Content deleted Content added
No edit summary |
GreenC bot (talk | contribs) Rescued 1 archive link. Wayback Medic 2.5 per WP:URLREQ#ieee.org |
||
| (46 intermediate revisions by 28 users not shown) | |||
Line 1:
{{For|the sports term|Resting the starters}}
'''Load management''', also known as '''demand side management''' ('''DSM'''), is the process of [[Load balancing (electrical power)|balancing the supply of electricity]] on the network with the electrical load by adjusting or controlling the load rather than the power station output. This can be achieved by direct intervention of the utility in real time, by the use of frequency sensitive relays triggering the circuit breakers (ripple control), by time clocks, or by using special tariffs to influence consumer behavior. Load management allows utilities to reduce demand for electricity during peak usage times ('''peak shaving'''), which can, in turn, reduce costs by eliminating the need for [[peaking power plant]]s. In addition, some peaking power plants can take more than an hour to bring on-line which makes load management even more critical should a plant go off-line unexpectedly for example. Load management can also help reduce harmful emissions, since peaking plants or backup generators are often dirtier and less efficient than [[base load power plant]]s. New load-management technologies are constantly under development — both by private industry<ref>[http://tdworld.com/mag/power_mega_load_management/ Example of largest load management system developed by private industry]</ref> and public entities.<ref>[http://www.oe.energy.gov/ US Dept. Of Energy, Office of Electricity Delivery and Electricity Reliability]</ref><ref>[http://www.electricdistribution.ctc.com/monitoring_load_management_technologies.htm Analysis of current US DOE Projects] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015185316/http://www.electricdistribution.ctc.com/monitoring_load_management_technologies.htm |date=October 15, 2008 }}</ref>▼
{{Short description|Process of balancing the supply of electricity on a network}}
[[File:Load diagram.png|thumb|Daily load diagram; Blue shows real load usage and green shows ideal load.]]
▲'''Load management''', also known as '''demand
==Brief history==
Modern utility load management began about 1938, using ripple control. By 1948 ripple control was a practical system in wide use.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ross |first1=T. W. |last2=Smith |first2=R. M. A. |title=Centralized ripple control on high-voltage networks |journal=Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers - Part II: Power Engineering |date=October 1948 |volume=95 |issue=47 |pages=470–480 |doi=10.1049/ji-2.1948.0126 |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5296967 |access-date=18 October 2019}}{{dead link|date=July 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
The Czechs first used ripple control in the 1950s. Early transmitters were low power, compared to modern systems, only 50 kilovolt-amps. They were rotating generators that fed a 1050 Hz signal into transformers attached to power distribution networks. Early receivers were electromechanical relays. Later, in the 1970s, transmitters with high-power semiconductors were used. These are more reliable because they have no moving parts. Modern Czech systems send a digital "telegram." Each telegram takes about thirty seconds to send. It has pulses about one second long. There are several formats, used in different districts.<ref name = "energo">{{cite web |title=Ripple control |url=https://www.egc-cb.cz/en/products-for-power-industry/ripple-control.html |publisher=EnergoConsult CB S.R.O. |access-date=18 October 2019}}</ref>
In 1972, [[Theodore George “Ted” Paraskevakos]], while working for [[Boeing]] in [[Huntsville, Alabama]], developed a sensor monitoring system which used digital transmission for security, fire, and medical alarm systems as well as meter-reading capabilities for all utilities. This technology was a spin-off of his patented automatic telephone line identification system, now known as [[caller ID]]. In, 1974, Paraskevakos was awarded a U.S. patent for this technology.<ref>U.S. Patent No. 3,842,208 (sensor monitoring device)</ref>
Line 18 ⟶ 25:
When the decision is made to curtail load, it is done so on the basis of system ''reliability''. The utility in a sense "owns the switch" and sheds loads only when the stability or reliability of the electrical distribution system is threatened. The utility (being in the business of generating, transporting, and delivering electricity) will not disrupt their business process without due cause. Load management, when done properly, is non-invasive, and imposes no hardship on the consumer. The load should be shifted to off peak hours.
