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{{Short description|Field of study in communication studies}}
Within the realm of communication studies, '''organizational communication''' is a field of study surrounding all areas of communication and information flow that contribute to the functioning of an organization
organizations, are points of interest for scholars focused on the field of organizational communication.
▲Within the realm of communication studies, '''organizational communication''' is a field of study surrounding all areas of communication and information flow that contribute to the functioning of an organization.<ref name=":54">{{Citation |last1=Putnam |first1=Linda |title=Organizational Communication |date=April 27, 2017 |url=http://oxfordbibliographiesonline.com/view/document/obo-9780199756841/obo-9780199756841-0137.xml |work=Communication |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/obo/9780199756841-0137 |isbn=978-0-19-975684-1 |access-date=December 10, 2020 |last2=Woo |first2=DaJung |last3=Banghart |first3=Scott |doi-access=free}}</ref> Organizational communication is constantly evolving and as a result, the scope of organizations included in this field of research have also shifted over time. Now both traditionally profitable companies, as well as NGO's and non-profit
▲organizations, are points of interest for scholars focused on the field of organizational communication.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Katherine |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/864086905 |title=Organizational communication : approaches and processes |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-285-16420-5 |edition=7th |location=Stamford, Connecticut |oclc=864086905}}</ref> Organizations are formed and sustained through continuous communication between members of the organization and both internal and external sub-groups who possess shared objectives for the organization.<ref name=":3"/> The flow of communication encompasses internal and external stakeholders and can be formal or informal.<ref name=":54"/>
==History==
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In the 1950s, organizational communication focused largely on the role of communication in improving organizational life and organizational output. In the 1980s, the field turned away from a business-oriented approach to communication and became concerned more with the constitutive role of communication in organizing. In the 1990s, the rise of [[critical theory]] garnered influence within the field as organizational communication scholars focused more on communication's ability to both oppress and liberate organizational members.
This shift in thought arose from the French postulations brought about by theorist [[Michel Foucault]]. Foucault is often revered as the father of [[Post-modern]] thought and has been described as a “radical relativist” by contemporaries such as [[Camille Paglia]].
From the 2000s onward, organizational communications experienced a “discursive turn”. This turn started in the 1980s with the rise of [[globalization]] and explains the changed relationship between organizations and governments. After 1980, interpretive and critical organizational communication research expanded rapidly and combined with [[structural functionalism|functionalist]] research, creating a much more varied and complex landscape. Governments around the world became increasingly interested in multilateral organizations and began supporting their goals and interests; this factor increased the profits for investors who were able to capitalize on the changes occurring. In the early 2000s, organizational communications saw discoveries of illegality and corruption, which led to the bankruptcies of extremely large organizations (Ex. [[Arthur Andersen|Arthur Anderson]]). As a result, it changed how people see ethics and [[corporate social responsibility]] in organizational communications. Organizational communication became richer and more fragmented as structural-functional perspectives waned. For the future of this field, it is inevitable that diversity will lead to intellectual competition, and that hierarchy will be established among perspectives.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118955567 |title=The International Encyclopedia of Organizational Communication |date=2017-02-21 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-95560-4 |editor-last=Scott |editor-first=Craig R. |edition=1 |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781118955567 |editor-last2=Barker |editor-first2=James R. |editor-last3=Kuhn |editor-first3=Timothy |editor-last4=Keyton |editor-first4=Joann |editor-last5=Turner |editor-first5=Paaige K. |editor-last6=Lewis |editor-first6=Laurie K.}}</ref>
In the most recent history of the last five years, organizational communications have seen huge differences in how public opinion sees [[mass media]]. This shift has led to began to move away from traditional news sources like the [[newspaper]] and rely more on [[social media]] like [[Twitter]] for their news sources. With this change, communication is more vulnerable to things like “[[fake news]]”; however, it gives all members of the public the capability of sharing their stories. With the rapid advancement of technology, there is no telling how far the field of organizational communications will advance in years to come.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Chang Sup |date=2018-12-09 |title=Revisiting the Two-Step Flow Model on Twitter: Interconnection of Self-Identified South Korean Twitter Opinion Leadership, News Consumption, News Links, and News Curation |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1931243118809780 |journal=Electronic News |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=63–77 |doi=10.1177/1931243118809780 |s2cid=58588377 |issn=1931-2431}}</ref>
==Early underlying assumptions==
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Some of the main assumptions underlying much of the early organizational communication research were:
* [[Rational choice theory|Humans act rationally]]. Some people do not behave in rational ways, they generally
* Formal [[logic]] and [[Empirical evidence|empirically verifiable data]] ought to be the foundation upon which any theory should rest. All we really need to understand communication in organizations is (a) observable and [[Reproducibility|replicable]] behaviors that can be transformed into variables by some form of measurement, and (b) formally replicable
* Communication is primarily a mechanical process, in which a message is constructed and encoded by a sender, transmitted through some channel, then received and decoded by a receiver. Distortion, represented as any differences between the original and the received messages, can and ought to be identified and reduced or eliminated.
