Quechuan languages: Difference between revisions

|ref map = ne2007Qichwa-Simikuna.svg

|fam1 mapcaption = Map showing the distribution of Quechuan languages

|iso3 iso1 = quequ

|map iso5 = Quechua (grupos).svg = qwe

[[File:El quechua como lengua materna (censo nacional 2007).png|thumb|upright=1.59|Map of Peru showing the distribution of overall Quechua speakers by district]]In 1975, Peru became the first country to recognize Quechua as one of its official languages in 1975.<ref name=NYT1975>{{cite news |title=Peru officially adopting Indian tongue |first=Jonathan Gay |last=Kandell |date=May 22, 1975 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1975/05/23/issue.html |access-date=April 22, 2016 |archive-date=March 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327030201/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1975/05/23/issue.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Ecuador conferred official status on the language in its 2006 constitution, and in 2009, Bolivia adopted a new constitution that recognized aQuechua numberand ofseveral other indigenous languages as official languages of the country.<ref name=Andes>{{cite book |title=The Andes: A Geographical Portrait|first=Axel|last=Borsdorf|date=12 March 2015|page=142 |publisher=Springer|isbn=9783319035307|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgEyBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142&lpg=PA142&dqq=ecuador+constitution+quechua&sourcepg=bl&otsPA142|access-date=8GozrigzHx&sig7 November 2020|archive-date=JpuKLTOIIyBexrmjlEPPMid49vY&hl26 May 2024|archive-url=en&sahttps://web.archive.org/web/20240526070611/https://books.google.com/books?id=XlgEyBwAAQBAJ&sqiq=2ecuador+constitution+quechua&vedpg=0ahUKEwj8o7SJtKHMAhWEvoMKHTC1BHYQ6AEIWjANPA142#v=onepagesnippet&q=ecuador%20constitution%20quechua&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

Currently, theThe major obstacle to the diffusion of the usage and teaching of Quechua languages is the lack of written materialmaterials, in the Quechua languagesuch likeas books, newspapers, software, and magazines. Thus,The Bible has been translated into Quechua and is distributed by certain missionary groups. Quechua, along with [[Aymara andlanguage|Aymara]] theand minor indigenous languages, remains essentially a [[spoken language]].

In recent years, Quechua has been introduced in [[intercultural bilingual education]] (IBE) in [[BoliviaPeru]], [[EcuadorBolivia]], and [[PeruEcuador]],. whichEven is,in these howeverareas, the governments are reaching only a part of the Quechua-speaking populationpopulations. ThereSome isindigenous anpeople ongoingin processeach of Quechua-speakingthe populationscountries shiftingare tohaving Spanishtheir forchildren thestudy purposesin ofSpanish for social advancement.<ref>Adelaar 2004, pp. 258–259: "The Quechua speakers' wish for social mobility for their children is often heard as an argument for not transmitting the language to the next generation.... As observed quite adequately by [[Rodolfo Cerrón Palomino|Cerrón Palomino]], "Quechua (and [[Aymaran languages|Aymara]]) speakers seem to have taken the project of assimilation begun by the dominating classes and made it their own."</ref>

[[Radio Nacional del Perú]] hasbroadcasts news and agrarian programs in Quechua for periods in the mornings in Quechua.

Quechua and Spanish are now heavily intermixed in much of the Andean region, with many hundreds of Spanish loanwords in Quechua. ConverselySimilarly, Quechua phrases and words are commonly used by Spanish speakers. In southern rural Bolivia, for instance, many Quechua words such as ''wawa'' (infant), ''misi'' (cat), ''waska'' (strap or thrashing), are as commonly used as their Spanish counterparts, even in entirely Spanish-speaking areas. Quechua has also had a profoundsignificant impactinfluence on other native languages of the Americas, such as [[Mapuche language|Mapuche]].{{Citation<ref needed|datename=December 2011}}"Moulianetal2015"/>

It is difficult to measure the number of Quechua speakers.<ref name=":2" /> The number of speakers given varies widely according to the sources. The total in ''[[Ethnologue]]'' 16 is 10 million, mostlyprimarily based on figures published 1987–2002, but with a few dating from the 1960s. The figure for Imbabura Highland Quechua in ''Ethnologue'', for example, is 300,000, an estimate from 1977.

The missionary organization FEDEPI, on the other hand, estimated one million Imbabura dialect speakers (published 2006). Census figures are also problematic, due to under-reporting. The 2001 Ecuador census reports only 500,000 Quechua speakers, wherecompared to the estimate in most linguistic sources estimateof more overthan 2 million. The censuses of Peru (2007) and Bolivia (2001) are thought to be more reliable.

