Victorian era: Difference between revisions

==Knowledge and infrastructure ==

The professionalisation of scientific study began in parts of Europe following the [[French Revolution]] but was slow to reach Britain. [[William Whewell]] coined the term 'scientist' in 1833 to refer to those who studied what was generally then known as natural philosophy, but it took a while to catch on. Having been previously dominated by amateurs with a separate income, the [[Royal Society]] admitted only professionals from 1847 onwards.<ref name=":4" /> The British biologist [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] indicated in 1852 that it remained difficult to earn a living as a scientist alone.<ref name="Lewis-200732"/> Scientific knowledge and debates such as that about [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' (1859), which sought to explain biological evolution by natural selection, gained a high profile in the public consciousness. Simplified (and at times inaccurate) [[popular science]] was increasingly distributed through a variety of publications which caused tension with the professionals.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Yeo |first=Richard R. |title=Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=9780415669726 |editor-last=Mitchell |editor-first=Sally |pages=694–696 |chapter=Science}}</ref> There were significant advances in various fields of research, including [[statistics]],<ref name="Katz-2009a">{{Cite book |last=Katz |first=Victor |title=A History of Mathematics: An Introduction |publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-321-38700-4 |pages=824–830 |chapter=Chapter 23: Probability and Statistics in the Nineteenth Century}}</ref> [[Elasticity (physics)|elasticity]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kline |first=Morris |title=Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1972 |isbn=0-19-506136-5 |location=United States of America |pages=696–7 |chapter=28.7: Systems of Partial Differential Equations}}</ref> [[refrigeration]],<ref name="Lewis-2007-1">{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Christoper |title=Heat and Thermodynamics: A Historical Perspective |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-313-33332-3 |location=United States of America |chapter=Chapter 7: Black Bodies, Free Energy, and Absolute Zero}}</ref> [[natural history]],<ref name="Lewis-200732"/> [[electromagnetism]],<ref name="Baigrie-2007a">{{Cite book |last=Baigrie |first=Brian |title=Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-313-33358-3 |location=United States of America |chapter=Chapter 8: Forces and Fields}}</ref> and [[logic]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Katz |first=Victor |title=A History of Mathematics: An Introduction |publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-321-38700-4 |pages=738–9 |chapter=21.3: Symbolic Algebra}}</ref>
===Industry===
[[File:Victorian Railways F Class.jpg|thumb|Crew stood with a railway engine (1873)]]Known as the 'workshop of the world', Britain was uniquely advanced in technology in the mid-19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buchanan |first=R. A. |title=Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=9780415669726 |editor-last=Mitchell |editor-first=Sally |pages=784–787 |chapter=Technology and invention}}</ref> Engineering, having developed into a profession in the 18th century, gained new profile and prestige in this period.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buchanan |first=R. A. |title=Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=9780415669726 |editor-last=Mitchell |editor-first=Sally |pages=265–267 |chapter=Engineering}}</ref> The Victorian era saw methods of communication and transportation develop significantly. In 1837, [[William Fothergill Cooke]] and [[Charles Wheatstone]] invented the first [[Telegraphy|telegraph system]]. This system, which used electrical currents to transmit coded messages, quickly spread across Britain, appearing in every town and post office. A worldwide network developed towards the end of the century. In 1876, [[Alexander Graham Bell|an American]] patented the [[History of the telephone|telephone]]. A little over a decade later, 26,000 telephones were in service in Britain. Multiple switchboards were installed in every major town and city.<ref name="Atterbury-2011" /> [[Guglielmo Marconi]] developed early radio broadcasting at the end of the period.<ref name="Baigrie-2007b">{{Cite book |last=Baigrie |first=Brian |title=Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-313-33358-3 |location=United States of America |chapter=Chapter 10: Electromagnetic Waves}}</ref> The railways were important economically in the Victorian era, allowing goods, raw materials, and people to be moved around, stimulating trade and industry. They were also a major employer and industry in their own right.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ranlett |first=John |title=Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=9780415669726 |editor-last=Mitchell |editor-first=Sally |pages=663–665 |chapter=Railways}}</ref>