|work=The New York Times|access-date=October 17, 2017}}</ref>
==Presidency (1797–1801)==
{{Main|Presidency of John Adams|Diplomacy of John Adams}}
===Inauguration===
[[File:PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[President's House (Philadelphia)|President's House]] in [[Philadelphia]], which was then the national capital; Adams occupied this Philadelphia mansion from March 1797 to May 1800.]]
Adams [[Inauguration of John Adams|was sworn into office]] as the nation's second president on March 4, 1797. He followed Washington's lead in using the presidency to exemplify republican values and [[civic virtue]], and his service was free of scandal.<ref>{{cite web|title=The 3rd Presidential Inauguration, John Adams, March 04, 1797|url=https://www.inaugural.senate.gov/about/past-inaugural-ceremonies/3rd-inaugural-ceremonies/|publisher=U.S. Senate|location=Washington, DC|access-date=August 23, 2017}}</ref> Adams spent much of his term at his Massachusetts home [[Peacefield]], preferring the quietness of domestic life to business at the capital. He ignored the political patronage and office-seeking which other officeholders utilized.{{sfn|Herring|2008|p=91}}
Historians debate the wisdom of his decision to retain Washington's cabinet given its loyalty to Hamilton. The "Hamiltonians who surround him," Jefferson remarked, "are only a little less hostile to him than to me."{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=333}} Although aware of Hamilton's influence, Adams was convinced that their retention ensured a smoother succession.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=471}} Adams maintained the economic programs of Hamilton, who regularly consulted with key cabinet members, especially the powerful Treasury Secretary, [[Oliver Wolcott Jr.]]{{sfn|Kurtz|1957|p=272}} Adams was in other respects quite independent of his cabinet, often making decisions despite opposition from it.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|pp=593–594}} Hamilton had grown accustomed to being regularly consulted by Washington. Shortly after Adams was inaugurated, Hamilton sent him a detailed letter with policy suggestions. Adams dismissively ignored it.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=524}}
===Failed peace commission and XYZ affair===
{{Main|XYZ Affair}}
{{external media| float = left| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?49975-1/passionate-sage-john-adams ''Booknotes'' interview with Joseph Ellis on ''Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams'', September 5, 1993], [[C-SPAN]]}}
[[File:Property protected à la françoise.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|A 1798 political cartoon's depiction of the [[XYZ Affair]] with America as a female being plundered by Frenchmen]]
Historian [[Joseph Ellis]] writes that "[t]he Adams presidency was destined to be dominated by a single question of American policy to an extent seldom if ever encountered by any succeeding occupant of the office." That question was whether to make war with France or find peace.{{sfn|Ellis|1993|p=28}} [[French Revolutionary Wars|Britain and France were at war]] as a result of the French Revolution. Hamilton and the Federalists strongly favored the British monarchy against what they denounced as the political radicalism and anti-religious frenzy of the French Revolution. Jefferson and the Republicans, with their firm opposition to monarchy, strongly supported the French overthrowing their king.{{sfn|Wood|2009|pp=174–177, 240}} The French had supported Jefferson for president in 1796 and became belligerent at his loss.{{sfn|Herring|2008|p=82}} Adams continued Washington's policy of staying out of the war. Because of the Jay Treaty, the French saw America as Britain's junior partner and began seizing American merchant ships that were trading with the British. Most Americans were still pro-French due to France's assistance during the Revolution, the perceived humiliation of the Jay Treaty, and their desire to support a republic against the British monarchy, and would not tolerate war with France.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=342–345}}
On May 16, 1797, Adams gave a speech to the House and Senate in which he called for increasing defense capabilities in case of war with France.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/ja97-03.asp|title=John Adams – Special Message to the Senate and the House; May 16 1797|publisher=Avalon Project, Yale Law School|access-date=September 22, 2017}}</ref> He announced that he would send a peace commission to France but simultaneously called for a military buildup to counter any potential French threat. The speech was well received by the Federalists. Adams was depicted as an eagle holding an olive branch in one talon and the "emblems of defense" in the other. The Republicans were outraged, for Adams not only had failed to express support for the cause of the French Republic but appeared to be calling for war against it.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=484–485}}
Sentiments changed with the [[XYZ Affair]]. The peace commission that Adams appointed consisted of [[John Marshall]], [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]] and [[Elbridge Gerry]].{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=495}} Jefferson met four times with Joseph Letombe, the French consul in Philadelphia. Letombe wrote to Paris stating that Jefferson had told him that it was in France's best interest to treat the American ministers civilly but "then drag out the negotiations at length" to arrive at most favorable solution. According to Letombe, Jefferson called Adams "vain, suspicious, and stubborn."{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=547}} When the envoys arrived in October, they were kept waiting for several days, and then granted only a 15-minute meeting with French Foreign Minister [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord|Talleyrand]]. The diplomats were then met by three of Talleyrand's agents (later code-named, X, Y, and Z), who refused to conduct negotiations unless the United States paid enormous bribes to France and to Talleyrand personally.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=495}} Supposedly this was to make up for offenses given to France by Adams in his speech.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/99-02-02-2180 |title=Epitomy, and Remarks on Actions of Ministers at Paris, 22 October 1797 |publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society |access-date=December 24, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224233331/https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/99-02-02-2180 |archive-date=December 24, 2019 |url-status=live}} [This is an Early Access document from The Adams Papers. It is not an authoritative final version.]</ref> The Americans refused to negotiate on such terms.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=495–496}} Marshall and Pinckney returned home, while Gerry remained.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=502}}
News of the disastrous peace mission arrived in a memorandum from Marshall on March 4, 1798. Adams, not wanting to incite violent impulses among the populace, announced that the mission had failed without providing details.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=550}} He also sent a message to Congress asking for a renewal of the nation's defenses. The Republicans frustrated the President's defense measures. Suspecting that he might be hiding material favorable to France, Republicans in the House, with the support of Federalists who had heard rumors of what was contained in the messages, voted overwhelmingly to demand that Adams release the papers. Once they were released, the Republicans, according to Abigail, were "struck dumb."{{sfn|Smith|1962b|pp=957–960}} [[Benjamin Franklin Bache (journalist)|Benjamin Franklin Bache]], editor of the ''[[Philadelphia Aurora]],'' blamed Adams's aggression for the disaster. Among the general public however, the affair substantially weakened popular American support of France. Adams reached the height of his popularity as many in the country called for full-scale war against the French.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=498}}
===Alien and Sedition Acts===
{{Main|Alien and Sedition Acts}}
[[File:T Jefferson by Charles Willson Peale 1791 2.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|[[Thomas Jefferson]], Adams's vice president, attempted to undermine many of his actions as president and eventually defeated him for reelection in the [[1800 United States presidential election|1800 presidential election]].]]
Despite the XYZ Affair, Republican opposition persisted. Federalists accused the French and their immigrants of provoking civil unrest. In an attempt to quell the outcry, the Federalists introduced, and the Congress passed, a series of laws collectively referred to as the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]].{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=365–368}} Passage of the [[Naturalization Act of 1798|Naturalization Act]], the Alien Friends Act, the Alien Enemies Act and the Sedition Act all came within a period of two weeks, in what Jefferson called an "unguarded passion." The first three acts targeted immigrants, specifically French, by giving the president greater deportation authority and increasing citizenship requirements. The Sedition Act made it a crime to publish "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" against the government or its officials.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=365}} Adams had not promoted any of these acts, but signed them in June 1798 at the urging of his wife and cabinet.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=366}}
The administration initiated fourteen or more indictments under the Sedition Act, as well as suits against five of the six most prominent Republican newspapers. The majority of the legal actions began in 1798 and 1799, and went to trial on the eve of the 1800 presidential election.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=367}} Vocal opponents of the Federalists were imprisoned or fined under the Sedition Act for criticizing the government.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|pp=574–575}} Among them was Congressman [[Matthew Lyon]] of Vermont, who was sentenced to four months in jail for criticizing the President.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=575}} The alien acts were not stringently enforced because Adams resisted Secretary of State [[Timothy Pickering]]'s attempts to deport aliens, although many left on their own, largely in response to the hostile environment.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=367}} Republicans were outraged. Jefferson, disgusted by the acts, wrote nothing publicly but partnered with Madison to secretly draft the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]]. Jefferson wrote for Kentucky that states had the "natural right" to [[Nullification (U.S. Constitution)|nullify]] any acts they deemed unconstitutional. Writing to Madison, he speculated that as a last resort the states might have to "sever ourselves from the union we so much value."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=520–521}} Federalists reacted bitterly to the resolutions, and the acts energized and unified the Republican Party while doing little to unite the Federalists.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|pp=573–575}}
===Quasi-War===
In May 1798, a French [[privateer]] captured a merchant vessel off of [[New York Harbor]]. An increase in attacks on sea marked the beginning of the undeclared naval war known as the [[Quasi-War]].{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=553}} Adams knew that America would be unable to win a major conflict, both because of its internal divisions and because France at the time was dominating the fight in most of Europe. He pursued a strategy whereby America harassed French ships in an effort sufficient to stem the French assaults on American interests.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=356–357}} In May, shortly after the attack in New York, Congress created a separate Navy Department. The prospect of a French invasion led for calls to build up the army. Hamilton and other "High Federalists" were particularly adamant that a large army be called up, in spite of a common fear, particularly among Republicans, that large standing armies were subversive to liberty. In May, a provisional army of 10,000 soldiers was authorized by Congress. In July, Congress created twelve infantry regiments and provided for six cavalry companies, exceeding Adams's requests but falling short of Hamilton's.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|pp=552–553}}
Federalists pressured Adams to appoint Hamilton, who had served as Washington's aide-de-camp during the Revolution, to command the army.{{sfn|Flexner|1974|p=376}} Distrustful of Hamilton and fearing a plot to subvert his administration, Adams chose Washington without consulting him. As a condition of his acceptance, Washington demanded that he be permitted to appoint his own subordinates. He wished to have [[Henry Knox]] as second-in-command, followed by Hamilton, and then Charles Pinckney.{{sfn|Flexner|1974|pp=376–377}} On June 2, Hamilton wrote to Washington stating that he would not serve unless he was made Inspector General and second-in-command.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=555}} Washington conceded that Hamilton, despite holding a rank lower than Knox and Pinckney, had, by serving on his staff, more opportunity to comprehend the whole military scene, and should therefore outrank them. Adams sent Secretary of War [[James McHenry]] to [[Mount Vernon]] to convince Washington to accept the post. McHenry put forth his opinion that Washington would not serve unless permitted to choose his own officers.{{sfn|Flexner|1974|p=378}} Adams had intended to appoint Republicans Burr and [[Frederick Muhlenberg]] to make the army appear bipartisan. Washington's list consisted entirely of Federalists.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=978}} Adams relented and agreed to submit to the Senate the names of Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox, in that order, although final decisions of rank would be reserved to Adams.{{sfn|Flexner|1974|p=378}} Knox refused to serve under these conditions. Adams intended to give to Hamilton the lowest possible rank, while Washington and many other Federalists insisted that the order in which the names had been submitted to the Senate must determine seniority. On September 21, Adams received a letter from McHenry relaying a statement from Washington threatening to resign if Hamilton were not made second-in-command.{{sfn|Flexner|1974|pp=380–381}} Fearing Federalist backlash, Adams capitulated, despite bitter resentment.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|pp=982–983}} The illness of Abigail, whom Adams feared was near death, exacerbated his suffering.{{sfn|Flexner|1974|pp=380–381}}
[[File:Alexander Hamilton portrait by John Trumbull 1806.jpg|thumb|Alexander Hamilton's desire for high military rank and his push for war with France put him into conflict with Adams.]]