* Organizations are mechanical things, in which the parts (including employees functioning in defined roles) are interchangeable. What works in one organization will work in another similar organization. Individual differences can be minimized or even eliminated with careful management techniques.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Miller|first=Katherine|title=Organizational Communication Approaches and Processes, Seventh Edition|publisher=[[Cengage]] Learning|year=2015|isbn=978-1-285-16420-5|location=United States}}</ref>
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[[Nonverbal]] content always accompanies the verbal content of messages. When speaking about nonverbal communication, Birdwhistell says "it is complementary to (meaning "adds to") rather than redundant with (or repeating of) the verbal behavior". For example, if someone is talking about the length of an object, they may hold out their hands to give a visual estimate of it.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Birdwhistell|first1=Ray L.|title=Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0812210123|url-access=registration|date=1970|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_0812210123/page/181 181]|isbn=9780812210125}}</ref> This is reasonably clear in the case of face-to-face communication. As [[Virginia Satir]] has pointed out, people cannot help but communicate symbolically (for example, through their clothing or possessions) or through some form of body language. In messages that are conveyed by the telephone, a messenger, or a letter, the situation or context in which the message is sent becomes part of its non-verbal content. For example, if the [[company]] has been losing [[money]], and in a letter to the production division, the [[front office]] orders a reorganization of the shipping and receiving departments, this could be construed to mean that some people were going to lose their jobs — unless it were made explicitly clear that this would not occur.<ref name="Virginia">{{cite book |author= Virginia Satir|title= Conjoint family therapy; a guide to theory and technique|url= https://archive.org/details/conjointfamilyt000sati|url-access= registration|publisher= Science and Behavior Books|location= Palo Alto, Calif.|year=1967|pages=[https://archive.org/details/conjointfamilyt000sati/page/76 76–81]|oclc=187068}}</ref>
A number of variables influence the [[effectiveness]] of [[communication]]. Some are found in the environment in which communication takes place, some in the personalities of the sender and the receiver, and some in the relationship that exists between [[Sender (telephony)|sender]] and [[Receiver (radio)|receiver]]. These different variables suggest some of the difficulties of communicating with understanding between two people. The sender wants to formulate an idea and communicate it to the receiver. This desire to communicate may arise from his thoughts or feelings or it may have been triggered by something in the environment. The [[communication]] may also be influenced by the relationship between the sender and the receiver, such as status differences, a staff-line relationship, or a learner-teacher relationship.<ref name="Virginia"/>
Whatever its origin, [[information]] travels through a series of filters, both in the sender and in the receiver, and is affected by different channels, before the idea can be transmitted and re-created in the receiver's mind. Physical capacities to see, hear, smell, taste, and touch vary between people, so that the image of reality may be distorted even before the mind goes to work. In addition to physical or sense filters, cognitive filters, or the way in which an individual's mind interprets the world around him, will influence his assumptions and feelings. These filters will determine what the sender of a message says, how he says it, and with what purpose. Filters are present also in the receiver, creating a double complexity that once led [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] to say that human communication is "doubly relative". It takes one person to say something and another to decide what he said.<ref name="Simon">{{cite book |author=James G March; Herbert A Simon|title= Organizations|url=https://archive.org/details/organizations00marc|url-access=registration|publisher=Wiley|location=New York|year=1958|pages=[https://archive.org/details/organizations00marc/page/9 9–11]|isbn= 9780471567936|oclc=1329335}}</ref>
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Informal and formal communication are used in an organization. Formal communication flows downward, horizontal and upward while informal communication is generally referred to as "the grapevine".
Formal communication refers to the flow of official information through proper, predefined channels and routes. The flow of information is controlled and needs deliberate effort to be properly communicated. Formal communication follows a hierarchical structure and chain of command. The structure is typically top down, from leaders in various departments and senior staff in the organization, which funnel down to lower level employees.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is Formal and Informal Communication?|date=16 March 2020 |url=https://www.peoplegoal.com/blog/what-is-formal-and-informal-communication
Informal communication, generally associated with interpersonal, horizontal communication, was primarily seen as a potential hindrance to effective organizational performance. This is no longer the case. Informal communication has become more important to ensuring the effective conduct of work in modern organizations.