*Chile: few, if any; 8,200 in ethnic group (2002 census)

Additionally, there is an unknown number of speakers in emigrant communities, including [[Queens]], New York and [[Paterson, New Jersey]] in the United States.<ref>{{Cite news

| url = httphttps://www.utsandiegosandiegouniontribune.com/news/2011/may/28/sdut-some-ny-immigrants-cite-lack-of-spanish-as-barrier/-2011may28-story.html

[[File:Quechua (subgrupos)Quechuan_distribution.svg|thumb|The four branches of Quechua: I (Central), II-A (North Peruvian), II-B (Northern), II-C (Southern).]]

There are significant differences between the varieties of Quechua spoken in the central Peruvian highlands and the peripheral varieties of Ecuador as well as southern Peru and Bolivia. They can be labeled Quechua I (or Quechua B, central) and Quechua II (or Quechua A, peripheral). Within the two groups, there are few sharp boundaries, making them [[dialect continuum|dialect continua]]. However, there is a secondary division in Quechua II between the grammatically simplified northern varieties of Ecuador, Quechua II-B, known there as [[Kichwa language|Kichwa]], and the generally more conservative varieties of the southern highlands, Quechua II-C, which include the old Inca capital of [[Cusco]]. The closeness is at least in part because of the influence of [[Cusco Quechua]] on the Ecuadorean varieties in the Inca Empire,. asBecause northernNorthern nobles were required to educate their children in Cusco, whichthis was maintained Cusco as the [[prestige dialect]] in the north.

Speakers from different points within any of the three regions can generally understand one another reasonably well. There are nonetheless significant local-level differences across each. ([[Wanka Quechua]], in particular, has several very distinctive characteristics that make the variety distinctlymore difficultchallenging to understand, even for other Central Quechua speakers.) Speakers from ''different'' major regions, particularly Central or Southern Quechua, are not able to communicate effectively.

The lack of [[mutual intelligibility]] among the dialects is the basic criterion that defines Quechua not as a single language, but as a language family. The complex and progressive nature of how speech varies across the dialect continua makes it nearly impossible to differentiate discrete varieties; ''Ethnologue'' lists 4445 thatvarieties itwhich judgedare then divided into two groups; Central and Peripheral. Due to requirethe non-intelligibility between the two groups, they are all classified as separate literaturelanguages.<ref name=Ethnologue>[{{cite web| url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=que| title = Ethnologue report for Quechua (macrolanguage) (SIL)]}}</ref>

As a reference point, the overall degree of diversity across the family is a little less than that of the [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] families, and more of the order of [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] or [[Arabic]]. The greatest diversity is within Central Quechua, {{sc|aka}}or Quechua I, which is believed to lie close to the [[Urheimat|homeland]] of the ancestral Proto-Quechua language.

[[Alfredo Torero]] devised the traditional classification, the three divisions above, plus a fourth, a northern or Peruvian, branch. The latter causecauses complications in the classification, however, as theyvarious dialects (e.g. [[Cajamarca–Cañaris Quechua|Cajamarca–Cañaris]], [[Pacaraos Quechua|Pacaraos]], and [[Yauyos–Chincha Quechua|Yauyos–ChinchaYauyos]]) have features of both Quechua I and Quechua II, and so are difficult to assign to either. Torero's classification is thus:

** [[Quechua III]] or ''Quechua AB,'' or{{aka}} ''PeripheralCentral Quechua'' or ''WanpWaywash,'una' spoken in Peru',s central highlands dividedand intocoast.

** [[Northern Quechua II]] or ''Quechua II BA'', spokenor in''Peripheral EcuadorQuechua'' ([[Kichwaor language|Kichwa]])''Wanp'una'', northerndivided Peru, and Colombia ([[Inga Kichwa]])into

*** [[SouthernNorthern Quechua]] or ''Quechua II CB,'', spoken in BoliviaEcuador ([[Kichwa language|Kichwa]]), southernnorthern Peru, Chile, and Argentina.Colombia ([[Inga Kichwa]])

**** The most widely spoken varieties arein Souththis Bolivian,group Cusco,are Ayacucho,Chimborazo Highland Quichua and PunoImbabura Highland (Collao)Quichua.

| label1=Yungay <br/>(Quechua&nbsp;II-A)

| label1=[[Northern Quechua|Northern]] <br/>(Quechua&nbsp;II-B)

| label2= '''[[Southern Quechua]]''' <br/>(Quechua&nbsp;II-C)