It quickly became apparent that due to Washington's advanced age, Hamilton was the army's ''de facto'' commander. He exerted effective control over the War Department, taking over supplies for the army.{{sfn|Kurtz|1957|p=331}} Meanwhile, Adams built up the Navy, adding [[six original United States frigates|six fast, powerful frigates]], most notably the [[USS Constitution|USS ''Constitution'']].{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=507}}
The Quasi-War continued, but there was a decline in war fever beginning in the fall once news arrived of the French defeat at the [[Battle of the Nile]], which many Americans hoped would make them more disposed to negotiate.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=516–517}} In October, Adams heard from Gerry in Paris that the French wanted to make peace and would properly receive an American delegation. That December in his address to Congress, Adams relayed these statements while expressing the need to maintain adequate defenses. The speech angered both Federalists, including Hamilton, many of whom had wanted a request for a declaration of war, and Republicans.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|pp=592–593}} Hamilton secretly promoted a plan, already rejected by Adams, in which American and British troops would jointly seize [[Spanish Florida]] and [[Louisiana (New Spain)|Louisiana]], ostensibly to deter a possible French invasion. Hamilton's critics, including Abigail, saw in his military buildups the signs of an aspiring military dictator.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=518}}
On February 18, 1799, Adams nominated diplomat [[William Vans Murray]] for a peace mission to France without consulting either his cabinet or Abigail, who nonetheless upon hearing of it described it as a "master stroke." To placate Republicans, he nominated [[Patrick Henry]] and Ellsworth to accompany Murray, and the Senate immediately approved them on March 3. Henry declined the nomination and Adams chose [[William Richardson Davie]] to replace him.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=523–525}} Hamilton strongly criticized the decision, as did Adams's cabinet members, who maintained frequent communication with him. Adams again questioned their loyalty but did not remove them.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|pp=593–594}} To the annoyance of many, Adams spent March to September 1799 in Peacefield. He returned to Trenton, where the government had set up temporary quarters due to the [[yellow fever]] epidemic, after a letter arrived from Talleyrand confirming that American ministers would be received. Adams then decided to send the commissioners to France.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=526–529}} Adams arrived in Trenton on October 10.{{sfn|Morse|1884|p=304}} Shortly after, Hamilton, in a breach of military protocol, arrived uninvited at the city to speak with the President, urging him not to send the peace commissioners but instead to ally with Britain to restore the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbons]]. "I heard him with perfect good humor, though never in my life did I hear a man talk more like a fool," Adams said. On November 15, the commissioners set sail for Paris.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=530–531}}
===Fries's Rebellion===
{{main|Fries's Rebellion}}
To pay for the military buildup of the Quasi-War, Adams and his Federalist allies enacted the [[direct tax|Direct Tax]] of 1798. Direct taxation by the federal government was widely unpopular, and the government's revenue under Washington had mostly come from [[excise tax]]es and [[Tariffs in United States history|tariffs]]. Though Washington had maintained a balanced budget with the help of a growing economy, increased military expenditures threatened to cause major budget deficits, and the Federalists developed a taxation plan to meet the need for increased government revenue. The Direct Tax of 1798 instituted a [[progressive tax|progressive]] [[land value tax]] of up to 1% of a property's value. Taxpayers in eastern Pennsylvania resisted federal tax collectors, and in March 1799 the bloodless Fries's Rebellion broke out. Led by Revolutionary War veteran [[John Fries]], rural German-speaking farmers protested what they saw as a threat to their liberties. They intimidated tax collectors, who often found themselves unable to go about their business.{{sfn|Elkins|McKitrick|1993|pp=696–700}} The disturbance was quickly ended with Hamilton leading the army to restore peace.{{sfn|Diggins|2003|pp=129–130}}
Fries and two other leaders were arrested, found guilty of treason, and sentenced to hang. They appealed to Adams requesting a pardon. The cabinet unanimously advised Adams to refuse, but he instead granted the pardon, arguing the men had instigated a mere riot as opposed to a rebellion.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=540–541}} In his pamphlet attacking Adams before the election, Hamilton wrote that "it was impossible to commit a greater error."<ref name="Adams Pamphlet">{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-25-02-0110-0002#ARHN-01-25-02-0110-0002-fn-0166-ptr |title=Letter from Alexander Hamilton, Concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq. President of the United States, [24 October 1800] |last=Hamilton |first=Alexander |publisher=National Archives |access-date=June 5, 2018}}</ref>
===Federalist divisions and peace===
{{CSS image crop|Image = ADAMS,John-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg|bSize = 325|cWidth = 220|cHeight = 270|oTop = 67|oLeft = 52|Location = right|Description = An engraved portrait of [[Presidency of John Adams|Adams as president]] by the [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]]}}
On May 5, 1800, Adams's frustrations with the Hamilton wing of the party exploded during a meeting with McHenry, a Hamilton loyalist who was universally regarded, even by Hamilton, as an inept Secretary of War. Adams accused him of subservience to Hamilton and declared that he would rather serve as Jefferson's vice president or minister at The Hague than be beholden to Hamilton for the presidency. McHenry offered to resign at once, and Adams accepted. On May 10, he asked Pickering to resign. Pickering refused and was summarily dismissed. Adams named John Marshall as Secretary of State and [[Samuel Dexter]] as Secretary of War.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=538–539}}{{sfn|Smith|1962b|pp=1028–1029}} In 1799, [[Napoleon]] took over as head of the French government in the [[Coup of 18 Brumaire]] and declared the French Revolution over.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=534}} News of this event increased Adams's desire to disband the provisional army, which, with Washington now dead, was commanded only by Hamilton.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=539–540}} His moves to end the army after the departures of McHenry and Pickering were met with little opposition.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=395}} Federalists joined with Republicans in voting to disband the army in mid-1800.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=539–540}}
Napoleon, determining that further conflict was pointless, signaled his readiness for friendly relations. By the [[Convention of 1800]], the two sides agreed to return any captured ships and to allow for the peaceful transfer of non-military goods to an enemy of the nation. On January 23, 1801, the Senate voted 16–14 in favor of the treaty, four votes short of the necessary two thirds. Some Federalists, including Hamilton, urged that the Senate vote in favor of the treaty with reservations. A new proposal was then drawn up demanding that the [[Treaty of Alliance (1778)|Treaty of Alliance of 1778]] be superseded and that France pay for its damages to American property. On February 3, the treaty with the reservations passed 22–9 and was signed by Adams.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=150}}{{efn|Jefferson, after entering office, approved a negotiated end to the 1778 alliance, freeing the United States of foreign entanglements, while excusing France from paying indemnities.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=423}}}} News of the peace treaty did not arrive in the United States until after the election, too late to sway the results.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=631}}
As president, Adams proudly avoided war, but deeply split his party in the process. Historian [[Ron Chernow]] writes that "the threat of [[Jacobin]]ism" was the one thing that united the Federalist Party, and that Adams's elimination of it unwittingly contributed to the party's demise.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=594}}
===Establishing government institutions and move to Washington===
Adams's leadership on naval defense has sometimes led him to be called the "father of the [[American Navy]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/j/john-adams-frigate-i.html|title=John Adams I (Frigate) 1799–1867|publisher=Naval History and Heritage Command |access-date=August 22, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909083339/http://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/j/john-adams-frigate-i.html|archive-date=September 9, 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Miller|1997|p=9}} In July 1798, he signed into law [[An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen]], which authorized the establishment of a government-operated marine hospital service.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rickungar/2011/01/17/congress-passes-socialized-medicine-and-mandates-health-insurance-in-1798/|title=Congress Passes Socialized Medicine and Mandates Health Insurance – In 1798|access-date=August 23, 2015|work=Forbes|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812024426/http://www.forbes.com/sites/rickungar/2011/01/17/congress-passes-socialized-medicine-and-mandates-health-insurance-in-1798/|archive-date=August 12, 2015}}</ref> In 1800, he signed the law establishing the [[Library of Congress]].<ref name="OLC"/>