[[Demand response]] places the "on-off switch" in the hands of the consumer using devices such as a [[smart grid]] controlled [[load control switch]]. While many residential consumers pay a flat rate for electricity year-round, the utility's costs actually vary constantly, depending on demand, the distribution network, and composition of the company's electricity generation portfolio. In a free market, the wholesale price of energy varies widely throughout the day. Demand response programs such as those enabled by smart grids attempt to incentivize the consumer to limit usage based upon ''cost'' concerns. As costs rise during the day (as the system reaches peak capacity and more expensive peaking power plants are used), a free [[market economy]] should allow the price to rise. A corresponding drop in demand for the commodity should meet a fall in price. While this works for predictable shortages, many crises develop within seconds due to unforeseen equipment failures. They must be resolved in the same time-frame in order to avoid a [[power blackout]]. Many utilities who are interested in demand response have also expressed an interest in load control capability so that they might be able to operate the "on-off switch" before price updates could be published to the consumers.<ref name="TCL1">{{cite journal|title=Safe Protocols for Generating Power Pulses with Heterogeneous Populations of Thermostatically Controlled Loads |author=N. A. Sinitsyn. S. Kundu, S. Backhaus |journal=[[Energy Conversion and Management]]|volume=67|year=2013|pages=297–308|arxiv=1211.0248|doi=10.1016/j.enconman.2012.11.021|s2cid=32067734 }}</ref>
The application of load control technology continues to grow today with the sale of both [[radio frequency]] and [[powerline communication]] based systems. Certain types of [[smart meter]] systems can also serve as load control systems. [[Charge control]] systems can prevent the recharging of electric vehicles during peak hours. [[Vehicle-to-grid]] systems can return electricity from an electric vehicle's batteries to the utility, or they can throttle the recharging of the vehicle batteries to a slower rate.<ref name="Liasi">{{Cite book |doi = 10.1109/IranianCEE.2017.7985237|isbn = 978-1-5090-5963-8|chapter = Electric vehicles connection to microgrid effects on peak demand with and without demand response|title = 2017 Iranian Conference on Electrical Engineering (ICEE)|year = 2017|last1 = Liasi|first1 = Sahand Ghaseminejad|last2 = Golkar|first2 = Masoud Aliakbar|pages = 1272–1277|s2cid = 22071272}}</ref>
The largest residential load control system in the world<ref>▼
{{cite web▼
|url = http://tdworld.com/mag/power_mega_load_management/▼
|title = Mega Load Management System Pays Dividends▼
|author = Michael Andreolas▼
|date=February 2004▼
|accessdate = 21 June 2011▼
}}</ref> is found in Florida and is managed by [[Florida Power and Light]]. It utilizes 800,000 load control transponders (LCTs) and controls 1,000 MW of electrical power (2,000 MW in an emergency). FPL has been able to avoid the construction of numerous new power plants due to their load management programs.<ref>▼
{{cite web▼
|url = http://www.fpl.com/news/2006/contents/06032.shtml▼
|title = FPL Files Proposal to Enhance Energy Conservation Programs▼
|date=May 2006▼
|accessdate = 21 June 2011▼
}}</ref>▼
==Ripple control==
Ripple control is
{{cite web
|url = http://www.vlf.it/polard/rcf.html
|title = The Remote Control Frequencies
|author = Jean Marie Polard
|accessdate = 21 June 2011▼
}}</ref>) onto the standard 50–60 Hz of the main power signal. When receiver devices attached to non-essential residential or industrial loads receive this signal, they shut down the load until the signal is disabled or another frequency signal is received.
Early implementations of ripple control occurred during [[World War II]] in various parts of the world using a system that communicates over the electrical distribution system. Early systems used rotating generators attached to distribution networks through transformers. Ripple control systems are generally paired with a two- (or more) tiered pricing system, whereby electricity is more expensive during peak times (evenings) and cheaper during low-usage times (early morning).
Affected residential devices will vary by region, but may include residential electric hot-water heaters, air conditioners, pool pumps, or crop-irrigation pumps. In a distribution network outfitted with load control, these devices are outfitted with communicating controllers that can run a program that limits the duty cycle of the equipment under control. Consumers are usually rewarded for participating in the load control program by paying a reduced rate for energy. Proper load management by the utility allows them to practice [[load shedding]] to avoid [[rolling blackout]]s and reduce costs.
Ripple control can be unpopular because sometimes devices can fail to receive the signal to turn on comfort equipment, e.g. hot water heaters or baseboard electrical heaters. Modern electronic receivers are more reliable than old electromechanical systems. Also, some modern systems repeat the telegrams to turn on comfort devices. Also, by popular demand, many ripple control receivers have a switch to force comfort devices on.
Modern ripple controls send a digital telegram, from 30 to 180 seconds long. Originally these were received by electromechanical relays. Now they are often received by [[microprocessors]]. Many systems repeat telegrams to assure that comfort devices (e.g. water heaters) are turned on. Since the broadcast frequencies are in the range of human hearing, they often vibrate wires, filament light-bulbs or transformers in an audible way.<ref name = "energo" />
The telegrams follow different standards in different areas. For example, in the Czech Republic, different districts use "ZPA II 32S", "ZPA II 64S" and Versacom. ZPA II 32S sends a 2.33 second on, a 2.99 second off, then 32 one-second pulses (either on or off), with an "off time" between each pulse of one second. ZPA II 64S has a much shorter off time, permitting 64 pulses to be sent, or skipped.<ref name = "energo" />
Nearby regions use different frequencies or telegrams, to assure that telegrams operate only in the desired region. The transformers that attach local grids to interties intentionally do not have the equipment (bridging capacitors) to pass ripple control signals into long-distance power lines.<ref name = "energo" />
Each data pulse of a telegram could double the number of commands, so that 32 pulses permit 2^32 distinct commands. However, in practice, particular pulses are linked to particular types of device or service. Some telegrams have unusual purposes. For example most ripple control systems have a telegram to set clocks in attached devices, e.g. to midnight.<ref name = "energo" />
[[Zellweger off-peak]] is one common brand of ripple control systems.
