STEREO: Difference between revisions

| COSPAR_ID = STEREO-A: {{cospar|2006-047A}} <br /> STEREO-B: {{cospar|2006-047B}}n

* STEREO-B final: {{time interval|26 October 2006 00:52|2326 September 2016|show=ymd|sep=,}}

The two STEREO spacecraft were launched at 00:52&nbsp;UTC on October 26, 2006, from Launch Pad 17B at the [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station]] in Florida on a [[Delta II]] 7925-10L launcher into highly [[ellipse|elliptical]] [[geocentric orbit]]s. The [[Apsis|apogee]] reached the Moon's orbit. On December 15, 2006, on the fifth orbit, the pair swung by the Moon for a [[gravity assist]]. Because the two spacecraft were in slightly different orbits, the "ahead" (A) spacecraft was ejected to a [[heliocentric orbit]] inside Earth's orbit, while the "behind" (B) spacecraft remained temporarily in a high Earth orbit. The B spacecraft encountered the Moon again on the same orbital revolution on January 21, 2007, being ejected from Earth orbit in the opposite direction from spacecraft A. Spacecraft B entered a heliocentric orbit outside the Earth's orbit. Spacecraft A will taketook 347 days to complete one revolution of the Sun and Spacecraft B will taketook 387 days. The A&nbsp;spacecraft/Sun/Earth angle will increase at 21.650° per year. The B&nbsp;spacecraft/Sun/Earth angle will change −21.999° per year. Given that the length of Earth's orbit is around 940 million kilometres, both craft have an average speed, in a rotating geocentric frame of reference in which the Sun is always in the same direction, of about 1.8&nbsp;km/s, but the speed varies considerably depending on how close they are to their respective aphelion or perihelion (as well as on the position of Earth). Their current locations are shown [http://stereo.gsfc.nasa.gov/where.shtml here].

Over time, the STEREO spacecraft will continuecontinued to separate from each other at a combined rate of approximately 44° per year. There arewere no ''final'' positions for the spacecraft. They achieved 90° separation on January 24, 2009, a condition known as [[quadrature (astronomy)|quadrature]]. This iswas of interest because the mass ejections seen from the side on the limb by one spacecraft can potentially be observed by the ''in situ'' particle experiments of the other spacecraft. As they passed through Earth's [[Lagrangian point]]s {{L4}} and {{L5}}, in late 2009, they searched for [[Trojan (celestial body)|Lagrangian (trojan) asteroids]]. On February 6, 2011, the two spacecraft were exactly 180° apart from each other, allowing the entire Sun to be seen at once for the first time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/stereo/news/entire-sun.html |title=First Ever STEREO Images of the Entire Sun |publisher=NASA |editor-first=Holly |editor-last=Zell |date=February 6, 2011 |access-date=February 8, 2011 |archive-date=January 20, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120215904/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/stereo/news/entire-sun.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Even as the angle increases, the addition of an Earth-based view, e.g., from the [[Solar Dynamics Observatory]], will still provideprovided full-Sun observations for several years. In 2015, contact was lost for several months when the STEREO spacecraft passed behind the Sun. They will then startstarted to approach Earth again, with closest approach sometime in August 2023. They will not be recaptured into Earth orbit.<ref name="nasa20151211">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/saving-nasas-stereo-b-the-189-million-mile-road-to-recovery |title=Saving STEREO-B: The 189-million-mile Road to Recovery |publisher=NASA |last=Sarah |first=Frazier |date=December 11, 2015}}</ref>