Adams made his first official visit to the nation's new [[seat of government]] in early June 1800. Amid the "raw and unfinished" cityscape, the President found the public buildings "in a much greater forwardness of completion than expected."{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=1036}} He moved into the nearly completed [[White House|President's Mansion]] (later known as the White House) on November 1. Abigail arrived a few weeks later. On arrival, Adams wrote to her, "Before I end my letter, I pray Heaven to bestow the best of Blessings on this House and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none but honest and wise Men ever rule under this roof."{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=1049}} The Senate of the [[6th United States Congress|7th Congress]] met for the first time in the new [[United States Capitol|Congress House]] (later known as the Capitol building) on November 17, 1800. On November 22, Adams delivered his fourth [[State of the Union Address]] to a joint session of Congress.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=1050}} This would be the last annual message any president would personally deliver to Congress for the next 113 years.<ref>{{Include-USGov| agency= United States Senate| article=The Senate Moves to Washington| url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/The_Senate_Moves_to_Washington.htm| access-date=August 15, 2017}}</ref>
===Election of 1800===
{{Main|1800 United States presidential election}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1800.svg|thumb|upright=1.1|The [[1800 United States presidential election]] results in which Adams was defeated by [[Thomas Jefferson]]]]
With the Federalist Party deeply split over his negotiations with France, and the opposition Republican Party enraged over the Alien and Sedition Acts and the expansion of the military, Adams faced a daunting reelection campaign in [[1800 United States presidential election|1800]].<ref name=JAelections/> The Federalist congressmen caucused in the spring of 1800 and nominated Adams and [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney|Pinckney]]. The Republicans nominated Jefferson and Burr, their candidates in the previous election.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=396–397}}
The campaign was bitter and characterized by malicious insults by partisan presses on both sides. Federalists claimed that the Republicans were the enemies of "all who love order, peace, virtue, and religion." They were said to be libertines and dangerous radicals who favored states' rights over the Union and would instigate anarchy and civil war. Jefferson's rumored [[Sally Hemings|affairs]] with slaves were used against him. Republicans accused Federalists of subverting republican principles through punitive federal laws and of favoring Britain and the other coalition countries in their war with France to promote aristocratic, anti-republican values. Jefferson was portrayed as an apostle of liberty and man of the people, while Adams was labelled a monarchist. He was accused of insanity and marital infidelity.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=543–545}} [[James T. Callender]], a Republican propagandist secretly financed by Jefferson, degraded Adams's character and accused him of attempting to make war with France. Callender was arrested and jailed under the Sedition Act, which further inflamed Republican passions.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=536–537}}
Opposition from the Federalist Party was at times equally intense. Some, including Pickering, accused Adams of colluding with Jefferson so that he would end up either president or vice president.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=544}} Hamilton was hard at work, attempting to sabotage the President's reelection. Planning an indictment of Adams's character, he requested and received private documents from both the ousted cabinet secretaries and Wolcott.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|pp=619–620}} The letter was intended for only a few Federalist electors. Upon seeing a draft, several Federalists urged Hamilton not to send it. Wolcott wrote that "the poor old man" could do himself in without Hamilton's assistance. Hamilton did not heed their advice.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=549}} On October 24, he sent a pamphlet strongly attacking Adams's policies and character. Hamilton denounced the "precipitate nomination" of Murray, the pardoning of Fries, and the firing of Pickering. He vilified the President's "disgusting egotism" and "ungovernable temper." Adams, he concluded, was "emotionally unstable, given to impulsive and irrational decisions, unable to coexist with his closest advisers, and generally unfit to be president."<ref name="Adams Pamphlet"/> Strangely, it ended by saying that the electors should support Adams and Pinckney equally.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=550}} Thanks to Burr, who had covertly obtained a copy, the pamphlet became public knowledge and was distributed throughout the country by Republicans.{{sfn|Morse|1884|pp=320–321}} The pamphlet ended Hamilton's political career and helped ensure Adams's already likely defeat.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=550}}
When the electoral votes were counted, Adams finished third with 65 votes, and Pinckney came in fourth with 64 votes. Jefferson and Burr tied for first with 73 votes each. Because of the tie, the election devolved upon the House of Representatives, with each state having one vote and a majority required for victory. On February 17, 1801 – on the 36th ballot – Jefferson was elected by a vote of 10 to 4 (two states abstained).<ref name=JAelections/><ref name=ECscore/> Hamilton's scheme, although it made the Federalists appear divided and therefore helped Jefferson win, failed in its overall attempt to woo Federalist electors away from Adams.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=626}}{{efn|Ferling attributes Adams's defeat to five factors: the stronger organization of the Republicans; Federalist disunity; the controversy surrounding the Alien and Sedition Acts; the popularity of Jefferson in the South; and the effective politicking of Burr in [[New York (state)|New York]].{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=404–405}} Adams wrote, "No party that ever existed knew itself so little or so vainly overrated its own influence and popularity as ours. None ever understood so ill the causes of its own power, or so wantonly destroyed them."{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=1053}} Stephen G. Kurtz argues that Hamilton and his supporters were primarily responsible for the destruction of the Federalist Party. They viewed the party as a personal tool and played into the hands of the Jeffersonians by building up a large standing army and creating a feud with Adams.{{sfn|Kurtz|1957|p=331}} Chernow writes that Hamilton believed that by eliminating Adams, he could eventually pick up the pieces of the ruined Federalist Party and lead it back to dominance: "Better to purge Adams and let Jefferson govern for a while than to water down the party's ideological purity with compromises."{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=626}}}}
To compound the agony of his defeat, Adams's son Charles, a long-time alcoholic, died on November 30. Anxious to rejoin Abigail, who had already left for Massachusetts, Adams departed the White House in the predawn hours of March 4, 1801, and did not attend [[First inauguration of Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson's inauguration]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Balcerski|first=Opinion by Thomas|title=Opinion: A history lesson on presidents who snub their successors' inaugurations|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/11/11/opinions/presidents-history-skipping-inauguration-day-balcerski/index.html|access-date=November 12, 2020|website=CNN| date=November 11, 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Revolutionary Inauguration of Thomas Jefferson|url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/the-revolutionary-inauguration-of-thomas-jefferson|access-date=November 12, 2020|website=WHHA (en-US)|language=en}}</ref> Including him, only five out-going presidents (having served a full term) have not attended their successors' inaugurations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=D'Angelo |first=Bob |date=January 9, 2021 |title=Here is a history of presidents who refused to attend successor's inauguration |url=https://www.boston25news.com/news/trending/here-is-history-presidents-who-refused-attend-successors-inauguration/IKKS3Y5C5JALJFZKPCQCRZJXM4/ |access-date=March 1, 2022 |website=[[Boston 25 News]] |publisher=Cox Media Group National Content Desk |language=en}}</ref> The complications of the 1796 and 1800 elections prompted a modification to the Electoral College through the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|12th Amendment]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendments/amendment-xii |title=Election of President and Vice President |last=Levinson |first=Sanford V. |publisher=Constitution Center |access-date=September 26, 2017}}</ref>
===Cabinet===
{{Infobox U.S. Cabinet
|align=none
|Name=Adams
|President=John Adams
|President start=1797
|President end=1801
|Vice President=[[Thomas Jefferson]]
|Vice President start=1797
|Vice President end=1801
|State=[[Timothy Pickering]]
|State start=1797
|State end=1800
|State 2=[[John Marshall]]
|State start 2=1800
|State end 2=1801
|Treasury=[[Oliver Wolcott Jr.]]
|Treasury start=1797
|Treasury end=1800
|Treasury 2=[[Samuel Dexter]]
|Treasury date 2=1801
|War=[[James McHenry]]
|War start=1797
|War end=1800
|War 2=[[Samuel Dexter]]
|War start 2=1800
|War end 2=1801
|Justice=[[Charles Lee (Attorney General)|Charles Lee]]
|Justice start=1797
|Justice end=1801
|Navy=[[Benjamin Stoddert]]
|Navy start=1798
|Navy end=1801
}}
===Judicial appointments===
{{main|List of federal judges appointed by John Adams}}
[[File:John Marshall by Henry Inman, 1832.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|[[John Marshall]], the fourth [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] of the [[United States Supreme Court|U.S. Supreme Court]], was one of Adams's few dependable allies.]]
