Quinoa: Difference between revisions

'''Quinoa''' ('''''Chenopodium quinoa'''''; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|iː|n|.|w|ɑː|,_|k|i|ˈ|n|oʊ|.|ə}},<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|quinoa}}</ref><ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|quinoa}}</ref><ref>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|quinoa}}</ref> from [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] ''{{lang|qu|kinwa}}'' or ''{{lang|qu|kinuwa}}'')<ref>{{Ref Laime}}</ref> is a flowering plant in the [[Amaranthaceae|amaranth family]]. It is ana herbaceous [[annual plant]] grown as a [[crop]] primarily for its edible [[seed]]s; the seeds are rich in [[protein]], [[dietary fiber]], [[B vitamins]] and [[mineral (nutrient)|dietary mineral]]s in amounts greater than in many grains.<ref name="FAOquinoaancientcrop" >{{Cite tech report |title=Quinoa: An ancient crop to contribute to world food security |author-last1=Bojanic |author-first1=Alan |others=Rojas, Wilfredo (Coordinator), (PROINPA), Alandia, Gabriela, Irigoyen, Jimena, Blajos, Jorge (Technical team), Santivañez, Tania (FAO) |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/017/aq287e/aq287e.pdf |department=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |publisher=FAO |publication-place=[[Quito]] |publication-date=July 2011 |access-date=22 May 2018}}</ref> Quinoa is not a [[Poaceae|grass]] but rather a [[pseudocereal]] [[botany|botanically related]] to [[spinach]] and [[amaranth]] (''Amaranthus'' spp.), and originated in the [[Andes|Andean region]] of northwestern South America.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fuentes |first1=F. F. |last2=Martinez |first2=E. A. |last3=Hinrichsen |first3=P. V. |last4=Jellen |first4=E. N. |last5=Maughan |first5=P. J. |date=2009-04-01 |title=Assessment of genetic diversity patterns in Chilean quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.) germplasm using multiplex fluorescent microsatellite markers |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-008-9604-3 |journal=Conservation Genetics |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=369–377 |doi=10.1007/s10592-008-9604-3 |bibcode=2009ConG...10..369F |issn=1572-9737 |hdl=10533/128026 |s2cid=39564604}}</ref> It was first used to feed livestock 5,200{{ndash}}7,000 years ago, and for human consumption 3,000{{ndash}}4,000 years ago in the [[Lake Titicaca]] basin of Peru and Bolivia.<ref name="Quinoa: Production, Consumption and Social Value in Historical Context">{{cite report |url=http://lasa.international.pitt.edu/members/congress-papers/lasa2009/files/KolataAlanL.pdf |year=2009 |title=Quinoa: Production, Consumption and Social Value in Historical Context |last=Kolata |first=Alan L. |department=Department of Anthropology |publisher=The University of Chicago}}</ref>

The plant thrives at high altitudeselevations and produces seeds that are rich in protein.<ref name=leonard>{{cite book |last=Leonard |first=Jonathan Norton |author-link= |date=1970 |title=Recipes, Latin American cooking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8SLxAEACAAJ |location= |publisher=Time-Life International (Nederlands) |page=21 |isbn=9780809400638}} </ref> Almost all production in the Andean region is done by small farms and associations. Its cultivation has spread to more than 70 countries, including Kenya, India, the United States and European countries.<ref name=FAO2013>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/quinoa-2013/what-is-quinoa/distribution-and-production/en/ |title=Distribution and production |access-date=25 June 2019 |department=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |publisher=United Nations |year=2013}}</ref> As a result of increased popularity and consumption in North America, Europe, and [[Australasia]], quinoa crop prices tripled between 2006 and 2014.<ref name="amrc">{{cite web |title=Quinoa |series=Grains & oilseeds |url=https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/grains-oilseeds/quinoa |department=Agricultural Marketing Resource Center |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |access-date=28 July 2018 |date=November 2017}}</ref><ref name="The Guardian">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jan/16/vegans-stomach-unpalatable-truth-quinoa |title=Can vegans stomach the unpalatable truth about quinoa? |newspaper=The Guardian |date=16 January 2013 |location=London, UK |first=Joanna |last=Blythman |access-date=17 Jan 2013}}</ref>

The species ''Chenopodium quinoa'' was first described by [[Carl Ludwig Willdenow]] (1765{{snd}}18121765–1812),{{sfn|Linné|Willdenow|1797|p=1301}} a German botanist who studied plants from South America, brought back by explorers [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and [[Aimé Bonpland]].