[[Willem Adelaar]] adheres to the Quechua I / Quechua II (central/peripheral) bifurcation. But, but partially following later modifications by Torero, he reassigns part of Quechua II-A to Quechua I:<ref>Adelaar 2004.{{page needed|date=September 2013}}</ref>

| label1=Quechua I

| 1={{Clade

| label1=Central

| 1={{Clade

| 1='''[[Ancash Quechua|Ancash]]''' (Huaylas–Conchucos)

| 2='''[[Alto Pativilca–Alto Marañón–Alto Huallaga Quechua|Alto Pativilca–Alto Marañón–Alto Huallaga]]'''

| 3='''[[Yaru Quechua|Yaru]]'''

| 4='''[[Wanka Quechua|Wanka]]''' (Jauja–Huanca)

| 5='''[[Yauyos–Chincha Quechua|Yauyos–Chincha]]''' (Huangáscar–Topará)

}}

| 2=[[Pacaraos Quechua|Pacaraos]]

}}

| label2=&nbsp;Quechua&nbsp;II&nbsp;

| 2={{Clade

| label1='''&nbsp;[[Cajamarca–Cañaris Quechua|Cajamarca–Cañaris]]&nbsp;'''<br/>(Quechua&nbsp;II-A, reduced)

| 1=[[Lambayeque Quechua|Lambayeque]] (Cañaris)

| 2=[[Cajamarca Quechua|Cajamarca]]

}}

| label1=&nbsp;Northern Quechua&nbsp;<br/>(Quechua&nbsp;II-B)

| label2= '''[[Southern Quechua]]'''<br/>(Quechua&nbsp;II-C)

| 1=[[Ayacucho Quechua|Ayacucho]]

| 2=[[Cusco Quechua|Cusco]]

| 3=[[Puno Quechua|Puno]] (Collao)

| 4=[[North Bolivian Quechua|Northern Bolivian]] (Apolo)

| 5=[[South Bolivian Quechua|Southern Bolivia]]

| 6=[[Santiagueño Quechua|Santiago del Estero]]}}

}} }}

Landerman (1991) does not believe a trulytrue genetic classification is possible and divides Quechua II so that the family has four geographical–typological branches: Northern, North Peruvian, Central, and Southern. He includes Chachapoyas and Lamas in North Peruvian Quechua so Ecuadorian is synonymous with Northern Quechua.<ref>Peter Landerman, 1991. ''Quechua dialects and their classification.'' PhD dissertation, UCLA</ref>

*II-A: Yunkay Quechua (North Peruvian Quechua) is scattered in Peru's occidental highlands.

*II-B: Northern Quechua (also known as ''Runashimi'' or, especially in Ecuador, [[Kichwa language|''Kichwa'']]) is mainly spoken in Colombia and Ecuador. It is also spoken in the Amazonian lowlands of Colombia, and Ecuador, and in pockets inof Peru.

This is a sampling of words in several Quechuan languages:{{Pronunciation needed}}