{{Infobox SCOTUS Appointments
|align=left
|President=Adams
|Chief Justice = [[John Marshall]]
|Chief Justice start =1801
|Chief Justice end =1835
|Associate = [[Bushrod Washington]]
|Associate start = 1799
|Associate end = 1829
|Associate 2 = [[Alfred Moore]]
|Associate 2 start = 1800
|Associate 2 end = 1804
|Footnotes =
}}
Adams appointed two [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] associate justices during his term in office: [[Bushrod Washington]], the nephew of George Washington, and [[Alfred Moore]].{{sfn|Perry|1986|pp=371–410}} After Ellsworth's retirement due to ill health in 1800, it fell to Adams to appoint the Court's fourth Chief Justice. At the time, it was not yet certain whether Jefferson or Burr would win the election. Regardless, Adams believed that the choice should be someone "in the full vigor of middle age" who could counter what might be a long line of successive Republican presidents. Adams chose his Secretary of State John Marshall.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|pp=1063–1064}} He, along with Stoddert, was one of Adams's few trusted cabinet members, and was among the first to greet him when he arrived at the White House.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=550}} Adams signed his commission on January 31 and the Senate approved it immediately.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=560}} Marshall's long tenure left a lasting influence on the Court. He maintained a carefully reasoned nationalistic interpretation of the Constitution and established the judicial branch as the equal of the executive and legislative branches.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=411}}
After the Federalists lost control of both houses of Congress along with the White House in the election of 1800, the [[lame-duck session]] of the 6th Congress in February 1801 approved a judiciary act, commonly known as the [[Midnight Judges Act]], which created a set of federal appeals courts between the district courts and the Supreme Court. Adams filled the vacancies created in this statute by appointing a series of judges, whom his opponents called the "Midnight Judges", just days before his term expired. Most of these judges lost their posts when the [[7th United States Congress|7th Congress]], with a solid Republican majority, approved the [[Judiciary Act of 1802]], abolishing the newly created courts.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=408–410}}
==Post-presidency (1801–1826)==
===Initial years===
Adams resumed farming at [[Peacefield]] in [[Quincy, Massachusetts]], and also began work on an autobiography. The work had numerous gaps and was eventually abandoned and left unedited.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=421–423}} Most of Adams's attention was focused on farm work,{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=435}} although he mostly left manual labor to hired hands.{{sfn|Smith|1962b|p=1075}} His frugal lifestyle and presidential salary gave him a considerable fortune by 1801. In 1803, [[Bird, Savage & Bird]], the bank holding his cash reserves of about $13,000, collapsed.{{sfn|Holton|2010|p=340}} John Quincy resolved the crisis by buying his properties in Weymouth and Quincy, including Peacefield, for $12,800.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=435}} During his first four years of retirement, Adams made little effort to contact others, but eventually resumed contact with old acquaintances such as [[Benjamin Waterhouse]] and [[Benjamin Rush]].{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=426}}
Adams generally stayed quiet on public matters. He did not publicly denounce Jefferson's actions as president, believing that "instead of opposing Systematically any Administration, running down their Characters and opposing all their Measures right or wrong, We ought to Support every Administration as far as We can in Justice."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=595}}<ref name="Adams 1808">{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/99-02-02-5238 |title=From John Adams to Benjamin Rush, 18 April 1808 |publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society |access-date=October 7, 2017}}</ref> When a disgruntled James Callender, angry at not being appointed to an office, turned on the President by revealing the [[Sally Hemings]] affair, Adams said nothing.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=579–585}} John Quincy was elected to the Senate in 1803. Shortly thereafter, both he and his father crossed party lines to support Jefferson's [[Louisiana Purchase]].{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=586}} The only major political incident involving the elder Adams during the Jefferson years was a dispute with [[Mercy Otis Warren]] in 1806. Warren, an old friend, had written a history of the American Revolution attacking Adams for his "partiality for monarchy" and "pride of talents and much ambition." A tempestuous correspondence ensued between her and Adams. In time, their friendship healed.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=594–596}} Adams did privately criticize the President over his [[Embargo Act of 1807|Embargo Act]],<ref name="Adams 1808"/> although John Quincy voted for it.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=598–599}} John Quincy resigned from the Senate in 1808 after the Federalist-controlled [[Massachusetts Senate]] refused to nominate him for a second term. After the Federalists denounced John Quincy as no longer being of their party, Adams wrote to him that he himself had long since "abdicated and disclaimed the name and character and attributes of that sect."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=599}}
After Jefferson's retirement in 1809, Adams became more vocal. He published a three-year marathon of letters in the ''[[Boston Patriot (newspaper)|Boston Patriot]]'' newspaper, refuting line-by-line Hamilton's 1800 pamphlet. The initial piece was written shortly after his return from Peacefield and "had gathered dust for eight years." Adams had decided to shelve it over fears that it could negatively impact John Quincy should he ever seek office. Although Hamilton had died in 1804 in [[Burr–Hamilton duel|a duel with Aaron Burr]], Adams felt the need to vindicate his character against his charges. With John Quincy having broken from the Federalist Party and joined the Republicans, he felt that he could safely do so without threatening his political career.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=429–430}} Adams supported the [[War of 1812]]. Having worried over the rise of sectionalism, he celebrated the growth of a "national character" that accompanied it.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=425–426}} Adams supported [[James Madison]] for reelection to the presidency in [[1812 United States presidential election|1812]].{{sfn|Smith|1962b|pp=1107–1108}}
Adams's daughter [[Abigail Adams Smith|Abigail]] ("Nabby") was married to [[William Stephens Smith]], but she returned to her parents' home after the failure of the marriage; she died of [[breast cancer]] in 1813.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=430}}
===Correspondence with Jefferson===
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Portrait of John Adams - Samuel Finley Breese Morse - overall.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|''John Adams'', a {{Circa|1816}} portrait by [[Samuel Morse]] now on display at the [[Brooklyn Museum of Art]]|alt=An unsmiling elderly man sits in a red chair, slightly pointing left.]]
In early 1801, Adams sent Thomas Jefferson a brief note wishing him a happy and prosperous presidency. Jefferson failed to respond, and they did not speak again for nearly 12 years. In 1804, Abigail, unbeknownst to her husband, wrote to Jefferson to express her condolences upon the death of his daughter [[Mary Jefferson Eppes|Polly]], who had stayed with the Adamses in London in 1787. This initiated a brief correspondence between the two which quickly descended into political rancor. Jefferson terminated it by not replying to Abigail's fourth letter. Aside from that, by 1812 there had been no communication between [[Monticello]], the home of Jefferson, and Peacefield since Adams left office.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=431}}
In early 1812, Adams reconciled with Jefferson. The previous year had been tragic for Adams; his brother-in-law and friend Richard Cranch had died along with his widow Mary, and Nabby had been diagnosed with breast cancer. These events mellowed Adams and caused him to soften his outlook.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=429–430}} Their mutual friend Benjamin Rush, who had been corresponding with both, encouraged them to reach out to each other. On New Year's Day, Adams sent a brief, friendly note to Jefferson to accompany a two-volume collection of lectures on rhetoric by John Quincy Adams. Jefferson replied immediately with a cordial letter, and the two revived their friendship, which they sustained by mail. Their correspondence lasted the rest of their lives, and has been hailed as among their great legacies of American literature. Their letters represent an insight into both the period and the minds of the two revolutionary leaders and presidents. The missives lasted fourteen years, and consisted of 158 letters – 109 from Adams and 49 from Jefferson.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=431–432}}
Early on, Adams repeatedly tried to turn the correspondence to a discussion of their actions in the political arena.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=607}} Jefferson refused to oblige him, saying that "nothing new can be added by you or me to what has been said by others and will be said in every age."<ref>Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, June 27, 1813. Cappon p. 338.</ref> Adams made one more attempt, writing that "You and I ought not to die before we have explained ourselves to each other."<ref>John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, July 15, 1813. Cappon p. 358.</ref> Still, Jefferson declined to engage Adams in this sort of discussion. Adams accepted this, and the correspondence turned to other matters, particularly philosophy and their daily habits.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=608}}{{efn|The two men discussed "[[natural aristocracy]]". Jefferson said, "The natural aristocracy I consider as the most precious gift of nature for the instruction, the trusts, and government of society. And indeed it would have been inconsistent in creation to have formed man for the social state, and not to have provided virtue and wisdom enough to manage the concerns of society. May we not even say that the form of government is best which provides most effectually for a pure selection of these natural [aristocrats] into the offices of government?"<ref>Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, October 28, 1813. Cappon, p. 388.</ref> Adams wondered if it ever would be so clear who these people were, "Your distinction between natural and artificial aristocracy does not appear to me well founded. Birth and wealth are conferred on some men as imperiously by nature, as genius, strength, or beauty. ... When aristocracies are established by human laws and honour, wealth, and power are made hereditary by municipal laws and political institutions, then I acknowledge artificial aristocracy to commence." It would always be true, Adams argued, that fate would bestow influence on some men for reasons other than wisdom and virtue. A good government had to account for that reality.<ref>John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, November 15, 1813. Cappon, p. 400.</ref>}}
As the two grew older, the letters grew fewer and farther between. There was also important information that each man kept to himself. Jefferson said nothing about his construction of a new house, domestic turmoil, slave ownership, or poor financial situation, while Adams did not mention the troublesome behavior of his son Thomas, who had failed as a lawyer and become an alcoholic, resorting afterwards to living primarily as a caretaker at Peacefield.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=634}}
===Last years and death===
[[File:John Adams' Peacefield.jpg|alt=Peacefield – John Adams's Home|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Peacefield]], John Adams's home in [[Quincy, Massachusetts]]]]
[[File:Graves of the Adams, Quincy, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|The tombs of John and [[Abigail Adams]] (far) and [[John Quincy Adams|John Quincy]] and [[Louisa Adams]] (near), in the family crypt at [[United First Parish Church]]|alt=3 marble sarcophagi, one in the foreground, 2 in the background are seen. 2 are seen with flags of the United States at the top.]]