The genus name ''Chenopodium'' is composed of two words coming from the Greek χήν,-νός, ''goose'' and πόδῖον, ''podion'' "little foot", or "goose foot", because of the resemblance of the leaves with the trace of a goose’sgoose's foot.{{sfn|Bailly|1935|p=2136}}

The [[specific epithet (botany)|specific epithet]] ''quinoa'' is a borrowing from the Spanish ''quinua'' or ''quinoa'', itself derived from [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]] ''kinwakinuwa''.

The green [[Ovary (plants)|hypogynous]] flowers have a simple [[Petal|perianth]] and are generally [[Self-Fertilization|self-fertilizing]],<ref name="Lost crops">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_iT0rAAAAYAAJ/page/n161 |page=149 |title=The Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation |publisher=U.S. National Research Council |department=Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, National Academies |year=1989 |isbn=9780309042642}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Reinhard |last1=Lieberei |first2=Christoph |last2=Reissdorff |first3=Wolfgang |last3=Franke |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag |title=Nutzpflanzenkunde |year=2007 |isbn=978-3135304076}}</ref> though cross-pollination occurs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=R. |title=Amaranth, Quinoa, Ragi, Tef, and Niger |year=1986 |publisher=University of Minnesota}}</ref> In the natural environment, [[betalain|betalains]]s serve to attract animals to generate a greater rate of pollination and ensure, or improve, seed dissemination.<ref>{{cite book |title=Colour Additives for Foods and Beverages |date=4 February 2015 |edition=1st |url=https://www.elsevier.com/books/colour-additives-for-foods-and-beverages/scotter/978-1-78242-011-8 |publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-1-78242-011-8 }}</ref> The fruits (seeds) are about {{cvt|2|mm|in|frac=16}} in diameter and of various colors — from white to red or black, depending on the [[cultivar]].<ref name="Oxford">{{cite book |title=The New Oxford Book of Food Plants |author1=Vaughn, J.G. |author2=Geissler, C.A. |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199549467 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UdKxFcen8zgC}}</ref>

BesideBesides its food properties, Quinoaquinoa has several medical uses, among which antimicrobial and anticancer properties are promising.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastlast1=Romero-Benavides |firstfirst1=Juan Carlos |last2=Guaraca-Pino |first2=Evelyn |last3=Duarte-Casar |first3=Rodrigo |last4=Rojas-Le-Fort |first4=Marlene |last5=Bailon-Moscoso |first5=Natalia |date=December 2023-12 |title=Chenopodium quinoa Willd. and Amaranthus hybridus L.: Ancestral Andean Food Security and Modern Anticancer and Antimicrobial Activity |url=https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/16/12/1728 |journal=Pharmaceuticals |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1728 |doi=10.3390/ph16121728 |issn=1424-8247 |doi-access=free |pmid=38139854 |pmc=10747716 }}</ref>[[File:Red quinoa.png|thumb|Red quinoa, cooked]]

In their natural state, the seeds have a coating that contains bitter-tasting [[saponin]]s, making them [[unpalatable]].<ref name="Lost crops" /><ref name="jarvis">{{Cite journal |last1=Jarvis |first1=David E. |last2=Ho |first2=Yung Shwen |last3=Lightfoot |first3=Damien J. |last4=Schmöckel |first4=Sandra M. |last5=Li |first5=Bo |last6=Borm |first6=Theo J.A. |last7=Ohyanagi |first7=Hajime |last8=Mineta |first8=Katsuhiko |last9=Michell |first9=Craig T. |date=2017-02-08 |title=The genome of ''Chenopodium quinoa'' |journal=Nature |language=en |type=advance online publication |volume=542 |issue=7641 |pages=307–312 |doi=10.1038/nature21370 |pmid=28178233 |bibcode=2017Natur.542..307J |doi-access=free|hdl=10754/622874 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Most of the grain sold commercially has been processed to remove this coating. This bitterness has beneficial effects during cultivation, as it deters birds and, therefore, the plant requires minimal protection.<ref name='AlternativeFieldCropsManual'>{{cite book |article=Quinoa |date=January 20, 2000 |title=Alternative Field Crops Manual |publisher=University of Wisconsin Extension and University of Minnesota |article-url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/NEWCROP/AFCM/quinoa.html}}</ref> The genetic control of bitterness involves quantitative [[heredity|inheritance]].<ref name=jarvis /> Although lowering the saponin content through [[selective breeding]] to produce sweeter, more palatable varieties is complicated by ≈10% [[cross-pollination]],<ref name="Quinoa saponin">{{cite journal |last1=Masterbroek |first1=H.D. |last2=Limburg |first2=H. |last3=Gilles |first3=T. |last4=Marvin |first4=H.J. |year=2000 |title=Occurrence of sapogenins in leaves and seeds of quinoa (''Chenopodium quinoa'' Willd.) |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=152–156 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(20000101)80:1<152::AID-JSFA503>3.0.CO;2-P|bibcode=2000JSFA...80..152M }}</ref> it is a major goal of quinoa [[breeding program]]s, which may include [[genetic engineering]].<ref name=jarvis />