After a silence of 22 months, contact was regained at 22:27&nbsp;UTC on August 21, 2016, when the Deep Space Network established a lock on STEREO-B for 2.4&nbsp;hours.<ref name="nasa20160822">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/nasa-establishes-contact-with-stereo-mission |title=NASA Reestablishes Contact with STEREO Mission |publisher=NASA |last=Fox |first=Karen C. |date=August 22, 2016 |accessdateaccess-date=August 22, 2016}}</ref><ref name="stereonews20161023">{{cite web |url=http://stereo-ssc.nascom.nasa.gov/new.shtml |title=What's New |work=STEREO Science Center |publisher=NASA |date=October 11, 2016 |archiveurlarchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023133257/https://stereodata.nascom.nasa.gov/new.shtml |archivedatearchive-date=October 23, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |url=https://amostech.com/TechnicalPapers/2017/Poster/Geldzahler.pdf |title=A Phased Array of Widely Separated Antennas for Space Communication and Planetary Radar |conference=Advanced Maui Optical and Space Surveillance Technologies Conference. September 19–22, 2017. Wailea, Maui, Hawaii. |first1=Barry |last1=Geldzahler |first2=Chris |last2=Bershad |first3=Robert |last3=Brown |first4=Rachel |last4=Cox |first5=Richard |last5=Hoblitzell |first6=John |last6=Kiriazes |first7=Bruce |last7=Ledford |first8=Michael |last8=Miller |first9=Gary |last9=Woods |first10=Timothy |last10=Cornish |first11=Larry |last11=D'Addario |first12=Faramaz |last12=Davarian |first13=Dennis |last13=Lee |first14=David |last14=Morabito |first15=Philip |last15=Tsao |first16=Jason |last16=Soloff |first17=Ken |last17=Church |first18=Paul |last18=Deffenbaugh |first19=Keith |last19=Abernethy |first20=William |last20=Anderson |first21=John |last21=Collier |first22=Greg |last22=Wellen |display-authors=1 |pages=13–14 |date=2017 |bibcode=2017amos.confE..82G}}</ref>

Engineers planned to work and develop software to fix the spacecraft, but once its computer was powered up, there would only have been about 2&nbsp;minutes to upload the fix before STEREO-B entered failure mode again.<ref name="businside20160823">{{cite news |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/stereo-b-spacecraft-rescue-mission-2016-8 |title=NASA may have less than 2 minutes to rescue its long-lost spacecraft |work=Business Insider |first=Dave |last=Mosher |date=August 23, 2016 |accessdateaccess-date=August 24, 2016}}</ref> Further, while the spacecraft was power-positive at the time of contact, its orientation would drift, and power levels fall. Two-way communication was achieved, and commands to begin recovering the spacecraft were sent through the rest of August and September.<ref name="stereonews20161023" />

Six attempts at communication between September 27 and October 9, 2016, failed, and a carrier wave was not detected after September 23. Engineers determined that during an attempt to despin the spacecraft, a frozen thruster fuel valve probably led to the spin increasing rather than decreasing.<ref name="stereonews20161023" /> As STEREO-B moved along its orbit, it was hoped that its solar panels may again generate enough power to charge the battery.

Four years after the initial loss of contact, NASA terminated periodic recovery operations effective October 17, 2018.<ref name="stereo20181023">{{cite web |url=https://stereo-ssc.nascom.nasa.gov/behind_status.shtml |title=STEREO-B Status Update |publisher=NASA/STEREO Science Center |editor-first=Therese A. |editor-last=Kucera |date=October 23, 2018 |accessdateaccess-date=February 26, 2019}}</ref>

The principal benefit of the mission iswas [[stereoscopic]] images of the Sun. In other words, becauseBecause the satellites are at different points along the Earth's orbit, but distant from the Earth, they can photograph parts of the Sun that are not visible from the Earth. This permits NASA scientists to directly monitor the far side of the Sun, instead of inferring the activity on the far side from data that can be gleaned from Earth's view of the Sun. The STEREO satellites principally monitor the far side for [[coronal mass ejection]]s&nbsp;— massive bursts of [[solar wind]], solar [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]], and magnetic fields that are sometimes ejected into space.<ref name=CBC>{{cite news |url=httphttps://www.cbc.ca/technology/story/2011/02/07news/science-/sun-nasabares-all-for-twin-space-probes-stereo1.html1073054 |title=Sun bares all for twin space probes |work=CBC News |date=February 7, 2011 |accessdateaccess-date=February 8, 2011}}</ref>