Abigail died of [[typhoid]] on October 28, 1818, at Peacefield.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=437}} 1824 was filled with excitement in America, featuring a [[1824 United States presidential election|four-way presidential contest]] that included John Quincy. The [[Marquis de Lafayette]] toured the country and met with Adams, who greatly enjoyed Lafayette's visit to Peacefield.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=637}} Adams was delighted by the election of John Quincy to the presidency. The results became official in February 1825 after a deadlock was decided in the House of Representatives. He remarked, "No man who ever held the office of President would congratulate a friend on obtaining it."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=639}}
On July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, Adams died of a heart attack at Peacefield at approximately 6:20 pm.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-july-fourth-presidents-20170704-story.html |title=When three presidents died on the Fourth of July, Americans saw the work of God |last=Etehad |first=Melissa |date=July 4, 2017 |newspaper=The Los Angeles Times |access-date=May 1, 2023}}</ref>{{sfn|McCullough|2001|pp=646–647}} His last words included an acknowledgement of his longtime friend and rival: "Thomas Jefferson survives." Adams was unaware that Jefferson had died several hours before.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=646}}{{sfn|Ellis|2003|p=248}} At 90, Adams was the [[List of presidents of the United States by age|longest-lived US president]] until [[Ronald Reagan]] surpassed him in 2001.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/reagan-celebrates-90th/ |title=Reagan Celebrates 90th |work=CBS News |date=February 5, 2001 |access-date=January 29, 2018}}</ref>
John and Abigail Adams's crypt at [[United First Parish Church]] in Quincy also contains the bodies of John Quincy and Louisa Adams.<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://www.ufpc.org/historyvisitorprogram/history.html|publisher=United First Parish Church|access-date=September 25, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911165517/http://www.ufpc.org/historyvisitorprogram/history.html|archive-date=September 11, 2015}}</ref>
==Political writings==
===''Thoughts on Government''===
[[File:Thoughts on Government.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|''[[Thoughts on Government]]'', a pamphlet written by Adams in 1776|alt=title page of Adam's pamphlet]]
During the First Continental Congress, Adams was sometimes solicited for his views on government. While recognizing its importance, Adams had privately criticized [[Thomas Paine]]'s 1776 pamphlet ''[[Common Sense (pamphlet)|Common Sense]]'', which attacked all forms of monarchy, even constitutional monarchy of the sort advocated by [[John Locke]]. It supported a unicameral legislature and a weak executive elected by the legislature. According to Adams, the author had "a better hand at pulling down than building."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=97}} He believed that the views expressed in the pamphlet were "so democratical, without any restraint or even an attempt at any equilibrium or counter poise, that it must produce confusion and every evil work."{{sfn|Foot|Kramnick|1987|p=11}} What Paine advocated was a radical democracy, incompatible with the system of checks and balances that conservatives like Adams would implement.{{sfn|Gimbel|1956|p=21}} At the urging of some delegates, Adams committed his views to paper in separate letters. So impressed was Richard Henry Lee that, with Adams's consent, he had the most comprehensive letter printed. Published anonymously in April 1776, it was titled ''[[Thoughts on Government]]'' and styled as "a Letter from a Gentleman to his Friend." Many historians agree that none of Adams's other compositions rivaled the enduring influence of this pamphlet.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=155–157}}
Adams advised that the form of government should be chosen to attain the desired ends – the happiness and virtue of the greatest number of people. He wrote, "There is no good government but what is [[Republicanism in the United States|republican]]. That the only valuable part of the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]] is so because the very definition of a republic is an empire of laws, and not of men." The treatise defended [[bicameralism]], for "a single assembly is liable to all the vices, follies and frailties of an individual."<ref>Papers of Adams, Vol. IV, p. 195, "Thoughts on Government"</ref> Adams suggested that there should be a [[separation of powers]] between the [[executive (government)|executive]], the [[judicial]] and the [[legislative]] branches, and further recommended that if a continental government were to be formed then it "should sacredly be confined" to certain [[enumerated powers]]. ''Thoughts on Government'' was referenced in every state-constitution writing hall. Adams used the letter to attack opponents of independence. He claimed that [[John Dickinson]]'s fear of republicanism was responsible for his refusal to support independence, and that opposition from Southern planters was rooted in fear that their aristocratic slaveholding status would be endangered.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=155–157}}
===Massachusetts Constitution===
After returning from his first mission to France in 1779, Adams was elected to the [[Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1779–1780|Massachusetts Constitutional Convention]] with the purpose of establishing a new constitution for Massachusetts. He served on a committee of three, also including Samuel Adams and [[James Bowdoin]], to draft the constitution. The writing fell primarily to John Adams. The resulting [[Constitution of Massachusetts]] was approved in 1780. It was the first constitution written by a special committee, then ratified by the people, and was the first to feature a bicameral legislature. Included were a distinct executive – though restrained by an executive council – with a qualified (two-thirds) veto, and an independent judicial branch. The judges were given lifetime appointments, to "hold their offices during good behavior."{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=214–216}}
The Constitution affirmed the "duty" of the individual to worship the "Supreme Being," and the right to do so without molestation "in the manner most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=222}} It established free public education for three years to the children of all citizens.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=272}} Adams was a strong believer in education as a pillar of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. He believed that people "in a State of Ignorance" were more easily enslaved while those "enlightened with knowledge" would be better able to protect their liberties.{{sfn|Burns|2013|p=76}}
===''Defence of the Constitutions''===
Adams's preoccupation with political and governmental affairs, which caused considerable separation from his wife and children, had a distinct familial context, which he articulated in 1780: "I must study Politicks and War that my sons may have the liberty to study Mathematicks and Philosophy. My sons ought to study Geography, natural History, Naval Architecture, navigation, Commerce and Agriculture, in order to give their children a right to study Painting, Poetry, Musick, Architecture, Statuary, Tapestry, and Porcelaine."{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=174–175}}
While in London, Adams learned of a [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|convention]] being planned to amend the [[Articles of Confederation]]. In January 1787, he published a work entitled ''A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.constitution.org/jadams/ja1_00.htm |title=John Adams: Defence of the Constitutions, 1787 |publisher=Constitution.org |access-date=March 2, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125085353/http://www.constitution.org/jadams/ja1_00.htm |archive-date=January 25, 2010 }}</ref> The pamphlet repudiated the views of [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot|Turgot]] and other European writers as to the viciousness of state government frameworks. He suggested that "the rich, the well-born and the able" should be set apart from other men in a senate – that would prevent them from dominating the lower house. Adams's ''Defence'' is described as an articulation of the theory of [[mixed government]]. Adams contended that social classes exist in every political society, and that a good government must accept that reality. For centuries, a mixed regime balancing monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy was required to preserve order and liberty.{{sfn|Adams|1954|p=xvii}}
Historian [[Gordon S. Wood]] maintained that Adams's political philosophy had become irrelevant by the time the Federal Constitution was ratified. By then, American political thought, transformed by more than a decade of vigorous debate as well as formative experiential pressures, had abandoned the classical perception of politics as a mirror of social estates. Americans' new understanding of [[popular sovereignty]] was that the citizenry were the sole possessors of power in the nation. Representatives in the government enjoyed mere portions of the people's power and only for a limited time. Adams was thought to have overlooked this evolution and revealed his continued attachment to the older version of politics.{{sfn|Wood|2006|pp=173–202}} Yet Wood was accused of ignoring Adams's peculiar definition of the term "republic", and his support for a constitution ratified by the people.{{sfn|Thompson|1998|p=317}}
On [[separation of powers]], Adams wrote that, "Power must be opposed to power, and interest to interest."<ref name="Works of John Adams, IV:557">Works of John Adams, IV:557</ref> This sentiment was later echoed by James Madison's statement that, "[a]mbition must be made to counteract ambition", in [[Federalist No. 51]], explaining the separation of powers established under the new Constitution.<ref name="Works of John Adams, IV:557"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Madison |first=James|title=The Federalist No. 51 |url=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=The_Federalist_Papers/No._51&oldid=504230}}</ref> Adams believed that humans naturally wanted to further their own ambitions, and a single democratically elected house, if left unchecked, would be subject to this error; it needed to be checked by an upper house and an executive. He wrote that a strong executive would defend the people's liberties against "aristocrats" attempting to take it away.<ref name="Ralston">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/amer-enl/#SH3d |title=American Enlightenment Thought |last=Ralston |first=Shane J. |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=July 6, 2018}}</ref>
Adams first saw the new [[United States Constitution]] in late 1787. To Jefferson, he wrote that he read it "with great satisfaction." Adams expressed regret that the president would be unable to make appointments without [[United States Senate|Senate]] approval and over the absence of a [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]].{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=379}}
==Political philosophy and views==
{{republicanism sidebar}}
{{Conservatism US|politicians}}
===Slavery===
Adams never owned a [[Slavery in the United States|slave]] and declined on principle to use slave labor, saying, <blockquote>I have, through my whole life, held the practice of slavery in such abhorrence, that I have never owned a negro or any other slave, though I have lived for many years in times, when the practice was not disgraceful, when the best men in my vicinity thought it not inconsistent with their character, and when it has cost me thousands of dollars for the labor and subsistence of free men, which I might have saved by the purchase of negroes at times when they were very cheap.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/99-02-02-7148 |title=From John Adams to Robert J. Evans, 8 June 1819 |publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society |access-date=May 17, 2022}}</ref></blockquote> Before the war, he occasionally represented slaves in suits for their freedom.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=77}} Adams generally tried to keep the issue out of national politics, because of the anticipated Southern response during a time when unity was needed to achieve independence. He spoke out in 1777 against a bill to emancipate slaves in Massachusetts, saying that the issue was presently too divisive so the legislation should "sleep for a time." He was against use of black soldiers in the Revolution due to opposition from Southerners.{{sfn|Wiencek|2004|p=215}} Slavery was abolished in Massachusetts about 1780, when it was forbidden by implication in the Declaration of Rights that John Adams wrote into the Massachusetts Constitution.{{sfn|Moore|1866|pp=200–203}} Abigail Adams vocally opposed slavery.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=26}}
===Monarchism===
[[File:Gilbert Stuart John Adams.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|''John Adams'', an 1823 portrait by [[Gilbert Stuart]] completed at the request of his son, [[John Quincy Adams|John Quincy]], was the last portrait of Adams.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=638}}|alt=An elderly man sits in a red chair with his arms crossed, looking slightly left.]]
