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{{Short description|Al-Andalusian rebel political and military leader (c. 850 – 917)}}
[[Image:Bobastro ruinas.jpg|thumb|300px|Ruins of the Bobastro Church.]]
'''`Umar ibn Hafsun ibn Ja'far ibn Salim''' (Arabic: '''{{lang-ar|عمر بن حَفْصُون بن جعفرجَعْفَ بن سالم'''}}) (c. 850 – 917), known in Spanish history as '''Omar ben Hafsun''', was a 9th-century rebelpolitical againstand military leader who contested [[CaliphateEmirate of Córdoba#The |Umayyad Dynasty|Ummayad]] power in southern [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]].
 
==Ancestry==
The background of Umar ibnIbn Hafsun has been the subject of conflicting claims. HisA contemporary, the poet, [[ibnIbn Abd Rabbih]] (860-940), referred to him as a ''Sawada'', a descendant of black Africans.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Antonio Olliz-Boyd|author2=Gabriel Asoanab Abudu|chapter=Afro-Iberian identity in the Early Literature of Spain: Precursors of the Afro hispanic Identity|title=Imagination, Emplems, and Expressions: Essays on Latin American, Caribbean and Continental Culture and Identity|editor=Helen Ryan-Ransom|publisher=Bowling Green University Popular Press|year=1993|pages=283-300 at 290-291}}</ref> Writing a century later, [[ibnIbn Hayyan]] recorded a pedigree for UmarIbn ibnHafsun Hafsun,by tracing his descent to a great-grandfather, Ja'far ibn Salim, who had converted to [[Islam]] and settled in the [[Ronda]] area of the [[Province of Málaga]] in southern Spain. The pedigree then traces back several additional generations to one Count Marcellus (or perhaps Frugelo), son of Alfonso, apparently a Christian [[Visigoths|Visigoth]]. This pedigree was copied by later historians, including [[Ibn Idhari]], Ibn Khatib, and [[ibnIbn Khaldun]], as well as the ''A'lam Malaga'' (''History of Malaga'') begun by ibnIbn 'Askar and completed by Ibn Khamis, and more recent authors such as [[Reinhart Dozy]], in his ''Histoire des Mussulmans d'Espagne'' (''History of the Muslims of Spain'').<ref>Ryan-Ranson, p. 291; Wasserstein, pp. 272-274; Christys, ''Christians in Al-Andalus'', pp. 102.</ref> However, historian David J. Wasserstein recentlyhas concluded that the pre-conversion portion of this pedigree was probably invented by Umar himself. José Antonio Conde in 1820 indicated that Umar ibnIbn Hafsun was "a man of pagan origin, of obscure and unknown ancestry."<ref>''Un hombre de orígen pagano, de oscura y desconocida prosapia, llamado Omar ben Hafs'', José Antonio Conde, ''Historia de la dominación de los Arabes en España'', Madrid: Garcia, 1820, p. 295</ref> Regardless, there is evidence his family owned lands in [[Iznate]], Málaga, where ibn Hafsunhe grew up.<ref name="Houtsma">Houtsma, M. Th. ''et al.'' (eds.) (1913-1936) ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', pp. 981-982</ref>
 
==Life==
Ibn Hafsun was born around 850 in the mountains near [[Parauta]], in what is now Málaga. AIn his wild youth, he had a very violent temper and was involved in a number of disputes, evenincluding a homicide around the year 879. He joined a group of brigands, and was captured by the [[vali (governor)|waliVali]] (governor) of Málaga, who merely imposed a fine (havingsince he had not been informed of the homicide). The governor subsequently lost his post. Ibn Hafsun fled the jurisdiction to Morocco<ref>{{cite book|last=Safran|first=Janina M.|authorlink=Janina M. Safran|title=The Second Umayyad Caliphate: The Articulation of Caliphal Legitimacy in Al-Andalus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2n-TErluCqQC&pg=PA114|year=2000|publisher=Harvard CMES|isbn=978-0-932885-24-1|page=114}}</ref> where he worked briefly as an apprentice tailor<ref>Chejne, Anwar G., ''Muslim Spain, Its History and Culture'', University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1974, p. 24</ref> or stonemason.{{Citation needed|date=July 2008}}
 