| ćhunka, chunka<br />{{IPA|[ʈ͡ʂʊŋkɐ]}}, {{IPA|[t͡ʃuŋkɐt͡ʃʊŋkɐ]}}

| ćhunka<br />{{IPA|[ʈ͡ʂuŋka]}}

| ch'unka<br />{{IPA|[ʈ͡ʂʊŋɡɐ]}}

| chunka<br />{{IPA|[t͡ʃuŋɡa]}}

| chunka<br />{{IPA|[t͡ʃuŋɡɐ ~ t͡ʃuŋkɐ]}}

| chunka<br />{{IPA|[t͡ʃuŋkɐ]}}

| chunka<br />{{IPA|[t͡ʃuŋkɐ]}}

| mishki<br />{{IPA|[mɪʃkɪ]}}

| mishki<br />{{IPA|[mɪʃkɪ]}}

| mishki<br />{{IPA|[mɪʃkɪ]}}

| mishki<br />{{IPA|[mɪʃkɪ]}}

| mishki<br />{{IPA|[mɪʃkɪ]}}

| misk'i<br />{{IPA|[mɪskɪmɪskʼɪ]}}

| qun<br />{{IPA|[qoŋ]}}

| qunkun<br />{{IPA|[kuŋ]}}

| kun<br />{{IPA|[kuŋ]}}

| kunqun<br />{{IPA|[χoŋ]}}

| qun<br />{{IPA|[qoŋ]}}

| awmi <br />{{IPA|[oːmi ~ ɐwmɪ]}}

| aríaw <br />{{IPA|[aw]}}

| arí ari<br />{{IPA|[ɐɾi]}}

| arí ari<br />{{IPA|[aɾi]}}

| arí ari<br />{{IPA|[aɾi]}}

| arí <br />{{IPA|[ɐˈɾi]}}

| arí<br />{{IPA|[ɐˈɾi]}}

Quechua shares a large amount of vocabulary, and some striking structural parallels, with [[Aymara language|Aymara]], and the two families have sometimes been grouped together as a '"[[Quechumaran languages|Quechumaran family]]'." ThatThis hypothesis is generally rejected by specialists, however. The parallels are better explained by mutual influence and borrowing through intensive and longtermlong-term contact. Many Quechua–Aymara cognates are close, often closer than intra-Quechua cognates, and there is a little relationship in the [[affix]]al system. The [[Puquina language]] of the [[Tiwanaku Empire]] is a possible source for some of the shared vocabulary between Quechua and Aymara.<ref name="Moulianetal2015">{{cite journal |last1=Moulian |first1=Rodrigo |last2=Catrileo |first2=María |last3=Landeo |first3=Pablo |title=Afines Quechua en el Vocabulario Mapuche de Luis de Valdivia |journal=RLA. Revista de lingüística teórica y aplicada |date=December 2015 |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=73–96 |doi=10.4067/S0718-48832015000200004 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The Quechua influence on [[Latin American Spanish]] includes such borrowings as ''papa'' for "potato", ''chuchaqui'' for "hangover" in [[Ecuador]], and diverse borrowings for "[[altitude sickness]]", in [[Bolivia]] from Quechuan: ''suruqch'i'' toin Bolivian[[Bolivia]], ''sorojchi'', in [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Peru]] ''soroche'' in [[Peru]].

At first, Spaniards referred to the language of the Inca empire as the ''lengua general'', the ''general languagetongue''. The name ''quichua'' iswas first used in 1560 by [[Domingo de Santo Tomás]] in his ''Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los reynos del Perú''.<ref name=Adelaar179>Adelaar 2004, p. 179.</ref> It is not known what name the native speakers gave to their language before colonial times and whether it was Spaniards who called it ''quechua''.<ref name=Adelaar179/>

There are two possible etymologies of Quechua as the name of the language. There is a possibility that the name Quechua was derived from ''*qiĉ.waqiĉwa'', the native word which originally meant the "temperate valley" altitude ecological zone in the Andes (suitable for maize cultivation) and to its inhabitants.<ref name=Adelaar179/> Alternatively, [[Pedro Cieza de León]] and [[Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]], the early Spanish chroniclers, mention the existence of a people called Quichua in the present [[Apurímac Region]], and it could be inferred that their name was given to the entire language.<ref name="Adelaar179" />

Quechua uses only has three vowel phonemes: {{IPAIPAslink|/a/}} {{IPAIPAslink|/i/}} and {{IPAIPAslink|/u/}}, with no diphthongs, as in Aymara (including [[Jaqaru language|Jaqaru]]). Monolingual speakers pronounce them as {{IPA|[{{IPAlink|æ}}, {{IPAlink|ɪ}}, {{IPAlink|ʊ}}]}} respectively, but [[Spanish language|Spanish]] realizations {{IPA|[{{IPAlink|ä}}, {{IPAlink|i}}, {{IPAlink|u}}]}} may also be usedfound. When the vowels appear adjacent to the [[uvular consonantsconsonant]]s ({{IPA|/q/}}, {{IPA|/qʼ/}}, and {{IPA|/qʰ/}}), they are rendered more like [{{IPAIPAlink|[ɑ]}}, {{IPAIPAlink|[ɛ]}} and, {{IPAIPAlink|[ɔ]}}], respectively.

{| class="IPA wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

! colspan=2|

! [[labialBilabial consonant|LabialBilabial]]

! [[alveolarAlveolar consonant|Alveolar]]

! [[postalveolarPostalveolar consonant|PostalveolarPost-alv.]]/<br />[[palatalPalatal consonant|Palatal]]

! [[velarVelar consonant|Velar]]

! [[uvularUvular consonant|Uvular]]

! [[glottalGlottal consonant|Glottal]]

! colspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]

! rowspan=3| [[Stop consonant|Stop]]/<br />[[Affricate]]

! <{{small>|plain</small>}}

|{{IPA link|tʃ}}

! <{{small>|[[Aspiratedaspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>}}

|{{IPA link|pʰ}}

|{{IPA link|tʰ}}

|{{IPA link|tʃʰ}}

|{{IPA link|kʰ}}

|{{IPA link|qʰ}}

! <{{small>|[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>}}

! colspan=2|[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]

Stress is penultimate in most dialects of Quechua. In some varieties, factors such as the [[apocope]] of word-final vowels or other factors may cause exceptional final stress,. asStress thein syllableChachapoyas remainsQuechua stressedfalls thereword-initially.

==OrthogaphyOrthography==

Quechua has been written using the [[Roman Alphabet|Roman alphabet]] since the [[Spanish conquest of the Inca EmpirePeru]]. However, written Quechua <u>is not rarely much(?)</u>used by Quechua- speakers becausedue ofto thelimited lackamounts of printed<!--hiding this because incomprehensible/illogical: referential --> material in Quechuathe language.