Adams expressed controversial and shifting views regarding the virtues of monarchical and hereditary political institutions.<ref name="Mark O. Hatfield, Vice Pres">{{cite web|first=Mark O.|last=Hatfield|year=1997|url=https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/john_adams.pdf|title=Vice Presidents of the United States|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|pages=3–11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121219094306/https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/john_adams.pdf|archive-date=December 19, 2012}}</ref> At times he conveyed substantial support for these approaches, suggesting for example that "hereditary monarchy or aristocracy" are the "only institutions that can possibly preserve the laws and liberties of the people."{{sfn|Adams|1892|p=38}} At other times he distanced himself from such ideas, calling himself "a mortal and irreconcilable enemy to Monarchy".{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=410}} Such denials did not assuage his critics, and Adams was often accused of being a monarchist.<ref name="John & Abigail Adams">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/adams/peopleevents/p_callender.html|title=John & Abigail Adams|publisher=PBS online|access-date=July 17, 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730143702/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/adams/peopleevents/p_callender.html|archive-date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> Historian [[Clinton Rossiter]] portrays Adams as a revolutionary conservative who sought to balance republicanism with the stability of monarchy to create "[[ordered liberty]]."{{sfn|Rossiter|1955|p=114}} His 1790 ''Discourses on Davila'' published in the ''[[Gazette of the United States]]'' warned once again of the dangers of unbridled democracy.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=421}}
Many attacks on Adams were scurrilous, including suggestions that he was planning to "crown himself king" and "grooming John Quincy as heir to the throne."<ref name="John & Abigail Adams"/> The allegations were totally false, he told Jefferson—he never wanted an American monarchy.{{sfn|Adams|2004|p=466}} Adams felt that the great danger was that an [[oligarchy]] of the wealthy would take hold to the detriment of equality. To counter that danger, the power of the wealthy needed to be channeled by institutions, and checked by a strong executive.{{sfn|Mayville|2016|pp=11–14}}<ref name="Ralston"/>
===Religious views===
According to biographer [[David McCullough]], "Adams was both a devout Christian, and an independent thinker, and he saw no conflict in that."{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=18}} He believed that regular church service was beneficial to man's moral sense.{{sfn|Everett|1966|pp=49–57}} Adams was raised in the [[Congregational church]]. In Quincy, the [[Unitarianism|Unitarian faction]] was dominant and included Adams and his father. It was a new force in the colonies and denied the [[Trinity]] and the [[divinity of Jesus Christ]]. It was opposed by the [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] faction. In 1825, the Unitarians split off as a separate denomination that included John Adams.<ref>David Waldstreicher, ed. ''A Companion to John Adams and John Quincy Adams.'' (2013) pp. 23, 39.</ref><ref>David L. Holmes, ''The Faiths of the Founding Fathers'' (Oxford UP, 2006) ch 7, "The Religious Views of John Adams," pp 73–108; also pp 117–121 on Abigail Adams.</ref>
Adams' family was descended from [[Puritans]]. Strict Puritanism had profoundly shaped New England's culture, laws, and traditions, and Adams praised the historical Puritans as "bearers of freedom, a cause that still had a holy urgency".{{sfn|Brookhiser|2002|p=13}} Adams recalled that his parents "held every Species of [[Libertine|Libertinage]] in ... Contempt and horror".{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=11}}
Fielding argues that Adams's beliefs synthesized Puritan, [[deism|deist]], and [[humanism|humanist]] concepts.{{sfn|Fielding|1940|pp=33–46}} Frazer notes that while he shared many perspectives with deists and often used deistic terminology, "Adams clearly was not a deist... Adams did believe in miracles, providence, and, to a certain extent, the Bible as revelation."<ref>Frazer, Gregg L. (2004). ''The Political Theology of the American Founding''. PhD dissertation. Claremont Graduate University. p. 46.</ref> In 1796, Adams denounced [[Thomas Paine]]'s deistic criticisms of Christianity in ''[[The Age of Reason]]'', saying, "The Christian religion is, above all the religions that ever prevailed or existed in ancient or modern times, the religion of wisdom, virtue, equity and humanity, let the Blackguard Paine say what he will."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/01-03-02-0013-0002-0015 |title=July 26. 1796. Tuesday. [from the Diary of John Adams] |publisher=Adams Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society |access-date=September 29, 2018}}</ref> [[Gordon S. Wood]] writes, "Although both Jefferson and Adams denied the [[miracle]]s of the Bible and the divinity of Christ, Adams always retained a respect for the religiosity of people that Jefferson never had".{{sfn|Wood|2017|p=16}} In his retirement years, Adams moved closer to more mainstream Enlightenment religious ideals. He blamed institutional Christianity and established churches in Britain and France for causing much suffering but insisted that religion was necessary for society.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=433–434}}
==Legacy==
===Historical reputation===
{{see also|Bibliography of John Adams}}
[[Benjamin Franklin]] summarized what many thought of Adams, saying "He means well for his country, is always an honest man, often a wise one, but sometimes, and in some things, absolutely out of his senses."{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=518}} Adams strongly felt that he would be forgotten and underappreciated by history. These feelings often manifested themselves through envy and verbal attacks on other Founders.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=310}}{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=520}} [[Edmund Morgan (historian)|Edmund Morgan]] argues, "Adams was ridiculously vain, absurdly jealous, embarrassingly hungry for compliments. But no man ever served his country more selflessly."<ref>Edmund S. Morgan, “John Adams and the Puritan Tradition.” ''New England Quarterly'' 34#4 (1961) p. 522.</ref>
Historian [[George C. Herring]] argued that Adams was the most independent minded of the Founders.{{sfn|Herring|2008|p=89}} Though he formally aligned with the Federalists, he was somewhat a party unto himself, at times disagreeing with the Federalists as much as he did the Republicans.{{sfn|Chernow|2004|p=647}} He was often described as prickly, but his tenacity was fed by decisions made in the face of universal opposition.{{sfn|Herring|2008|p=89}} Adams was often combative, as he admitted: "[As President] I refused to suffer in silence. I sighed, sobbed, and groaned, and sometimes screeched and screamed. And I must confess to my shame and sorrow that I sometimes swore."{{sfn|Ellis|1993|p=57}} Stubbornness was seen as one of his defining traits, a fact for which Adams made no apology. "Thanks to God that he gave me stubbornness when I know I am right," he wrote.{{sfn|McCullough|2001|p=272}} His resolve to advance peace with France while maintaining a posture of defense reduced his popularity and contributed to his defeat for reelection.{{sfn|Herring|2008|pp=90–91}} Most historians applaud him for avoiding an all-out war with France during his presidency. His signing of the Alien and Sedition Acts is almost always condemned.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/adams/impact-and-legacy |title=John Adams: Impact and Legacy |last=Taylor |first=C. James |location=Charlottesville, VA |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=October 30, 2016|date=October 4, 2016 }}</ref>
According to Ferling, Adams's political philosophy fell "out of step" with national trends. The country tended further away from Adams's emphasis on order and the rule of law and towards the Jeffersonian vision of liberty and weak central government. In the years following his retirement, as first [[Jeffersonian democracy|Jeffersonianism]] and then [[Jacksonian democracy]] grew to dominate American politics, Adams was largely forgotten.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=4}} In the [[1840 United States presidential election|1840 presidential election]], [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] candidate [[William Henry Harrison]] was attacked by [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] on the false allegation that he had been a supporter of John Adams.{{sfn|Shafer|2016|pp=128–129}} Adams was eventually subject to criticism from [[states' rights]] advocates. [[Edward A. Pollard]], a strong supporter of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] during the [[American Civil War]], singled out Adams, writing:
{{blockquote|The first President from the North, John Adams, asserted and essayed to put into practice the supremacy of the "National" power over the states and the citizens thereof. He was sustained in his attempted usurpations by all the New England states and by a powerful public sentiment in each of the Middle States. The "[[strict constructionism|strict constructionists]]" of the Constitution were not slow in raising the standard of opposition against a pernicious error.{{sfn|Pollard|1862|p=12}}}}
In the 21st century, Adams remains less well known than many of the Founders, in accordance with his predictions. McCullough argued that "[t]he problem with Adams is that most Americans know nothing about him." Todd Leopold of [[CNN]] wrote in 2001 that Adams is "remembered as that guy who served a single term as president between Washington and Jefferson."<ref name="CNN">{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2001/SHOWBIZ/books/06/07/david.mccullough/ |title=David McCullough brings 'John Adams' to life |last=Leopold |first=Todd |work=CNN|date=June 7, 2006 |access-date=October 30, 2016}}</ref> He has always been seen, Ferling says, as "honest and dedicated", but despite his lengthy career in public service, is still overshadowed.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=2–3}} [[Gilbert Chinard]], in his 1933 biography of Adams, described him as "staunch, honest, stubborn and somewhat narrow."{{sfn|Chinard|1933|p=vi}} In his 1962 biography, [[Page Smith]] lauds Adams for his fight against radicals whose promised reforms portended anarchy and misery. Ferling, in his 1992 biography, writes that "Adams was his own worst enemy."{{sfn|Ferling|1992|p=3}} He criticizes him for his "pettiness ... jealousy, and vanity", and faults his frequent separations from his family. He praises Adams for his willingness to acknowledge his deficiencies and for striving to overcome them.{{sfn|Ferling|1992|pp=3–4}}