He soon returned to [[al-Andalus]], albeit as an outlaw, and joined the bandits who were in rebellion against theAndalusian caliphate,rule wherein heand soon rose to a leadership position.<ref>Some sources suggest that he received significant help from his uncle Mohadir. [http://www.andalucia.cc/adn/0198per.htm "Omar Ben Hafsun"]</ref> Originally he settled in the ruins of the old castle of [[Bobastro]] ({{lang-ar|بُبَشْتَر}} ''bubastar'').<ref>The exact site of Bobastro is debated by modern archaeologists, although the claim has been made that it is Las Mesas de Villaverde, in the Sierra de la Pizarra mountain range near [[Ronda]] in the northern part of the province of Malaga (Ann Christys, ''Christians in al-Andalus'', p. 103).</ref> He rebuilt the castle, and fortified the nearby town of [[Ardales]]. He rallied disaffected muwallads[[Muwallad]]s and [[mozarabsMozarabs]] to the cause, by playing off resentment attowards the unfair, heavy taxation and the humiliating treatment they were receiving at the hands of [[CaliphateEmirate of Córdoba#The Umayyad Dynasty|Abd ar-Rahman and his successors]].<ref>Ye'or, Bat; Kochan, Miriam and Littman, David (2002) ''Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide'' Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Madison, NJ, p. 63 {{ISBN|0-8386-3942-9}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=December 2022}} He acquired castles and lands in a wide area, not only in Malaga, but includingalso in portions of the provincesProvinces of [[Province of Cádiz|Cádiz]], [[Province of Granada|Granada]] (known then as "Elvira"), [[Province of Jaén (Spain)|Jaén]], and [[Province of Seville|Seville]]. By 883 he had become the leader of the rebels in the provinces to the south and west of the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]]. The year before, in 882, he is said to have fought the Emir in a battle in which ally [[García Íñiguez of Pamplona]] was killed. About 885, in order to be more centrally located and quicker to respond to external threats, ibn Hafsun moved his headquarters to the town of Poley, which is now known as [[Aguilar de la Frontera]].
 
By 883, he had become the leader of the rebels in the provinces to the south and the west of the [[Emirate of Córdoba]]. The year before, in 882, he is said to have fought the Emir in a battle in which his ally, [[García Íñiguez of Pamplona]], was killed. Around 885, to be more centrally located so that he could more quickly respond to external threats, Ibn Hafsun moved his headquarters to the town of Poley, which is now [[Aguilar de la Frontera]].
After ibn Hafsun’s defeat by the forces of [[Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi]] at the battle of Poley in 891, he moved his headquarters back to Bobastro. In 898, Lubb ibn Muhammad, of the [[Banu Qasi]], was marching an army to support Umar when the death of his father at [[Zaragoza]] forced Lubb to abandon the campaign. In 899, Ibn Hafsun renounced Islam and became a Christian, being christened as Samuel.<ref name="Houtsma"/> His motivations seems to have been opportunistic,<ref>Lévi-Provençal, ''Histoire de l'Espagne Musulmane'', Paris, 1950, vol. 1, p. 377, speaks of his "instability of character and opportunistic tendencies", while Wasserstein, p. 293, suggests his actions speak of "hasty opportunism, if not, necessarily, of instability". According to the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'', his conversion to Christianity is "far from being historically proved" and that he never sought to ally himself with the Christian north.</ref> hoping to obtain military support from [[Alfonso III of Asturias]], who had met with indifference overtures by ibn Hafsun on behalf of [[ibn Marwan]]. His conversion proved a major political mistake which although helping to attract significant Mozarab support, cost him the support of most of his Mullawad followers. He also built the ''Iglesia Mozárabe'' ("Mozarab Church") at the Bobastro.▼
 