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Organizational communication provides insights and makes sense of the human processes that occur within organizations.<ref name=":6" /> This encompasses power struggles, team building, conflict, decision making, compliance, and all other human aspects of an organization. In early years, organizations gave little regard to the psychological needs of employees. Organizational communication considers how to motivate individuals within an organization by ensuring human needs are met in the workplace.<ref name=":6" />
Modern organizational communication studies consider work-from-home and remote work structures, a phenomenon that emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic as digital communication took the forefront.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sanders |first1=Karin |last2=Nguyen |first2=Phong T. |last3=Bouckenooghe |first3=Dave |last4=Rafferty |first4=Alannah |last5=Schwarz |first5=Gavin |date=September 2020 |title=Unraveling the What and How of Organizational Communication to Employees During COVID-19 Pandemic: Adopting an Attributional Lens |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021886320937026 |journal=The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=289–293 |doi=10.1177/0021886320937026 |hdl=10072/398705 |s2cid=220596687 |issn=0021-8863|hdl-access=free }}</ref>
=== Effective and Ineffective Communication in Organizations ===
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=== Classical ===
Emerging out of the [[Industrial Revolution]] and the increased mechanization of work, classical approaches to organizing involve a vertical flow of communication that is highly formal and often written, mostly in a downward direction. The main idea of the classical approach of organizational communication is that the theory compares organizations to a machine. The theory observed and analyze that workers perform the task they are given to in order to contribute to the overall well-being of the organization. Each member has their purpose in the group, just like a part of a machine works does its tasks while cooperate with other parts to have a well-managed, functioning machine. Additionally, just like a machine that collapse when one part fails to function. An organization will fall apart when members are not doing their designated task appropriately.<ref>{{Cite book |date=Dec 3, 2020 |chapter=3: Classical Theories of Organizational Communication |url=https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/14869 |title=Organizational Communication - Theory, Research, and Practice |access-date=March 4, 2022 |archive-date=July 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730074121/https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Introduction_to_Communication/Organizational_Communication_-_Theory_Research_and_Practice/03%3A_Classical_Theories_of_Organizational_Communication |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Henri Fayol]]'s work on classical management identifies five elements of management suggesting tasks for managers; planning, organizing, command, coordination, and control; and six principles of management suggesting how managers might enact the aforementioned elements of management; [[scalar chain]], unity of command, unity of direction, division of labor, order, and span of control; relative to this approach.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Katherine |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/864086905 |title=Organizational communication : approaches and processes |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-285-16420-5 |edition=7th |location=Stamford, Connecticut |oclc=864086905}}</ref>
=== Human relations ===
The human relation approach is based on several different theorists such as: Elton Mayo, McGregors's Douglas, Abraham Maslow, Mary Parker Follett's and Argyris.{{
=== Cultural ===
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=== Constitutive ===
{{Main|Communicative Constitution of Organizations}}
The constitutive approach is an organizational communications theory originating in [[Robert T. Craig|Robert T. Craig’s]] chapter of the book Communication Theory: Communication Theory as a Field.<ref name="Craig 119–161">{{Cite journal |last=Craig |first=Robert T. |date=May 1999 |title=Communication Theory as a Field |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.1999.tb00355.x |journal=Communication Theory |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=119–161 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2885.1999.tb00355.x |issn=1050-3293}}</ref> An organizational constitutive approach views communication processes as a means of forming and maintaining organizations. Ideas of communication have evolved throughout history.<ref>{{Citation |last=Miller |first=Katherine I. |title=Organizational Communication |date=2008-06-05 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781405186407.wbieco018 |encyclopedia=The International Encyclopedia of Communication |place=Chichester, UK |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |doi=10.1002/9781405186407.wbieco018 |isbn=9781405186407 |access-date=2022-11-29}}</ref> As a practical solution to contemporary social problems, the constitutive model is presented. For example, traditional ideas and institutions are eroding, cultural diversity and interdependence are increasing, and democratic participation in social reality is in high demand.<ref name="Craig 119–161"/>
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Conflict is experienced by all organizations, therefore strategies to mitigate its effects on the wellbeing of organizations have been developed over time by both researchers and scholars alike.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |date=June 14, 2019 |editor-last=Nicotera |editor-first=Anne M. |title=Origins and Traditions of Organizational Communication |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203703625 |doi=10.4324/9780203703625|isbn=9780203703625 |s2cid=182829756 }}</ref> Professionals solely aim to diminish any conflicts that may arise within the workplace in the most effective manner as possible. In order to do this, these employees must possess strong conflict resolution skills.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Overton |first1=Amy R. |last2=Lowry |first2=Ann C. |title=Conflict Management: Difficult Conversations with Difficult People |journal=Clinics in Colon and Rectal Surgery |year=2013 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=259–264 |doi=10.1055/s-0033-1356728 |issn=1531-0043 |pmc=3835442 |pmid=24436688}}</ref>
