Wikipedia

Racial hoax

(Redirected from Racial crime hoaxsters)

A racial hoax occurs when a person (usually the purported victim) falsely claims that a crime was committed by member of a specific race. The crime may be fictitious, or may be an actual crime.[1]

The term was popularised by Katheryn Russell-Brown in her book The Color of Crime: Racial Hoaxes, White Fear, Black Protectionism, Police Harassment and Other Macroaggressions (1998). A racial hoax can be performed by a person of any race, against a person of any race. According to Russell-Brown, racial hoaxes where whites falsely accuse African Americans are most likely to receive media attention and create a more acute social problem due to the criminal black man stereotype.[1]

Concept

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Patricia L. Brougham argued that the common stereotype of criminal black men has enabled the use of racial hoaxes against this group. Brougham writes that these stereotypes cause law enforcement agencies to believe that a black perpetrator exists when in reality the allegation is false.[2]

Russell-Brown argues that racial hoaxes are devised, perpetrated, and successful because they take advantage of fears and stereotypes.[3] According to her, white-on-black hoaxes are the most likely to receive media attention and to cause social and economic problems.[1] She argues that anyone performing a racial hoax should face criminal charges, particularly if a black person is targeted,[4] and that hoaxes targeting black people create more severe problems than those against other racial groups.[3] Letha A. See in Violence as Seen Through a Prism of Color (2001) sees the hoax as a unique method used against specific racial groups, rather than against individuals.[5] Sally S. Simpson and Robert Agnew suggest that the unusual nature of some racial hoaxes can cause them to be dismissed.[6]

Between 1987 and 1996 in the United States, Russell-Brown documented 67 racial hoax cases, and notes the following: 70 percent were white-on-black hoaxes; more than half were exposed within a week; hoaxes are most frequently used to allege assault, rape, or murder; hoax perpetrators were charged with filing a false report in about 45 percent of cases.[7] These cases represent only a fraction of the total number of cases because racial hoaxes are not reported as such and most crimes are not covered in the media.[3] According to Russell-Brown, a high proportion of the white-on-black hoaxes were perpetrated by police and judicial officers; she documents seven such cases.[8] Historically the most common type of hoax perpetrated against black males was rape. Because of fears over the 'black rapist', Russell-Brown suggests "it is not surprising that so many White women have created Black male rapists as their fictional criminals".[9]

An alternative type of hoax occurs when a member of a disadvantaged group pretends to be a victim of a hate crime often in order to inflame societal racial tensions, gain social capital through legitimizing grievance and gaining victim status or to distract attention from their own misconduct in another activity.[10]

In the United States there has been little legislative response to racial hoaxes.[11] Russel-Brown wrote that (at the time of the book written) only New Jersey considered new laws to criminalize racial hoaxes.[12]

Cases

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Abraham Surasky

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Main article: Abraham Surasky

Jewish peddler Abraham Surasky was killed in an anti-Semitic attack by two white Christian men in 1903. The perpetrators invented a story accusing Surasky of sexually assaulting a white woman in order to justify their crime.[13]

Scottsboro Boys

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Main article: Scottsboro Boys

In 1931, two white women falsely accused nine African-American teenagers of raping them on a train in Alabama. All but one were convicted and sentenced to death by all-white juries.

Lois Thompson

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On March 27, 1935, 19-year-old Lois Thompson, who was white, shot a Chinese-American man named Daniel Shaw in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, accusing him of being responsible for a month-long extortion campaign against her. It was soon established that Thompson and her sister had concocted the extortion plot themselves as a ploy for attention and had attempted to frame Shaw for the crimes by exploiting racial stereotypes. Thompson was convicted of attempted murder and spent thirty days in jail.[14]

Murder of Florence Castle

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Main article: Robert Nixon (criminal)

A white woman named Florence Thompson Castle was murdered in her sleep in a hotel room in Chicago in June 1936. The killer wrote the words "Black Legion Game" on the wall, referencing a white supremacist terror group known as the Black Legion. The killer was later revealed to be a black man, Robert Nixon, who had written the message on the wall in an attempt to implicate white supremacist groups in the crime.[15]