==Frequency-based decentralized demand control==
Greater loads physically slow the rotors of a grid's synchronized generators. This causes AC mains to have a slightly reduced frequency when a grid is heavily loaded. The reduced frequency is immediately sensible across the entire grid. Inexpensive local electronics can easily and precisely measure mains frequencies and turn off sheddable loads. In some cases, this feature is nearly free, e.g. if the controlling equipment (such as an electric power meter, or the thermostat in an air-conditioning system) already has a microcontroller. Most electronic electric power meters internally measure frequency, and require only demand control relays to turn off equipment. In other equipment, often the only needed extra equipment is a [[resistor divider]] to sense the mains cycle and a [[schmitt trigger]] (a small integrated circuit) so the microcontrollers' digital input can sense a reliable fast digital edge. A schmitt trigger is already standard equipment on many microcontrollers.
The main advantage over ripple control is greater customer convenience: Unreceived ripple control telegrams can cause a water heater to remain off, causing a cold shower. Or, they can cause an airconditioner to remain off, resulting in a sweltering home. In contrast, as the grid recovers, its frequency naturally rises to normal, so frequency-controlled load control automatically enables water heaters, air-conditioners and other comfort equipment. The cost of equipment can be less, and there are no concerns about overlapping or unreached ripple control regions, mis-received codes, transmitter power, etc.
The main disadvantage compared to ripple control is a less fine-grained control. For example, a grid authority has only a limited ability to select which loads are shed. In controlled war-time economies, this can be a substantial disadvantage.
The system was invented in [[PNNL]] in the early 21st century, and has been shown to stabilize grids.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kalsi|first1=K.|display-authors=etal|title=Loads as a Resource: Frequency Responsive Demand Control|url=https://www.pnnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-23764.pdf|website=pnnl.gov|publisher=U.S. Government|access-date=16 February 2018}}</ref>
==Examples of schemes==
In many countries, including [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]], the power grids routinely use privately held, emergency diesel generators in load management schemes<ref>[http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/131/ Claverton Energy experts library] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217164416/http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/131/ |date=February 17, 2010 }}</ref>
===
▲The largest residential load control system in the world<ref>
▲{{cite web
▲|url = http://tdworld.com/mag/power_mega_load_management/
▲|title = Mega Load Management System Pays Dividends
▲|author = Michael Andreolas
▲|date=February 2004
▲}}</ref> is found in Florida and is managed by [[Florida Power and Light]]. It utilizes 800,000 load control transponders (LCTs) and controls 1,000 MW of electrical power (2,000 MW in an emergency). FPL has been able to avoid the construction of numerous new power plants due to their load management programs.<ref>
▲{{cite web
▲ |url = http://www.fpl.com/news/2006/contents/06032.shtml
▲ |title = FPL Files Proposal to Enhance Energy Conservation Programs
▲ |date = May 2006
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110616055905/http://www.fpl.com/news/2006/contents/06032.shtml
|archive-date = 16 June 2011
▲}}</ref>
===Australia and New Zealand===
[[File:NZ household ripple control receiver.JPG|thumb|A ripple control receiver fitted to a New Zealand house. The left circuit breaker controls the water storage heater supply (currently on), while the right one controls the nightstore heater supply (currently off).]]
Since the 1950s, Australia and New Zealand
Depending on the area, the consumer may have two electricity meters, one for normal supply ("Anytime") and one for the load-managed supply ("Controlled"), with Controlled supply billed at a lower rate per kilowatt-hour than Anytime supply. For those with load-managed supply but only a single meter, electricity is billed at the "Composite" rate, priced between Anytime and Controlled.
===Czech Republic===
The Czechs have operated ripple control systems since the 1950s.<ref name = "energo" />
===France===
France has an EJP tariff, which allows it to disconnect certain loads and to encourage consumers to disconnect certain loads.<ref>[https://archive.
===Germany===
The distribution system operator Westnetz and gridX piloted a load management solution. The solution enables the grid operator to communicate with local energy management systems and adjust the available load for EV charging in response to the state of the grid.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gridx.ai/press-releases/following-a-successful-pilot-gridx-agrees-on-cooperation-with-westnetz|title=GridX Press Release: Following successful pilot, gridX agrees on cooperation with Westnetz }}</ref>
===United Kingdom===
Line 72 ⟶ 104:
Rltec in the UK in 2009 reported that domestic refrigerators are being sold fitted with their dynamic load response systems. In 2011 it was announced that the Sainsbury supermarket chain will use dynamic demand technology on their heating and ventilation equipment.<ref>[http://www.rltec.com/news News/media/downloads | Dynamic Demand, Smart Grid solutions, energy balancing]</ref>
In the UK, night storage heaters are
SP transmission deployed Dynamic Load Management scheme in Dumfries and Galloway area using real time monitoring of embedded generation and disconnecting them, should an overload
==See also==
* [[Energy management system]]
* [[Energy
* [[National Grid (Great Britain)#Estimating costs per
* Calculating the cost of back up: See [[spark spread]]
* [[Energy in the United Kingdom]]
| |||