Until the 20th century, Quechua was written with a Spanish-based [[orthography]]., for Examplesexample ''Inca, Huayna Cápac, Collasuyo, Mama Ocllo, Viracocha, quipu, tambo, condor''. ThatThis orthography is the most familiar to Spanish speakers, and sohasso it has been used for most borrowings into English, which essentially always happen through Spanish.

In 1975, the Peruvian government of [[Juan Velasco Alvarado]] adopted a new orthography for Quechua. ThatThis is the system preferred by the [[Academia Mayor de la Lengua Quechua]], which results in the following spellings of the examples listed above: ''Inka, Wayna Qhapaq, Qollasuyu, Mama Oqllo, Wiraqocha, khipu, tampu, kuntur''. TheThis orthography has thesethe following features:

* It uses '''w''' instead of ''hu'' for {{IPA|/w/}}.

* It distinguishes velar ''k'' from uvular ''q'', but both of which were spelled ''c'' or ''qu'' in the traditional system.{{Example needed|date=December 2018}}

* It distinguishes simple, ejective, and aspirated stops in dialects (that make these distinctions, such as that of the [[Cusco Region]]), withe.g. them,the likeaspirated ''khipu'' above'knot'.

In 1985, a variation of this system was adopted by the Peruvian government; itthat uses the Quechuan three-vowel system, resulting in the following spellings: ''Inka, Wayna Qhapaq, Qullasuyu, Mama Uqllu, Wiraqucha, khipu, tampu, kuntur''.

The different orthographies are still highly controversial in Peru. Advocates of the traditional system believe that the new orthographies look too foreign and suggestbelieve that it makes Quechua harder to learn for people who have first been exposed to written Spanish. Those who prefer the new system maintain that it better matches the phonology of Quechua, and they point to studies showing that teaching the five-vowel system to children later causes reading difficulties in Spanish.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

Writers differ in the treatment of Spanish loanwords. Sometimes, theyThese are sometimes adapted to the modern orthography, and sometimes, they are left as in Spanish. For instance, "I am Roberto" could be written ''Robertom kani'' or ''Ruwirtum kani''. (The ''-m'' is not part of the name; it is an evidential suffix, showing how the information is known: firsthand, in this case.)

The Peruvian linguist [[Rodolfo Cerrón Palomino]] has proposed an orthographic norm for all of [[Southern Quechua]]: this Standard Quechua (''el Quechua estándar'' or ''Hanan Runasimi'') conservatively integrates features of the two widespread dialects, [[Ayacucho Quechua]] and [[Cusco Quechua]]. For instance:<ref>To listen to recordings of themthese and many other words, as pronounced in many different Quechua-speaking regions, see the external website [http://www.quechua.org.uk/Eng/Sounds The Sounds of the Andean Languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070109094302/http://www.quechua.org.uk/Eng/Sounds/ There|date=2007-01-09 is}}. It also ahas an fullentire section on the new [http://www.quechua.org.uk/Eng/Sounds/Home/HomeSpelling.htm Quechua and Aymara Spelling] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111174055/http://www.quechua.org.uk/Eng/Sounds/Home/HomeSpelling.htm |date=2013-11-11 }}.</ref>

All varieties of Quechua areis very regularan [[agglutinativeAgglutinative language|agglutinating language]]s, asmeaning opposedthat towords [[isolatingare language|isolating]]built orup [[fusionalfrom language|fusional]]basic ones.roots Theirfollowed normalby sentenceseveral order is SOV ([[subject–object–verbsuffix]])es, each of which carries one meaning. Their large number of [[suffix]]es changes both the overall significancemeaning of words and their subtle shades of meaning. All varieties of Quechua are very regular agglutinative languages, as opposed to [[isolating language|isolating]] or [[fusional language|fusional]] ones [Thompson]. Their normal sentence order is SOV ([[subject–object–verb]]). Notable grammatical features include bipersonal [[grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] (verbs agree with both subject and object), [[evidentiality]] (indication of the source and veracity of knowledge), a set of [[topic (linguistics)|topic]] [[grammatical particle|particles]], and suffixes indicating who benefits from an action and the speaker's attitude toward it, but some languages and varieties may lack some of the characteristics.

In Quechua, there are seven [[pronoun]]s. Quechua has two firstFirst-person plural pronouns (equivalent to "we" in English). Onemay is called thebe [[clusivity|inclusive or exclusive]],; which ismean, usedrespectively, if the speaker wishes to includethat the [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|addressee]] ("we and you"). Theis other formor is callednot thepart exclusive, which is used whenof the addressee is excluded ("we without you"). Quechua also adds the suffix ''-kuna'' to the second and third person singular pronouns ''qam'' and ''pay'' to create the plural forms, ''qam-kuna'' and ''pay-kuna''. In Quechua IIB, or "Kichwa", the exclusive first-person plural pronoun, "ñuqayku", is generally obsolete.