Emmett Till

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Main article: Emmett Till

Emmett Till was a 14-year-old African-American who was accused of "offending" a white woman in Money, Mississippi, in 1955. He was abducted and lynched several days later. In 2017, author Timothy Tyson released details of a 2008 interview with Carolyn Bryant. He claimed that during the interview she had disclosed that she had fabricated parts of her testimony at the trial of his accused killers. Tyson said that during the interview, Bryant retracted her testimony that Till had grabbed her around her waist and uttered obscenities, saying "that part's not true".[16] However, the "recanting" claim made by Tyson was not on his tape-recording of the interview. "It is true that that part is not on tape because I was setting up the tape recorder" Tyson said. Donham's daughter-in-law, Marsha Bryant, who was present for the two interviews, said her mother-in-law "never recanted." The support Tyson provided to back up his claim was a handwritten note that he said had been made at the time.[17]

Kissing Case

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Main article: Kissing Case

In October 1958, a white girl in Monroe, North Carolina told her mother that she had kissed two black boys on their cheeks while playing with them. Her mother became enraged and falsely accused the boys of molesting her daughter, leading to both of them being sentenced to reform school until the age of 21. They were pardoned three months later by Governor Luther H. Hodges under international pressure.[18]

Manson Family

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See also: Tate–LaBianca murders, Manson Family § Crimes, and Charles Manson § 1969–1971: Crimes and trial

Between July 27 and August 9, 1969, members of Charles Mansons cult known as the Manson Family committed eight murders, supposedly as part of a plot to trigger a race war known as the Helter Skelter scenario. The killers left graffiti at the crime scenes implicating Black Power groups in the murders.[19]

William Henry Hance

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Main article: William Henry Hance

During the 1978 wave of murders of white women in Columbus, Georgia by the African-American Stocking Strangler, a letter was sent to the local police purporting to be from a group of white vigilantes calling themselves the "Forces of Evil" and claiming to be holding an African-American woman named Gail Jackson hostage with the intention of killing her unless the Stocking Strangler was apprehended. She had in fact been murdered five weeks earlier. After her body was found, the "Forces of Evil" claimed responsibility for her murder and that of another black woman, Irene Thirkield, threatening to keep killing black women until the killer was found.[20]

An investigation soon led police to William Henry Hance, a black man, who confessed to the "Forces of Evil" murders and the murder of a white woman the previous year. It was established that Hance had concocted a scheme to avoid suspicion for the Jackson and Thirkield murders by blaming them on white racist vigilantes outraged over the "Stocking Strangler" murders. Hance was executed for the murders in 1994.[21]

Tawana Brawley

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Main article: Tawana Brawley rape allegations

Tawana Brawley, an African-American teenager, was found in a trash bag covered in faeces after being missing from her home in Wappingers Falls, New York for four days. She claimed that she had been abducted and raped by four white men, and her legal team subsequently claimed that the authorities were protecting the assailants because they were white, sparking a debate about systemic racism in New York.[22] A grand jury later concluded that Brawley had fabricated her story and had deliberately set things up to make it look like she had been assaulted.[23] Brawley's legal team - Al Sharpton, Alton Maddox and Vernon Mason - were accused of having exploited the story to trigger racial outrage and advance their careers,[22] and one of the men accused successfully sued Brawley, Sharpton, Maddox and Mason for defamation.[24]

Charles Stuart

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Main article: Charles Stuart (murderer)

The case of Charles Stuart is often cited as an example of a racial hoax.[1][25] On October 23, 1989, in Boston, Stuart and his pregnant wife Carol were driving when, according to Stuart, a black gunman forced his way into the car and shot them both, hitting Carol in the head and Stuart in the body. Still alive, Stuart drove away and called the police, who conducted a search of Mission Hill, Boston, a mostly black area. Carol died later that night; the baby, delivered by caesarean section, died 17 days later.