[[File:Bilbao John Adams statue.jpg|thumb|John Adams statue in [[Bilbao]]]]
In 2001, McCullough published the biography ''[[John Adams (book)|John Adams]]'', in which he lauds Adams for consistency and honesty, "plays down or explains away" his more controversial actions, and criticizes Jefferson. The book sold very well and was very favorably received and, along with the Ferling biography, contributed to a rapid resurgence in Adams's reputation.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/01/05/27/reviews/010527.27maiert.html |title=Plain Speaking: In David McCullough's telling, the second president is reminiscent of the 33rd (Harry Truman) |last=Maier |first=Pauline |date=May 27, 2001 |work=The New York Times |access-date=November 7, 2017}}</ref> In 2008, a [[John Adams (miniseries)|miniseries]] was released based on the McCullough biography, featuring [[Paul Giamatti]] as Adams.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/la-ca-giamatti13apr13-story.html |title=Paul Giamatti is so imperfect for the role |last=Lieberman |first=Paul |date=April 13, 2008 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=January 10, 2018}}</ref>
===In memoriam===
{{main|List of memorials to John Adams}}
Adams is commemorated as the namesake of various counties, buildings, and other items.<ref name="OLC">{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/loc/walls/adams.html |title=The John Adams Building |publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=June 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adamscounty.us/Pages/County-Facts.aspx |title=County Facts |publisher=Adams County, PA |access-date=June 29, 2018 |archive-date=June 29, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629235938/http://www.adamscounty.us/Pages/County-Facts.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/cvo/Historical/naming_mount_adams.shtml |title=Naming the Cascade Range Volcanoes Mount Adams, Washington |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=June 29, 2018}}</ref> One example is the [[John Adams Building]] of the Library of Congress, an institution whose existence Adams had signed into law.<ref name="OLC"/>
Adams is honored on the [[Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence]] in Washington D.C.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/places/000/56-signers-of-the-declaration-of-independence-memorial.htm |title=56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence Memorial |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=March 3, 2022}}</ref> He does not have an individual monument dedicated to him in the city,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/why-doesnt-john-adams-have-a-memorial-in-washington/2011/06/30/AGTvmrtH_story.html |title=Why doesn't John Adams have a memorial in Washington? |last=Heffner |first=Alexander |date=July 1, 2011 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=November 7, 2017}}</ref> although a family [[Adams Memorial]] was authorized in 2001. According to McCullough, "Popular symbolism has not been very generous toward Adams. There is no memorial, no statue ... in his honor in our nation's capital, and to me that is absolutely inexcusable. It's long past time when we should recognize what he did, and who he was."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/on-leadership/wp/2016/01/17/the-case-of-the-missing-john-adams-monument/ |title=The case of the missing John Adams monument |last=Cunningham |first=Lillian |date=January 17, 2016 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=November 7, 2017}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Electoral history of John Adams]]
* [[Founders Online]]
* [[List of abolitionist forerunners]]
* [[List of presidents of the United States]]
* [[List of presidents of the United States by previous experience]]
==Explanatory notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist|22em}}
==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
=== Biographies ===
* {{cite book |last=Chinard |first=Gilbert |date=1933 |title=Honest John Adams |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsUKAQAAIAAJ |location=Boston |publisher=Little, Brown, and Co. |oclc=988108386 }}
* {{cite book |last=Diggins |first=John P. |date=2003 |title=John Adams |series=The American Presidents |editor-last=Schlesinger |editor-first=Arthur M. Jr. |publisher=Time Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8050-6937-2 |author-link=John Patrick Diggins |editor-link=Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. |url=https://archive.org/details/johnadams00digg }}
* {{cite book |last=Ellis |first=Joseph J. |date=1993 |title=Passionate Sage: The Character and Legacy of John Adams |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dFrb8fGNnUEC&pg=PA1 |location=New Yorkpublisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |isbn=978-0-393-31133-4 |author-link=Joseph Ellis }}
* {{cite book |last=Ferling |first=John E. |date=1992 |title=John Adams: A Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQ6NDVYZ7U0C&pg=PR3 |location=Knoxville |publisher=University of Tennessee Press |isbn=978-0-87049-730-8 |author-link=John E. Ferling }}
* {{cite book |last=McCullough |first=David |date=2001 |title=John Adams |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E9TOxypjZY4C&pg=PA144-IA8 |location=New York|publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-4165-7588-7 |author-link=David McCullough }}
* {{cite book |last=Morse |first=John Torey |date=1884 |title=John Adams |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q2ASAAAAYAAJ |location=Boston |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin, and Company |oclc=926779205 |author-link=John Torrey Morse }}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Page |date=1962a |title=John Adams |volume=I, 1735–1784 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcUKAQAAIAAJ |location=New Yorkpublisher=Doubleday & Co.|isbn=9780837123486 |author-link=Page Smith |oclc=852986601 }}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Page |date=1962b |title=John Adams |volume=II, 1784–1826 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVwqAAAAYAAJ |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday & Co. |isbn=978-0-8371-2348-6 |oclc=852986620 }}
=== Specialized studies ===
* {{cite book |last1=Boyd |first1=Julian Parks |last2=Gawalt |first2=Gerard W. |title=The Declaration of Independence: the evolution of the text |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fAkaAQAAIAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Library of Congress in association with the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation|isbn=978-0-8444-0980-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=Brookhiser |first=Richard |date=2002 |title=America's First Dynasty: The Adamses, 1735–1918 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nD4DjnAJ96cC |isbn=978-0-7432-4209-7 |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |author-link=Richard Brookhiser }}
* {{cite book |last=Burns |first=James MacGregor |date=2013 |title=Fire and Light: How the Enlightenment Transformed Our World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oagaz4yvHOEC |isbn=978-1-250-02490-9 |location=New York|publisher=St. Martin's Press |author-link=James MacGregor Burns }}
* {{cite book |last=Chernow |first=Ron |year=2004 |title=Alexander Hamilton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4PeiDwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-101-20085-8 |location=London |publisher=Penguin Books |author-link=Ron Chernow }}
* {{cite book |last1=Elkins |first1=Stanley M. |last2=McKitrick |first2=Eric |year=1993 |title=The Age of Federalism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9RyG29bER3QC&pg=PP5 |location=Oxford, NY |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-506890-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Ellis |first=Joseph J. |date=2003 |title=Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lsPztgGkYYgC |location=New York |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4000-7768-7 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Everett |first=Robert B. |title=The Mature Religious Thought of John Adams |journal=Proceedings of the South Carolina Historical Association |date=1966 |url=http://dc.statelibrary.sc.gov/bitstream/handle/10827/23289/SCHA_Proceedings_1966.pdf |issn=0361-6207 }}
* Fea, John. "John Adams and religion." in ''A Companion to John Adams and John Quincy Adams'' (2013) pp. 184–198 [https://books.google.com/books?id=TikDDQAAQBAJ&dq=GOFF++%22JOHN+ADAMS%22&pg=PA184 online].
* {{cite book |last=Ferling |first=John |date=2009 |title=The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_8MAQAAMAAJ |location=New York |publisher=Bloomsbury Press |isbn=978-1-59691-465-0 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Fielding |first=Howard |title=John Adams: Puritan, Deist, Humanist |journal=Journal of Religion |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=33–46 |year=1940 |jstor=1198647 |doi=10.1086/482479 |s2cid=170183234 | issn=0022-4189}}
* {{cite book |last=Flexner |first=James Thomas |date=1974 |title=Washington: The Indispensable Man |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kTfWDQAAQBAJ |location=Boston |publisher=Little, Brown |isbn=978-0-316-28605-3 |author-link=James Thomas Flexner }}
* Georgini, Sara. ''Household Gods: The Religious Lives of the Adams Family'' (Oxford University Press, 2019) [https://www.amazon.com/Household-Gods-Religious-Lives-Family/dp/0190882581/ excerpt]
* {{cite book |last=Gimbel |first=Richard |date=1956 |title=A Bibliographical Check List of Common Sense, With an Account of Its Publication |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lg4aAAAAMAAJ |location=New Haven, CT |publisher=Yale University Press }}
* {{cite book |last=Herring |first=George C. |date=2008 |title=From colony to superpower: U.S. foreign relations since 1776 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fODT-qOVoiIC&pg=PA150 |location=Oxford, NY |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-974377-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hoadley |first=John F. |year=1986 |title=Origins of American Political Parties: 1789–1803 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |location=Lexington |isbn=978-0-8131-5320-9 }}
* Holdzkom, Marianne. ''Remembering John Adams: The Second President in History, Memory and Popular Culture'' (McFarland, 2023) [https://books.google.com/books?id=gZS1EAAAQBAJ&dq=diplomacy+%22john+adams%22+&pg=PP1 online].