[[Crop rotation|Rotation]] is used in its Andean native range. Rotation is common with [[potato]], [[cereal]]s and [[legume]]s including ''[[Lupinus mutabilis]]''.<ref name="Zhang-et-al-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Heng |last2=Li |first2=Yuanyuan |last3=Zhu |first3=Jian-Kang |title=Developing naturally stress-resistant crops for a sustainable agriculture |journal=[[Nature Plants]] |volume=4 |issue=12 |date=2018-11-26 |doi=10.1038/s41477-018-0309-4 |pages=989–996 |pmid=30478360 |bibcode=2018NatPl...4..989Z |s2cid=53770458}}</ref><ref name="Rasmussen-et-al-2003">{{cite journal |last1=Rasmussen |first1=Claus |last2=Lagnaoui |first2=Aziz |last3=Esbjerg |first3=Peter |title=Advances in the Knowledge of Quinoa Pests |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |date=2003-01-05 |doi=10.1081/fri-120018868 |pages=61–75 |s2cid=55311455 |url=http://orgprints.org/28718/7/28718.pdf}}</ref>

Handling involves [[threshing]] the seedheads from the [[chaff]] and [[winnowing]] the seed to remove the [[husk]]. Before storage, the seeds need to be dried in order to avoid [[germination]].<ref name="Lost crops" /> Dry seeds can be stored raw,{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} until being washed or mechanically processed to remove the [[pericarp]] to eliminate the bitter layer containing saponins. This was traditionally done manually, which is labour-intensive.<ref name='Bazile2014'>{{cite journal |last1=Bazile |first1=Didier |last2=Martínez |first2=Enrique A. |last3=Fuentes |first3=Francisco |date=2014-12-02 |title=Diversity of quinoa in a biogeographical island: A review of constraints and potential from arid to temperate regions of Chile |url=https://www.notulaebotanicae.ro/index.php/nbha/article/view/9733 |journal=Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=289–298 |doi=10.1583/nbha4229733 |doi-broken-date=112 AugustSeptember 20232024}}</ref> The seeds must be dried again before being stored and sold in stores.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

! colspan=2|Quinoa production – 20202022

| {{Flagu|Peru}} || 100113,115376

| {{Flagu|Bolivia}} || 7044,170707

| {{Flagu|Ecuador}} || 4,903883

| '''World''' || '''175158,188985'''

|colspan=2|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]<ref name="faostat">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title=Quinoa production in 20192022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists) |date=2020 |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) |access-date=1428 JanuarySeptember 20212024}}</ref></small>