[[Adjective]]s in Quechua are always placed before nouns. They lack gender and number and are not declined to agree with [[noun|substantivesnouns]].

*Ordinal numbers. To form ordinal numbers, the word ''ñiqin'' is put after the appropriate cardinal number (''iskay ñiqin'' = "second"). The only exception is that, in addition to ''huk ñiqin'' ("first"), the phrase ''ñawpaq'' is also used in the somewhat more restricted sense of "the initial, primordial, the oldest"."

[[Noun]] roots accept suffixes that indicate [[grammatical personnumber|personnumber]], (defining[[grammatical of possessioncase|case]], notand identity),the [[grammatical numberperson|numberperson]], andof a [[grammaticalpossession case(linguistics)|casepossessor]]. In general, the personalpossessive suffix precedes that of number. In the [[Santiago del Estero]] variety, however, the order is reversed.<ref>{{cite web

|title = MorfoligíaMorfología Nominalnominal del Quechuaquechua Santiagueñosantiagueño

|+ Examples using the word ''wasi'' (house)''

| rowspan=1918 | suffixes indicating case

| -naq/-nax/-naa

| [[Dative case|dative]]/[[Benefactive case|benefactive]]

| -paq/-pax/-paa

| to/for the house

| -(rinni)tanta

| -manta, -piqta, -pu

| -raq/-rax/-raa

There are several original adverbs. For Europeans, it is striking that the adverb ''qhipa'' means both "behind" and "future" and ''ñawpa'' means "ahead, in front" and "past"."<ref>This occurs in English, where "before" means "in the past", and Shakespeare's Macbeth says "The greatest is behind", meaning in the future.</ref> Local and temporal concepts of adverbs in Quechua (as well as in [[Aymara language|Aymara]]) are associated to each other reversely, compared to European languages. For the speakers of Quechua, we are moving backwards into the future (we cannot see it: it is unknown), facing the past (we can see it: it is remembered).

The [[infinitive]] forms (unconjugated) have the suffix ''-y'' (e.g.''., much'a''= "'kiss"'; ''much'a-y'' = "'to kiss"'). These are the typical endings for the [[indicative]] in a Southern Quechua (IIC) dialect:

! Ñuqañuqa

! Qamqam

! Paypay

! Qamkunaqamkuna

! Paykunapaykuna

[[Grammatical particle|Particles]] are indeclinable: they do not accept suffixes. They are relatively rare, but the most common are ''arí'' ("'yes")' and ''mana'' ("'no")', although ''mana'' can take some suffixes, such as ''-n''/''-m'' (''manan''/''manam''), ''-raq'' (''manaraq'', 'not yet') and ''-chu'' (''manachu?'', 'or not?'), to intensify the meaning. AlsoOther usedparticles are ''yaw'' ("'hey", "hi")', and certain loan words from Spanish, such as ''piru'' (from Spanish ''pero'' "'but"') and ''sinuqa'' (from ''sino'' "'rather"').

The QuechuaQuechuan languages have three different morphemes that mark [[evidentiality]]. Evidentiality refers to a morpheme whose primary purpose is to indicate the source of information.<ref>Aikhenvald 2004, p. 3.</ref> In the QuechuaQuechuan languages, evidentiality is a three-term system: there are three evidential morphemes that mark varying levels of source information. The markers can apply to the first, second, and third persons.<ref name="Aikhenvald 2004, p. 377">Aikhenvald 2004, p. 377.</ref> The chart below depicts an example of these morphemes from the [[Wanka Quechua language]]:<ref>Aikhenvald 2004, p. 42.</ref>

The parentheses around the vowels indicate that the vowel can be dropped in when following an open vowel. For the sake of cohesiveness, the above forms are used to discuss the evidential morphemes. However, it should be noted that thereThere are dialectal variations to the forms. The variations will be presented in the following descriptions.

'''<big>====''-m(i)'' : Direct evidence and commitment</big>====
<ref>Floyd 1999, p. 60.</ref>'''

Hintz discusses an interesting case of evidential behavior found in the Sihaus dialect of [[Ancash Quechua]]. The author postulates that instead of three single evidential markers, that QuechuaQuechuan language contains three pairs of evidential markers.<ref>Hintz 1999, p. 1.</ref>

'''<big>====Affix or clitic</big>'''====

Sometimes, the affix is described as attaching to the focus, especially whenparticularly in reference tothe Tarma dialect of [[Yaru Quechua]],<ref>Weber 1986, p. 145.</ref> but thatthis does not hold true for all varieties of Quechua. In Huanuco Quechua., Thethe evidentials may follow any number of topics, marked by the topic marker ''–qa'', and the element with the evidential must precede the main verb or be the main verb.