* Holmes, David L. ''The Faiths of the Founding Fathers'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ch 7, "The Religious Views of John Adams," pp 73–108; also pp 117–121 on Abigail Adams.
* {{cite book |last=Holton |first=Woody |title=Abigail Adams: A Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-4fk5FIvGKoC&dq=%22bird%2C%20Savage%20%26%20Bird%22%20%3B%20%22John%20Adams%22&pg=PA340 |date=2010 |location=New York |publisher=Atria |isbn=9781451607369}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hutson |first=James H. |title=John Adams' Title Campaign (March 1968) |journal=The New England Quarterly |date=1968 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=30–39 |doi=10.2307/363331 |jstor=363331 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kirtley |first=James Samuel |date=1910 |title=Half Hour Talks on Character Building: By Self-made Men and Women |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d2wx0GfFMaoC&pg=PP76 |publisher=A. Hamming |oclc=13927429 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kurtz |first=Stephen G. |date=1957 |title=The Presidency of John Adams: The Collapse of Federalism, 1795–1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2xZ3AAAAMAAJ |location=Philadelphia|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-7101-0 |oclc=979781538 }}
* {{cite book |last=Maier |first=Pauline |date=1998 |title=American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nm4rAQAAIAAJ |location=New York|publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-0-679-77908-7 |author-link=Pauline Maier }}
* {{cite book |last=Mayville |first=Luke |title=John Adams and the Fear of American Oligarchy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tIn8CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |date=2016 |location=Princeton |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-8369-1 }}
* {{cite book |last=McDonald |first=Forrest |date=1974 |title=The Presidency of George Washington |series=American Presidency |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFB2AAAAMAAJ |url-access=registration |location=Lawrence |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-0359-6 |author-link=Forrest McDonald }}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=Nathan |title=The U.S. Navy: A History|edition=3rd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZZWBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |date=1997 |location=Annapolis, MD |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=978-1-61251-892-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Moore |first=George |date=1866 |title=Notes on the history of slavery in Massachusetts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ohsEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA201 |location=New York |publisher=D. Appleton & Co. |isbn=978-0-608-41018-0 |oclc=419266287 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Perry |first=James R. |title=Supreme Court Appointments, 1789–1801: Criteria, Presidential Style, and the Press of Events |journal=Journal of the Early Republic |date=1986 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=371–410|doi=10.2307/3122645 |jstor=3122645 }}
* {{cite book |last=Pollard |first=Edward A. |date=1862 |title=The First Year of the War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGZGktMxyFYC |location=Richmond, VA |publisher=West & Johnson |author-link=Edward A. Pollard |oclc=79953002 }}
* {{cite book |last=Rossiter |first=Clinton |date=1955 |title=Conservatism in America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Vs0AAAAIAAJ |location=New York|publisher=Knopf |author-link=Clinton Rossiter |oclc=440025153 }}
* Scherr, Arthur (2018). ''John Adams, Slavery, and Race: Ideas, Politics, and Diplomacy in an Age of Crisis.'' Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
* {{cite book |last=Shafer |first=Ronald G. |date=2016 |title=Carnival Campaign: How the Rollicking 1840 Campaign of "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too" Changed Presidential Politics Forever |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAxmDAAAQBAJ |location=Chicago |publisher=Review Press |isbn=978-1-61373-543-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=C. Bradley |date=1998 |title=John Adams and the Spirit of Liberty |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DayGAAAAMAAJ |url-access=registration |location=Lawrence |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-0915-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wiencek |first=Henry |date=2004 |title=An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwe82sFg96UC&pg=PA215 |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/imperfectgodgeor00wien_0/page/215 215] |location=Waterville, ME |publisher=Thorndike Press |isbn=978-0-7862-6129-1 |author-link=Henry Wiencek }}
* {{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gordon S. |year=2006 |title=Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uOovRxek5AIC&pg=PA54 |location=London |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-1-59420-093-9 |author-link=Gordon S. Wood }}
* {{cite book |first=Gordon S. |last=Wood |date=2009 |title=Empire of Liberty: A history of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWI8fmyhN5IC |url-access=registration |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-974109-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gordon S. |year=2017 |title=Friends Divided: John Adams and Thomas Jefferson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5d8hAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA38 |location=New York |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-7352-2473-5 |author-link=Gordon S. Wood }}
=== Primary sources ===
* {{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=John |last2=Adams |first2=Charles Francis |date=1851 |title=The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States: Autobiography, continued. Diary. Essays and controversial papers of the Revolution |volume=3 |publisher=Little, Brown |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lWcsAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA392 |author-link2=Charles Francis Adams Sr. }}
* {{cite book |last=Adams |first=John |editor-last=Biddle |editor-first=Alexander |title=Old Family Letters |url=https://archive.org/details/oldfamilyletter00rushgoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/oldfamilyletter00rushgoog/page/n44 38] |date=1892 |location=Philadelphia, PA |publisher=Press of J.B. Lippincott Co.}}
* {{cite book |last=Adams |first=John |editor-last=Carey |editor-first=George Wescott |title=The Political Writings of John Adams |date=2001 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Gateway Editions}}
* {{cite book |last=Adams |first=John |editor-last=Diggins |editor-first=John Patrick |date=2004 |title=The Portable John Adams |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BWdGUN6KPCcC&pg=PA466 |location=London |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-243778-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Adams |first=John |editor-first=George A. Jr. |editor-last=Peek |date=1954 |title=The Political Writings of John Adams: Representative Selections |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jrvsRgk5vwC&pg=PR17 |location=New York |publisher=Liberal Arts Press |oclc=52727656 |isbn=978-0-87220-699-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=John |last2=Rush |first2=Benjamin |editor-last1=Schutz |editor-first1=John A. |editor-last2=Adair |editor-first2=Douglass |date=1966 |title=Spur of Fame, The Dialogues of John Adams and Benjamin Rush, 1805–1813 |url=https://archive.org/details/spuroffamedialog0000adam |url-access=registration |location=Santa Marino, CA |publisher=Huntington Library |isbn=978-0-86597-287-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=John |last2=Tudor |first2=William |date=1819 |title=Novanglus, and Massachusettensis: Or, Political Essays, Published in the Years 1774 and 1775, on the Principal Points of Controversy, Between Great Britain and Her Colonies |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Hews & Gloss |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=slw9AAAAYAAJ |author-link2=William Tudor |oclc=33610833}}
* {{cite book |last=Adams |first=John |editor-last1=Wroth |editor-first1=L. Kinvin |editor-last2=Zobel |editor-first2=Hiller B. |title=The Legal Papers of John Adams |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674522503 |date=1965 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-52250-3}}
* Butterfield, L. H., et al., eds., ''The Adams Papers'' (1961– ). Multivolume letterpress edition of all letters to and from major members of the Adams family, plus their diaries; still incomplete. {{cite web|url=http://www.masshist.org/adams_editorial |title=The Adams Family Papers Editorial Project |publisher=Masshist.org |access-date=March 2, 2010}}
* Butterfield, L. H., ed. [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/results-list.php?collection=1165 ''Adams Family Correspondence.''] Cambridge: Harvard University Press
* {{cite book |editor=Cappon, Lester J. |title=The Adams–Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams |year=1959 |isbn=978-0-8078-4230-0 |location=Chapel Hill |publisher=The University of North Carolina Press}}
* {{cite book |editor-link=Michael Foot |editor-last=Foot |editor-first=Michael |editor2-link=Isaac Kramnick |editor2-last=Kramnick |editor2-first=Isaac |date=1987 |title=The Thomas Paine Reader |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GDRt70vGw9YC |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0-14-044496-4 }}
* Hogan, Margaret; Taylor, C. James, eds. (2007). [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674057050 ''My Dearest Friend: Letters of Abigail and John Adams.''] Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
* {{cite book |editor-last=Richardson |editor-first=James Daniel |date=1897 |title=A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents |volume=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUMPAAAAYAAJ |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University |oclc=3144460227}}
* Taylor, Robert J. et al., eds. [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/results-list.php?collection=1340 ''Papers of John Adams.''] Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
{{main|Bibliography of John Adams}}
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|en-John_Adams-article.ogg|date=February 23, 2019}}
* [https://founders.archives.gov/about/Adams The Papers of John Adams], subset of [https://founders.archives.gov/ Founders Online] from the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]]
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/presidents/adams/ John Adams: A Resource Guide] at the [[Library of Congress]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080727101213/http://johnadamslibrary.org/ The John Adams Library] at the [[Boston Public Library]]
* [http://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/ Adams Family Papers: An Electronic Archive] at the [[Massachusetts Historical Society]]
* {{Gutenberg author |id=4660}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=John Adams}}
* {{Librivox author |id=356}}
* [https://www.c-span.org/presidents/?president=2 John Adams] on [[C-SPAN]]
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