Since the early 21st century when quinoa became more commonly consumed in North America, Europe, and [[Australasia]] where it was not typically grown, the crop value increased.<ref name="Collyns">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/14/quinoa-andes-bolivia-peru-crop |title=Quinoa brings riches to the Andes |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=17 Jan 2013 |location=London |first=Dan |last=Collyns |date=14 January 2013}}</ref> Between 2006 and 2013, quinoa crop prices tripled.<ref name="amrc"/><ref name="The Guardian"/> In 2011, the average price was US $3,115 per tonne with some varieties selling as high as $8,000 per tonne.<ref name="Collyns"/> This compares with [[wheat]] prices of about US $340 per tonne, making wheat about 10% of the value of quinoa. The resulting effect on traditional production regions in Peru and Bolivia also influenced new commercial quinoa production elsewhere in the world, such as the United States.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013"/>{{rp|176}}<ref>{{cite web |author1=Alastair Bland |title=Quinoa Craze Inspires North America To Start Growing Its Own |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2012/11/29/166155875/quinoa-craze-inspires-north-america-to-start-growing-its-own |publisher=NPR |access-date=28 July 2018 |date=29 November 2012}}</ref> By 2013, quinoa was being cultivated in some 70 countries.<ref name=FAO2013/> As a result of expanding production outside the Andean highlands native for quinoa, the price plummeted starting in early 2015 and remained low for years.<ref name="nacla">{{Cite web |title=The Quinoa Boom Goes Bust in the Andes |author=Emma McDonell |url=https://nacla.org/news/2018/03/12/quinoa-boom-goes-bust-andes |access-date=2021-01-14 |publisher=North American Congress on Latin America |date=12 March 2018}}</ref> From 2018 to 2019, quinoa production in Peru declined by 22%.<ref name=faostat/> Some refer to this as the "quinoa bust" because of the devastation the price fall caused for farmers and industry.<ref name=nacla/>

In terms of wider social consequences, research on traditional producers in Bolivia has emphasised a complex picture. The degree to which individual producers benefit from the global quinoa boom depends on its [[mode of production]], for example through producer associations and co-operatives such as the Asociación Nacional de Productores de Quinua (founded in the 1970s), contracting through vertically- integrated private firms, or wage labor.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Andrew |last=Ofstehage |title=The construction of an alternative quinoa economy: balancing solidarity, household needs, and profit in San Agustín, Bolivia |journal=Agriculture and Human Values |date=2012 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=441–454 |doi=10.1007/s10460-012-9371-0 |s2cid=154918412 |url=https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/record/uuid:efbd39e1-0203-4c99-9ef0-7a1c900fd92d}}</ref> State regulation and enforcement may promote a shift to [[Cash crop|cash-cropping]] among some farmers and a shift toward [[Subsistence agriculture|subsistence production]] among others, while enabling many [[urban refugees]] to return to [[working the land]], outcomes with complex and varied social effects.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Tanya M. |last=Kerssen |date=2015 |title=Food sovereignty and the quinoa boom: challenges to sustainable re-peasantisation in the southern Altiplano of Bolivia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=489–507 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2015.1002992 |s2cid=153909114}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/14/quinoa-andes-bolivia-peru-crop |title=Quinoa brings riches to the Andes |author=Dan Collyns |date=14 January 2013 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=5 September 2013}}</ref>

The growth of quinoa consumption outside of its indigenous region has raised concerns over [[food security]] of the original consumers, unsustainably [[intensive farming]] of the crop, expansion of farming into otherwise marginal agricultural lands with concurrent loss of the natural environment, threatening both the sustainability of producer agriculture and the biodiversity of quinoa.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013">{{cite journal |first=Ernest |last=Small |date=2013 |title=Quinoa – is the United Nations' featured crop of 2013 bad for biodiversity? |journal=Biodiversity |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=169–179 |doi=10.1080/14888386.2013.835551 |bibcode=2013Biodi..14..169S |s2cid=128872124}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=S.-E. |last=Jacobsen |title=The Situation for Quinoa and Its Production in Southern Bolivia: From Economic Success to Environmental Disaster |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |volume=197 |issue=5 |date=2011 |pages=390–99 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-037X.2011.00475.x|bibcode=2011JAgCS.197..390J }}</ref><ref name="Alexander Kasterine-2016" />

The [[United Nations General Assembly]] declared 2013 as the "{{visible anchor|International Year of Quinoa}}",<ref name="UN Resolution 66/221. International Year of Quinoa, 2013">{{cite book |url=http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/472/08/PDF/N1147208.pdf?OpenElement |format=PDF |title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly |author=United Nations |year=2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530160211/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/472/08/PDF/N1147208.pdf?OpenElement |archive-date=2013-05-30}}</ref><ref name="International Year of Quinoa, 2013" >{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/quinoa-2013/ |title=International Year of Quinoa |author=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/events/observances/years.shtml |title=International Years |publisher=United Nations |access-date=9 June 2012}}</ref> in recognition of the ancestral practices of the [[Andean]] people, who have preserved it as a food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective was to draw the world’sworld's attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing [[food security]], [[nutrition]] and [[poverty]] eradication in support of achieving [[Millennium Development Goals]]. Some academic commentary emphasized that quinoa production could have ecological and social drawbacks in its native regions, and that these problems needed to be tackled.<ref name="Ernest Small 2013"/>