Since conflicts in the workplace typically arise in various magnitudes, it is important that they are dealt with as soon as possible. For instance, if an individual tends to leave their space consistently messy, it can disrupt the entire office and leave for a multitude of other conflicts to arise if not dealt in a timely manner. Another example is if another co-worker tends to be disruptive or raise their voice.<ref name=":1" /> Both instances can be related to both internal and external sources, however, must be dealt with the same sufficiency since they could become reoccurring, daily issues if not dealt with.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Madalina |first=Oachesu |date=January 1, 2016 |title=Conflict Management, a New Challenge
A leaders ability in conflict management is important. It was found that leaders who focus on collaboration have a higher success rate than those who focus on avoidant or dominating conflict behaviour.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Swanson |first=Ramina |date=2016 |title=Stop, Collaborate and Listen ... The Cost of Conflict in the Workplace |url=https://www.vanguard.edu/uploaded/Academics/Graduate/Organizational_Psychology/From-Science-Practice_Vol-2-Issue-104.pdf |journal=From Science to Practice |volume=II |pages=15–17 |doi=10.19099/fstp.031604 |doi-broken-date=
==Research==
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* How communicative behaviors construct or modify organizing processes or products?
* How communication itself plays a
* How the organizations within which we interact affect our communicative behaviors, and through these, our own identities?
* Structures other than organizations which might be constituted through our communicative activity (e.g., markets, cooperatives, tribes, political parties, social movements).
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* Do taken-for-granted organizational practices work to fortify the dominant [[hegemonic]] narrative? Do individuals resist/confront these practices, through what actions/agencies, and to what effects?
* Do status changes in an organization (e.g., promotions, demotions, restructuring, financial/social strata changes) change communicative behavior? Are there criteria employed by organizational members to differentiate between "legitimate" (i.e., endorsed by the formal organizational structure) and "illegitimate" (i.e., opposed by or unknown to the formal power structure) behaviors? When are they successful, and what do we mean by "successful" when there are "pretenders" or "usurpers" who employ these communicative means?
'''Diversity, Equity, and inclusion (DEI) in organizational communication.'''
Research in this area covers a range of principles and practices aimed at fostering an inclusive organizational environment by leveraging effective communication strategies. DEI in the workplace encompasses a variety of personal and social bases of identity, including race-ethnicity, gender, age, socioeconomic status, religion, sexual orientation, country of origin, etc.
Research focus under DEI organizational communication includes;
* The application of different communication theories to better understand and address the diverse perspectives, backgrounds, orientations, and experiences within the workforce. - Research has focused on analyzing the composition of employee dynamics to first identify the diverse perspectives and second to understand them.
* How effective communication is pivotal in creating inclusive policies ranging from employee recruitment, retention, compensation, benefits, and retirement. - Scholars have reviewed the wording of organization policies and communicated messages to identify loopholes qualifiers that might have hindered DEI in the past.
* How implicit bias is embedded in organizational culture and practices. - Research focuses on helping employees and organizational leadership to identify their bias against minority groups through their verbal and non-verbal communication.
Research focus of race-ethnicity under DEI in the workplace includes;
* The underrepresentation of minority races in the workplace.
* Challenges that hinder underrepresented minority group members from advancing to leadership positions in the workplace.
* The emotional, social, psychological, and physical effects of the challenges that minority group members face in the workplace.
Research focus of Gender under DEI in the workplace includes;
* Challenges that women face in organizations.
* Factors that hinder women from rising to leadership positions at work.
* The stereotype against women leaders and how they have managed to succeed with workplace challenges.
* Understanding the pressure on women to work more than men to prove themselves in the workplace.
* The bias against women of color during hiring processes.
* Contrast in annual renumeration between men and women holding the same position in organizations.
* Challenges of mentoring women in organizations and how to improve.
* How effective communication can align leadership messages with organizational values and goals during the implementation of DEI.
* Challenges minority groups encounter while trying to progress in organizations.
* How effective communication strategies can foster an increase in the representation of underrepresented groups.
Further research has also focused on introducing and applying different communication theories to analyze diversity problems in the workplace and proffer solutions on improvement.
The inclusion of DEI in organizational communications research because it can lead to significant improvement in the world by proposing viable solutions to difficult problems within important social contexts.
==See also==
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===Associations===
* [[Academy of Management]]
* [[Institute of Scientific and Technical Communicators]] (UK)
* [[International Association of Business Communicators]]
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