However, there are exceptions to that rule, asand well. Thethe more topics there are in a sentence, the more likely the sentence is to deviate from the usual formpattern.

The direct evidential appears in wh-questions and yes/no questions. By considering the direct evidential in terms of prototypical semantics, it seems somewhat counterintuitive to have a direct evidential, basically an evidential that confirms the speaker’sspeaker's certainty about a topic, in a question. However, if one focuses less on the structure and more on the situation, some sense can be made. The speaker is asking the addressee for information so the speaker assumes the speaker knows the answer. That assumption is wheywhere the direct evidential comes into play. The speaker holds a certain amount of certainty that the addressee will know the answer. The speaker interprets the addressee as being in "direct relation" to the proposed content; the situation is the same as when, in regular sentences, the speaker assumes direct relation to the proposed information.<ref>Floyd 1999, p. 87.</ref>

'''''The inferential====Inferential evidential, -chr(a)'''''====

'''<big>====Omission and overuse of evidential affixes</big>'''====

In certain grammatical structures, the evidential marker does not appear at all. In all Quechuan languages the evidential will not appear in a dependent clause. Sadly, noNo example was given to depict this omission.<ref>Aikhenvald 2004, p. 72.</ref>

'''<big>====Cultural aspect</big>'''====

# (Only) one’sone's experience is reliable.

Evidentials also show that being precise and stating the source of one’sone's information is extremely important in the language and the culture. Failure to use them correctly can lead to diminished standing in the community. Speakers are aware of the evidentials and even use proverbs to teach children the importance of being precise and truthful. Precision and information source are of the utmost importance. They are a powerful and resourceful method of human communication.<ref>Aikhenvald 2004, p. 380.</ref>

As in the case of the [[List of pre-Columbian cultures|pre-Columbian Mesoamerica]], there are a number of surviving Andean documentstexts in the local language thatwhich were written down in Latin characters after the European conquest, but theywhich express, to a great extent, the culture of pre-Conquest times. ThatFor type ofexample, Quechua literaturepoems isthought somewhatto scantier,date butfrom neverthelessInca significanttimes are preserved as quotations within some Spanish-language chronicles dealing with the pre-Conquest period. ItHowever, includesthe most important specimen of Quechua literature of this type is the so-called [[Huarochirí Manuscript]] (1598), describingwhich describes the mythology and religion of the valley of [[Huarochirí Province|Huarochirí]] asand wellhas asbeen Quechuacompared poemsto quoted"an withinAndean theBible" Spanish-languageand textsto ofthe someMayan chronicles[[Popol dealingVuh]]. withFrom the prepost-Conquestconquest period. There(starting arefrom athe numbermiddle of anonymousthe or17th signedcentury), Quechuathere dramasare datinga fromnumber theof post-conquestanonymous periodor (startingsigned fromQuechua the 17th century)dramas, some of which deal with the Inca era, while most are on religious topics and of European inspiration. The most famous dramas isare ''[[Ollantay]]'' and the plays describing the death of [[Atahualpa]]. For example, [[Juan de Espinosa Medrano]] wrote several dramas in the language. Poems in Quechua were also composed during the colonial period. A notable example are the works of [[Juan Wallparrimachi]], a participant in the [[Bolivian War of Independence]].<ref name=adelaar254/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://homepage.ntlworld.com/robert_beer/history.htm |title=History |publisher=Homepage.ntlworld.com |access-date= |accessdate=2012-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515235927/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/robert_beer/history.htm |archive-date=2013-05-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

*[[Oto-MangueanSumak languagesKawsay]]

==NotesReferences==

==ReferencesSources==

{{refbegin|230em}}

* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UiwaUY6KsY8C&pg=PA179|title=The Languages of the Andes|isbn=9781139451123|author1last1=Adelaar|first1=Willem F. H|authorlinkauthor-link=Willem Adelaar|date=2004-06-10|publisher=Cambridge University Press|access-date=2016-01-05|archive-date=2024-05-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526071114/https://books.google.com/books?id=UiwaUY6KsY8C&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}

* [[Willem Adelaar|Adelaar, Willem]]. ''The Languages of the Andes''. With the collaboration of P.C. Muysken. Cambridge language survey. Cambridge University Press, 2007, {{ISBN |978-0-521-36831-5}}

* Cusihuamán, Antonio, ''Diccionario Quechua Cuzco-Collao'', Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos "Bartolomé de Las Casas", 2001, {{ISBN |9972-691-36-5}}

* Cusihuamán, Antonio, ''Gramática Quechua Cuzco-Collao'', Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos "Bartolomé de Las Casas", 2001, {{ISBN |9972-691-37-3}}