Stuart picked out Willie Bennett, a black man, from a photo lineup. The police shifted their attention onto Stuart when Stuart's brother Matthew told them that Stuart had committed the murder, and when they noted inconsistencies in Stuart's account. On January 4, 1990, Stuart committed suicide. The police later learned that Stuart had committed the murder to cash in on his wife's insurance policy.[1][26]

Jesse Anderson

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Main article: Jesse Anderson

In 1992, Jesse Anderson became infamous for stabbing his wife Barbara E. Anderson thirty-seven times while in the parking lot of a T.G.I. Friday's in Milwaukee. Anderson blamed two African-American men for attacking him and his wife, and even presented police with a Los Angeles Clippers basketball cap he claimed to have knocked off the head of one of the assailants.

When details of the crime were made public, a university student told police Anderson had purchased the hat from him a few days earlier. According to employees at a military surplus store, the red-handled fishing knife which was used to murder Barbara was sold to Anderson only a few weeks earlier. Police stated that the store was the only one in Milwaukee that sold that type of knife. Anderson was shortly thereafter charged with murder, found guilty, and sentenced to life imprisonment.[27]

Susan Smith

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Main article: Susan Smith

In October 1994, in South Carolina, Susan Smith drowned her sons by putting them in her car and letting it roll into John D. Long Lake. She called the police and stated that an armed black man had hijacked her car with her two sons inside. After an extensive manhunt, Smith confessed that she had killed her sons, and, in July 1995, was sentenced to life imprisonment.[28][29][30]

Jennifer Wilbanks

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Main article: Runaway bride case

Jennifer Wilbanks was a white woman who ran away from home on April 26, 2005, in order to avoid her upcoming wedding with John Mason, her fiancé. Her disappearance from Duluth, Georgia, sparked a nationwide search and intensive media coverage, including media speculation that Mason had killed her. On April 29, Wilbanks called Mason from Albuquerque, New Mexico, and falsely claimed that she had been kidnapped and sexually assaulted by a Hispanic man and a white woman.[31] Wilbanks told investigators that she was abducted while running, and tied-up with rope in the back of a van, and was raped by a Hispanic man and forced to perform sexual acts with a white woman.[32] Wilbanks pled no contest to a felony charge of providing false information to law enforcement, and served no time in jail.[33]

Duke lacrosse case

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Main article: Duke lacrosse case

The Duke lacrosse case was a criminal investigation into a 2006 false accusation of rape made against three white members of the men's lacrosse team at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina by Crystal Mangum, an African-American student at North Carolina Central University[34][35] who worked as a stripper,[36] dancer and escort.[37]

Many people involved in, or commenting on, the case, including Durham prosecutor Mike Nifong (who was later disbarred), called the alleged assault, or suggested that the alleged assault was, a hate crime.[38][39][40]

Ashley Todd mugging hoax

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Main article: Ashley Todd mugging hoax

In October 2008, Ashley Todd, a volunteer for the U.S. presidential campaign of Republican John McCain, falsely claimed to have been the victim of robbery and politically motivated physical assault by a supporter of McCain's Democratic opponent Barack Obama.[41][42]

The story broke less than two weeks before the 2008 United States presidential election on November 4. Todd later confessed to inventing the story after surveillance photos and a polygraph test were presented. She was charged with filing a false police report, and entered a probation program for first-time offenders.

Maria Daly BLM burglary hoax

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In October 2016, Maria Daly, the wife of a police officer, reported a burglary at her family home. She stated that jewelry and money had been stolen, and that her house was tagged with graffiti referencing the Black Lives Matter movement.[43] Police determined that the entire account was false, and charged Daly with filing a false police report and misleading a police investigation.[43][44] Daly eventually pleaded guilty, essentially confirming that she had staged the burglary and spray-painted the house herself.[45]

Sherri Papini disappearance hoax

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Main article: Sherri Papini kidnapping hoax