Since the radiation from coronal mass ejections, or CMEs, can disrupt Earth's communications, airlines, power grids, and satellites, more accurate forecasting of CMEs has the potential to provide greater warning to operators of these services.<ref name=CBC /> Before STEREO, the detection of the [[sunspot]]s that are associated with CMEs on the far side of the Sun was only possible using [[helioseismology]], which only provides low-resolution maps of the activity on the far side of the Sun. Since the Sun rotates every 25&nbsp;days, detail on the far side was invisible to Earth for days at a time before STEREO. The period that the Sun's far side was previously invisible was a principal reason for the STEREO mission.<ref>{{cite newsmagazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2046569,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209073113/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2046569,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 9, 2011 |title=NASA Images the Entire Sun, Far Side and All |workmagazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |last=Lemonick |first=Michael |date=February 6, 2011 |accessdateaccess-date=February 8, 2011}}</ref>

STEREO program scientist [[Madhulika Guhathakurta]] expectsexpected "great advances" in theoretical [[solar physics]] and space weather forecasting with the advent of constant 360° views of the Sun.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/ondeadline/post/2011/02/sun-shines-in-twin-probes-first-360-degree-images/1 |title=Sun shines in twin probes' first 360-degree images |work=USA Today |last=Winter |first=Michael |date=February 7, 2011 |accessdateaccess-date=February 8, 2011}}</ref> STEREO's observations are already being incorporated into forecasts of solar activity for airlines, power companies, satellite operators, and others.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12365083 |title=Stereo satellites move either side of Sun |work=BBC News |date=February 6, 2011 |accessdateaccess-date=February 8, 2011}}</ref>

STEREO has also been used to discover 122 [[eclipsing binaries]] and study hundreds more [[variable star]]s.<ref name="variable">{{cite news |url=http://www.astronomy.com/news-observing/news/2011/04/stereo%20turns%20its%20steady%20gaze%20on%20variable%20stars |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531213218/http://www.astronomy.com/news-observing/news/2011/04/stereo%20turns%20its%20steady%20gaze%20on%20variable%20stars |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 31, 2014 |title=STEREO turns its steady gaze on variable stars |work=[[Astronomy (magazine)|Astronomy]] |agency=Royal Astronomical Society |date=April 19, 2011 |accessdateaccess-date=April 19, 2011 }}</ref> STEREO can look at the same star for up to 20 days.<ref name="variable"/>

On July 23, 2012, STEREO-A was in the path of the CME of the [[solar storm of 2012]]. This CME, whichif wasit similarwere into collide with Earth's magnetosphere, is estimated to have caused a geomagnetic storm of similar strength to the [[Carrington Event]], the most intense geomagnetic storm in recorded history.<ref name="July2012CME">{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2014/23jul_superstorm/ |title=Near Miss: The Solar Superstorm of July 2012 |publisher=NASA |date=July 23, 2014 |accessdateaccess-date=July 24, 2014}}</ref> ItsSTEREO-A's instrumentation was able to collect and relay a significant amount of data about the event. STEREO-Awithout was notbeing harmed by the solar storm.

[[File:Stereo mission.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Instrument locations on STEREO]]

* '''Sun Earth Connection Coronal and Heliospheric Investigation (SECCHI)''' has five cameras: an extreme ultraviolet imager (EUVI) and two white-light [[coronagraph]]s (COR1 and COR2). These three telescopes are collectively known as the Sun Centered Instrument Package or SCIP,. andThey image the solar disk and the inner and outer [[solar corona|corona]]. Two additional telescopes, [[heliospheric imager]]s (called the HI1 and HI2), image the space between Sun and Earth. The purpose of SECCHI is to study the 3-D evolution of [[coronal mass ejection]]s through their full journey from the Sun's surface through the corona and interplanetary medium to their impact at Earth.<ref name=inst>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/stereo/spacecraft/index.html |title=STEREO Spacecraft & Instruments |publisher=NASA |date=March 8, 2006 |accessdateaccess-date=May 30, 2006 |archive-date=May 23, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523040216/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/stereo/spacecraft/index.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Sun Earth Connection Coronal and Heliospheric Investigation (SECCHI) |journal=Advances in Space Research |first1=R. A. |last1=Howard |first2=J. D. |last2=Moses |first3=D. G. |last3=Socker |first4=K. P. |last4=Dere |first5=J. W. |last5=Cook |volume=29 |issue=12 |pages=2017–2026 |date=June 2002 |doi=10.1016/S0273-1177(02)00147-3 |bibcode=2002AdSpR..29.2017H |hdl=2268/21196 |url=http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/21196 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The principal investigator for SECCHI was Russell Howard.