* Mannheim, Bruce, ''The Language of the Inka since the European Invasion'', University of Texas Press, 1991, {{ISBN |0-292-74663-6}}

* Rodríguez Champi, Albino. (2006). Quechua de Cusco. ''Ilustraciones fonéticas de lenguas amerindias'', ed. Stephen A. Marlett. Lima: SIL International y Universidad Ricardo Palma. [http://lengamer.org/publicaciones/trabajos/quechua_cusco_afi.pdf Lengamer.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221063223/http://lengamer.org/publicaciones/trabajos/quechua_cusco_afi.pdf |date=2018-12-21 }}

*Hintz, Diane. “The"The evidential system in Sihuas Quechua: personal vs. shared knowledge”knowledge" The Nature of Evidentiality Conference, The Netherlands, 14–16 June 2012. SIL International. Internet. 13 April 2014.

*Weber, David. "Information Perspective, Profile, and Patterns in Quechua." Evidentiality: The Linguistic Coding of Epistemology. Ed. Wallace L. Chafe and Johanna Nichols. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Pub, 1986. 137-55137–55. Print.

* [[Willem Adelaar|Adelaar, Willem F. H.]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20130521172146/http://es.scribd.com/doc/91245441/Towards-a-reconstruction-of-the-history-of-Quechuan%E2%80%93Aymaran-interaction Modeling convergence: Towards a reconstruction of the history of Quechuan–Aymaran interaction] About the origin of Quechua, and its relation with Aymara, 2011.

* Bills, Garland D., Bernardo Vallejo C., and Rudolph C. Troike. ''An Introduction to Spoken Bolivian Quechua''. Special publication of the Institute of Latin American Studies, the [[University of Texas at Austin]]. Austin: Published for the Institute of Latin American Studies by the University of Texas Press, 1969. {{ISBN |0-292-70019-9}}

* Coronel-Molina, Serafín M.'' Quechua Phrasebook''. 2002 Lonely Planet {{ISBN |1-86450-381-5}}

* Curl, John, ''Ancient American Poets''. Tempe AZ: Bilingual Press, 2005.{{ISBN |1-931010-21-8}} [http://red-coral.net/Pach.html Red-coral.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112005003/http://red-coral.net/Pach.html |date=2020-11-12 }}

* {{Cite journalCitation

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* Harrison, Regina. ''Signs, Songs, and Memory in the Andes: Translating Quechua Language and Culture''. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989. {{ISBN |0-292-77627-6}}

* Jake, Janice L. ''Grammatical Relations in Imbabura Quechua''. Outstanding dissertations in linguistics. New York: Garland Pub, 1985. {{ISBN |0-8240-5475-X}}

* King, Kendall A. ''Language Revitalization Processes and Prospects: Quichua in the Ecuadorian Andes''. Bilingual education and bilingualism, 24. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters LTD, 2001. {{ISBN |1-85359-495-4}}

* Lara, Jesús, Maria A. Proser, and James Scully. ''Quechua Peoples Poetry''. Willimantic, Conn: Curbstone Press, 1976. {{ISBN |0-915306-09-3}}

* Lefebvre, Claire, and [[Pieter Muysken]]. ''Mixed Categories: Nominalizations in Quechua''. Studies in natural language and linguistic theory, [v. 11]. Dordrecht, Holland: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988. {{ISBN |1-55608-050-6}}

* Muysken, Pieter. ''Syntactic Developments in the Verb Phrase of Ecuadorian Quechua''. Lisse: Peter de Ridder Press, 1977. {{ISBN |90-316-0151-9}}

* Plaza Martínez, Pedro. Quechua. In: Mily Crevels and Pieter Muysken (eds.) ''Lenguas de Bolivia'', vol. I, 215-284215–284. La Paz: Plural editores, 2009. {{ISBN |978-99954-1-236-4}}. (in Spanish)

* Sánchez, Liliana. Quechua-Spanish Bilingualism: Interference and Convergence in Functional Categories. Language acquisition & language disorders, v. 35. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Pub, 2003. {{ISBN |1-58811-471-6}}

* Weber, David. ''A Grammar of Huallaga (Huánuco) Quechua''. University of California publications in linguistics, v. 112. Berkeley: [[University of California Press]], 1989. {{ISBN |0-520-09732-7}}

* Quechua bibliographies online at: [http://www.quechua.org.uk/Eng/Main/i_BIBL.HTM quechua.org.uk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925212828/http://www.quechua.org.uk/Eng/Main/i_BIBL.HTM |date=2020-09-25 }}

{{InterWiki|Southern Quechua|code=qu}}

* [http://www.quechuarunasimi.org.ukde/ information about Quechua Languagein anda Linguistics]variety anof extensive site.languages]

{{Quechuan languages}}{{South American languages}}{{Language families}}{{Authority control}}