▲After ibnIbn Hafsun’s defeat by the forces of [[Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi]] at the battleBattle of Poley in 891, he moved his headquarters back to Bobastro. In 898, Lubb ibn Muhammad, of the [[Banu Qasi]], was marching an army to support Umar when the death of his father at [[Zaragoza]] forced Lubb to abandon the campaign. In 899, Ibn Hafsun renounced Islam and becameconverted ato Christian,Christianity. beingHe was christenedbaptised as Samuel.<ref name="Houtsma"/> His motivations seems to have been opportunistic in the hope of obtaining military support from [[Alfonso III of Asturias]], who had met with indifference overtures by Ibn Hafsun on behalf of [[Ibn Marwan]]. The conversion attracted him significant Mozarab support but cost him the support of most of his Mullawad followers.<ref>Lévi-Provençal, ''Histoire de l'Espagne Musulmane'', Paris, 1950, vol. 1, p. 377, speaks of his "instability of character and opportunistic tendencies", whileand Wasserstein, p. 293, suggests his actions speak of "hasty opportunism, if not, necessarily, of instability". According to the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'', his conversion to Christianity is "far from being historically proved" and that he never sought to ally himself with the Christian north.</ref> hoping to obtain military support from [[Alfonso III of Asturias]], who had met with indifference overtures by ibn Hafsun on behalf of [[ibn Marwan]]. His conversion proved a major political mistake which although helping to attract significant Mozarab support, cost him the support of most of his Mullawad followers. He also built the ''Iglesia Mozárabe'' ("Mozarab Church") at the Bobastro.
Ibn Hafsun remained a serious threat to Córdoba, even though in 910 he offered allegiance to the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid rulers]] of north Africa,<ref>Wasserstein, p. 293</ref> and when [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] became Emir of Cordoba in 912 he instigated a policy of annual Spring offensives against ibn Hafsun, using mercenary troops. In 913 they captured the city of [[Seville]], and by the end of 914 had captured 70 of ibn Hafsun’s castles. In 916, he joined forces with the Umayyads in a campaign against northern Christian kingdoms, the reasons for this are obscure, as is whether it was done in contrition<ref name="Houtsma"/> or merely as an expedient compromise. For a while, even taxes were paid to the Umayyads.<ref name="Houtsma"/>▼
 
▲Ibn Hafsun remainedcontinued to be a serious threat to Córdoba,. even though inIn 910, he offered allegiance to the newly established [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid rulers]] of northNorth Africa,<ref>Wasserstein, p. 293</ref> and when [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]] became Emir of Cordoba in 912, he instigated a policy of annual Springspring offensives against ibnIbn Hafsun, by using mercenary troops. In 913 theyRahman captured the city of [[Seville]], and by the end of 914, had captured 70 of ibnIbn Hafsun’s castles. In 916, he joined forces with the Umayyads in a campaign against northern Christian kingdoms, the reasons for this are obscure,an as isof whetheryet itunknown wasreason, donewhether in contrition<ref name="Houtsma"/> or merely as an expedient compromise.<ref name="Houtsma" /> For a while, even taxes were paid to the Umayyads.<ref name="Houtsma"/>
Ibn Hafsun died in 917 and was buried in the ''Iglesia Mozarabe''. His coalition then crumbled, and while his sons Ja'far, 'Abd-ar-Rahman and Hafs tried to continue the resistance, they eventually fell to 'Abd-ar-Rahman III's plots and armies. The last, Hafs, surrendered Bobastro in 928 and afterward fought with the Umayyad army in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]].<ref name="Houtsma"/> With Bobastro's fall, the mortal remains of ibn Hafsun and his slain sons were exhumed by the emir and posthumously crucified outside the [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba]].<ref name="Bobastro2">{{cite book|last1=Noble|first1=John|last2=Forsyth|first2=Susan|last3=Maric|first3=Vesna|title=Andalucia. Ediz. Inglese|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ncWULEubPQC&pg=PA288%2CM1|year=2007|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications|isbn=978-1-74059-973-3|page=288}}</ref>▼
 
▲Ibn Hafsun died in 917 and was buried in the ''Iglesia Mozarabe''. His coalition then crumbled, and; while his sons Ja'far, 'Abd-ar-Rahman and Hafs tried to continue the resistance, they eventually fell to 'Abd-ar-Rahman III's plots and armies. The last, Hafs, surrendered Bobastro in 928 and afterward fought with the Umayyad army in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]].<ref name="Houtsma"/> With Bobastro's fall, the mortal remains of ibnIbn Hafsun and his slain sons were exhumed by the emir and posthumously crucified outside the [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba]].<ref name="Bobastro2">{{cite book|last1=Noble|first1=John|last2=Forsyth|first2=Susan|last3=Maric|first3=Vesna|title=Andalucia. Ediz. Inglese|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ncWULEubPQC&pg=PA288%2CM1|year=2007|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications|isbn=978-1-74059-973-3|page=288}}</ref>
 
==Notes==
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Umar ibn Hafsun}}
[[Category:People offrom the Emirate of Córdoba]]
[[Category:850 births]]
[[Category:917 deaths]]
[[Category:Converts to Christianity from Islam]]
[[Category:MozarabicChristians peoplefrom al-Andalus]]
[[Category:Mozarabic art|Bobastro Church]]
[[Category:People from the Province of Málaga]]
[[Category:Spanish former Muslims]]
[[Category:Al-ÁndalusAndalus military personnel]]
[[Category:Rebels of the medieval Islamic world]]
[[Category:Muwallads]]
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