* '''In-situ Measurements of Particles and CME Transients (IMPACT)''', willto study [[solar energetic particles|energetic particles]], the three-dimensional distribution of solar -wind electrons and interplanetary magnetic field.<ref name=inst /><ref>{{cite journal |title=IMPACT: Science goals and firsts with STEREO |journal=Advances in Space Research |first1=J. G. |last1=Luhmann |first2=D. W. |last2=Curtis |first3=R. P. |last3=Lin |first4=D. |last4=Larson |first5=P. |last5=Schroeder |display-authors=etal |volume=36 |issue=8 |pages=1534–1543 |date=2005 |doi=10.1016/j.asr.2005.03.033 |bibcode=2005AdSpR..36.1534L}}</ref> [[Janet Luhmann]] was the principal investigator for IMPACT.

* '''PLAsma and SupraThermal Ion Composition (PLASTIC)''', led by [[Antoinette Galvin]], willto study the plasma characteristics of [[proton]]s, [[alpha particle]]s and [[heavy ion]]s.<ref name=inst />

* '''STEREO/WAVES (SWAVES)''' is a radio -burst tracker that willto study radio disturbances traveling from the Sun to the orbit of Earth.<ref name=inst /> Jean Louis Bougeret was principal investigator for SWAVES, with co-investigator Michael Kaiser.

Each STEREO spacecraft had a [[dry mass]] of {{convert|547|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and a launch mass of {{convert|1364|lb|kg|abbr=on|order=flip}}. In their stowed configuration, each had a length, width and height of {{convert|6.67|xx|4.00|xx|3.75|ft|m|1|abbr=on|order=flip}}. Upon solar -array deployment, its width increased to {{convert|21.24|ft|m|1|abbr=on|order=flip}}.<ref name="gsfc-stereo1">{{cite web |url=http://stereo.gsfc.nasa.gov/spacecraft.shtml |title=STEREO Spacecraft |publisher=NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center |editor-first=Joseph B. |editor-last=Gurman |date=2007 |accessdateaccess-date=August 22, 2016}}</ref><ref name="gsfc-stereo2">{{cite web |url=http://stereo.gsfc.nasa.gov/img/mpb.pdf |title=STEREO - Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory |publisher=NASA |date=2005 |accessdateaccess-date=August 22, 2016 |id=NP-2005-8-712-GSFC}}</ref> With all of its instrument booms and antennae deployed, its dimensions are {{convert|24.5|xx|28.6|xx|19.2|ft|m|1|abbr=on|order=flip}}.<ref name="jhuapl-stereo1">{{cite web |url=http://stereo.jhuapl.edu/observatories/overview/character.php |title=STEREO -– Characteristics |publisher=[[Applied Physics Laboratory]] |editor-first=Kerri |editor-last=Beisser |accessdateaccess-date=August 22, 2016}}</ref> The solar panels can produce an average of 596 &nbsp;watts of power, and the spacecraft consumes an average of 475 &nbsp;watts.<ref name="gsfc-stereo1" /><ref name="gsfc-stereo2" />

The STEREO spacecraft are 3-axis -stabilized, and each has a primary and backup [[miniature inertial measurement unit]] (MIMU) provided by [[Honeywell]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.honeywell.com/en/aerospace/announcement_details.jsp?rowID=115&docID=3995&catID=2 |title=Honeywell To Provide Miniature Inertial Measurement Units For STEREO Spacecraft |publisher=Honeywell International |accessdateaccess-date=October 25, 2006 |archiveurlarchive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051125023147/http://www.honeywell.com/en/aerospace/announcement_details.jsp?rowID=115&docID=3995&catID=2 |archivedatearchive-date=November 25, 2005}}</ref> These measure changes to a spacecraft's attitude, and each MIMU contains three [[ring laser gyroscope]]s to detect angular changes. Additional attitude information is provided by the [[star tracker]] and the SECCHI Guide Telescope.<ref name="Driesman2008">{{cite journal |title=The STEREO Observatory |journal=Space Science Reviews |first1=Andrew |last1=Driesman |first2=Shane |last2=Hynes |first3=George |last3=Cancro |volume=136 |issue=1 |pages=17–44 |date=April 2008 |doi=10.1007/s11214-007-9286-z |bibcode=2008SSRv..136...17D|s2cid=123239123 }}</ref>