Quinoa is used in the Jewish community as a substitute for the [[Chametz|leavened grains]] that are forbidden during the [[Passover]] holiday.<ref>{{Cite web |title=04. Prohibited Species – Peninei Halakha |url=https://ph.yhb.org.il/en/04-09-04/ |access-date=2024-04-04 |language=en-US}}</ref> Several [[kosher]] certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of the product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://life.nationalpost.com/2013/03/25/jews-divided-by-great-passover-debate-is-quinoa-kosher/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411105834/http://life.nationalpost.com/2013/03/25/jews-divided-by-great-passover-debate-is-quinoa-kosher/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 11, 2013 |title=Jews divided by great Passover debate: Is quinoa kosher? |author=Hopper, Tristin |date=March 25, 2013 |work=[[National Post]] |access-date=2013-11-24}}</ref> However, in December 2013 the [[Orthodox Union]], the world's largest [[kosher certification agency]], announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.forward.com/the-jew-and-the-carrot/189844/quinoa-ruled-kosher-for-passover/ |author=Nemes, Hody |date=December 23, 2013 |title=Quinoa Ruled Kosher for Passover |publisher=Forward |access-date=2014-02-07 |archive-date=26 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150326000801/http://blogs.forward.com/the-jew-and-the-carrot/189844/quinoa-ruled-kosher-for-passover/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

*The first occurred when the species was created, as its two [[diploid]] ancestors underwent a hybridization followed by chromosome doubling, this new species was genetically isolated from its parent species, and thus lost a great deal of genetic diversity. These ancestors are still not known, but are ''not'' the higher altitude crop species ''[[Chenopodium pallidicaule]]'' (cañahua), a diploid.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The genome of ''Chenopodium pallidicaule'': An emerging Andean super grain |year=2019 |last1=Mangelson |first1=Hayley |last2=Jarvis |first2=David E. |last3=Mollinedo |first3=Patricia |last4=Rollano‐PenalozaRollano-Penaloza |first4=Oscar M. |last5=Palma‐EncinasPalma-Encinas |first5=Valeria D. |last6=Gomez‐PandoGomez-Pando |first6=Luz Rayda |last7=Jellen |first7=Eric N. |last8=Maughan |first8=Peter J. |journal=Applications in Plant Sciences |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=e11300 |doi=10.1002/aps3.11300 |pmid=31832282 |pmc=6858295 }}</ref>

In Chile it had almost disappeared by the early 1940s; as of 2015 the crop is mostly grown in three areas by only some 300 smallholder farmers. Each of these areas is different: indigenous small-scale growers near the border with Bolivia who grow many types of Bolivian forms using the Inca ''[[ayllu]]'' clan{{fact|date=October 2022}} system, a few farmers in the central region who exclusively grow a white-seeded variety and generally market their crops through a well-known cooperative, and in the south by women in home gardens in [[Mapuche]] reserves.<ref name=Bazile2014/>

*{{cite journal |last1=Pulvento |first1=C |last2=Riccardi |first2=M |last3=Lavini |first3=A |last4=d'Andria |first4=R |last5=Iafelice |first5=G |last6=Marconi |first6=E |title=Field trial evaluation of two ''Chenopodium quinoa'' genotypes grown under rain-fed conditions in a typical Mediterranean environment in south Italy |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |volume=196 |issue=6 |pages=407–411 |year=2010 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-037X.2010.00431.x|bibcode=2010JAgCS.196..407P }}

*{{cite journal |last1=Pulvento |first1=C. |last2=Riccardi |first2=M. |last3=Lavini |first3=A. |last4=Iafelice |first4=G. |last5=Marconi |first5=E. |last6=d’Andria |first6=R. |year=2012 |title=Yield and quality characteristics of quinoa grown in open field under different saline and non-saline irrigation regimes |journal=Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science |volume=198 |issue=4 |pages=254–263 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-037X.2012.00509.x|bibcode=2012JAgCS.198..254P }}

[[Category:ChenopodiumQuinoa|*]]

[[Category:Crops originating from indigenous AmericansChenopodium|+]]