STEREO's onboard computer systems are based on the Integrated Electronics Module (IEM), a device that combines core [[avionics]] in a single box. Each single-string spacecraft carries two CPUs, one for command- and- data handling and one for guidance and control. Both are [[radiation -hardened]] 25&nbsp;-[[megahertz]] [[IBM RAD6000]] processors, based on [[POWER1]] CPUs (predecessor of the PowerPC chip found in older [[Macintosh]]es). The computers, slow by current [[personal computer]] standards, are typical for the radiation requirements needed on the STEREO mission.

STEREO also carries Actel [[FPGA]]s that use [[triple modular redundancy]] for radiation hardening. The FPGAs hold the [[minimal instruction set computer|P24 MISC]] and CPU24 [[soft microprocessor]]s.<ref name="Mewaldt2008">{{cite journal |url=ftp://mussel.srl.caltech.edu/pub/stereo/docs/LET-paper-full.pdf |title=The Low-Energy Telescope (LET) and SEP Central Electronics for the STEREO Mission |journal=Space Science Reviews |first1=R. A. |last1=Mewaldt |first2=C. M. S. |last2=Cohen |first3=W. R. |last3=Cook |first4=A. C. |last4=Cummings |first5=A. J. |last5=Davis |display-authors=etal |volume=136 |issue=1 |pages=285–362 |date=April 2008 |doi=10.1007/s11214-007-9288-x |bibcode=2008SSRv..136..285M |citeseerx=10.1.1.459.4982|s2cid=21286304 }}</ref>

For data storage, each spacecraft carries a [[solid-state drive|solid -state]] recorder able to store up to one1&nbsp;[[gigabyte]] each. Its main processor collects and stores on the recorder images and other data from STEREO's instruments, which can then be sent back to Earth. The spacecraft have an [[X-band]] downlink capacity of between 427 and 750&nbsp;[[kilobit per second|kbpskbit/s]].<ref name="gsfc-stereo1" /><ref name="gsfc-stereo2" />

<gallery widths="160" heights="160">

File:Moon transit of sun large.ogg|A [[Astronomical transit|lunar transit]] of the Sun captured during calibration of STEREO-B's ultraviolet imaging cameras. The Moon appears much smaller than it does from Earth, because the spacecraft-Moonspacecraft–Moon separation was several times greater than the Earth-MoonEarth–Moon distance. <br /> February 25, 2007

File:174719main LEFTREDSouthPole304.jpg|The Sun's South Pole. Material can be seen erupting offfrom the Sun in the lower right side of the image. <br /> March 2007

File:STEREO EUV Feb10 rotating.gif|Nearly the entire surface of the Sun, taken in [[extreme ultraviolet]] at 19.5&nbsp;nm, with white lines showing solar coordinates (0&nbsp;degrees° is directly towards Earth) <br /> February 10, 2011

* [[Advanced Composition Explorer]] (ACE), launched 1997, still operational {{as of|2020|2|lc=y}} 2024.

* [[Living With a Star]] (NASA program), still ongoing {{as of|2020|22024|lc=y}}

* [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory]] (SOHO), launched 1995, still observational {{as of|2020|22024|lc=y}}.

* [[Solar Orbiter]] (SOLOSolO), set to launch inlaunched February 2020.

* ''[[Ulysses (spacecraft)|Ulysses]]'', spacecraft launched in 1990.

* ''[[Wind (spacecraft)|Wind]]'', spacecraft launched 1994, still operational {{as of|2020|22024|lc=y}}.

** [http://secchi.nrl.navy.mil/ SECCHI website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217101119/http://secchi.nrl.navy.mil/ |date=February 17, 2011 }} by the [[Naval Research Laboratory]]

** [http://sungrazer.nrl.navy.mil/index.php?p=news/secchi_5yrs STEREO/SECCHI Comets: The First 5 Years] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401090124/http://sungrazer.nrl.navy.mil/index.php?p=news/secchi_5yrs |date=April 1, 2012 }} by the Sungrazer Project