Sherri Papini disappeared from her husband and family on November 2, 2016, reportedly while out jogging a mile from her home in Redding, California.[46] Papini was 34 years old at the time. She reappeared three weeks later on Thanksgiving Day, November 24, claiming that she was freed by her captors at 4:30 that morning still wearing restraints.[47] According to Shasta County Sheriff Tom Bosenko,[48] in interviews Papini said she was held by two Hispanic women who took steps to keep their faces hidden from her, either by wearing masks or by keeping Papini's head covered.[49] On March 3, 2022, Sherri Papini was arrested by the FBI, accused of lying to federal agents and faking her kidnapping to spend time with her ex-boyfriend away from her husband and family.[50][51] In September 2022 Papini pled guilty to making false statements and was sentenced to 18 months in prison.[52]

Yasmin Seweid Trump fans subway harassment

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During December 2016, 18-year-old Yasmin Seweid claimed that a group of white men approached her on a New York City subway and stated "Donald Trump! Donald Trump! Fucking terrorist, get out of this country, you don't belong here, terrorist, get out of this country." She also claimed one of the men grabbed her bag and broke the strap.[53] Seweid later admitted that she lied about the incident because she did not want her strict father to find out that she was out past her curfew drinking alcohol.[54] Seweid was arrested and pleaded guilty to falsely reporting an incident and disorderly conduct.[55]

Breana Harmon abduction hoax

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In 2017, 19-year-old white woman Breana Harmon from Denison, Texas, falsely claimed that she was abducted and gang-raped by three black men. She initially was in an argument with her boyfriend, then ran away and intentionally cut herself to give the appearance of an assault. She then stripped-down to a T-shirt and underwear, went into a church and told the people there that she had been raped by three masked black men.[56] She later pled guilty to charges of filing a false police report.[57]

Jussie Smollett hate-crime hoax

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Main article: Jussie Smollett hate crime hoax

In January 2019, Jussie Smollett, an American actor and singer on the Fox drama series Empire, made national news for fabricating a racially motivated attack against himself. On January 22, 2019, a letter arrived at the Chicago studio of Smollett's employer that was addressed to Smollett and depicted a stick figure hanging from a tree with a gun pointing towards it. It read "Smollett, Jussie you will die" and "MAGA" and contained a white powder determined to be Tylenol.[58] On January 29, 2019, Smollett told Chicago police that he was attacked in the early morning of that day in the 300 block of East Lower North Water Street in Chicago's Streeterville neighborhood by two men in ski masks who called him racial and homophobic slurs in what was initially investigated as a hate crime.[59] Smollett was indicted on February 20, 2019, for disorderly conduct consisting of paying two Nigerian-American brothers to stage a fake hate crime assault on him and filing a false police report.[60] Smollett's defense team reached a deal with prosecutors on March 26, 2019, in which all charges were dropped in return for Smollett performing community service and forfeiting his $10,000 bond.[61] On March 27, 2019, it was announced that the FBI would be investigating as to why the charges were dismissed.[62][63] On February 11, 2020, Smollett was re-indicted by Special Prosecutor Dan Webb on six counts of disorderly conduct for lying to the police.[64] A jury delivered its verdict on December 9, 2021, finding Smollett guilty on five of the six counts.[65] However in November 2024, the Illinois Supreme Court reversed that conviction holding that retrying Smollett after he had paid $10,000 and served community service in exchange for dismissal of all charges violated Smollett's constitutional due process rights.[66]

Amari Allen dreadlock cutting hoax

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In September 2019, Amari Allen, a black middle-school student in Virginia, claimed that three male white classmates pinned her down on the playground and cut off "chunks" of her dreadlocks. According to Allen, the boys called her "ugly" and her hair "nappy." Her grandmother asked on national TV for the boys to be dismissed from the school. However, security camera footage did not corroborate her story, and Allen eventually confessed that she had cut her hair herself.[67][68]

Gil Ofarim Star of David hoax

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In October 2021, Gil Ofarim, a German-Israeli singer-songwriter, posted a video on Instagram stating that staff at the Leipzig Westin hotel told him he'd only be admitted if he didn't wear his Star of David pendant. After dissemination of the video and protests outside the hotel, security footage showed Ofraim without such a pendant during the confrontation, and employees regarded him as antagonistic. Charges were filed against Ofraim for libel and false suspicion.[69][70] These charges were dropped in November 2023 after Ofarim admitted in court that he had made up the allegations against the hotel and agreed to pay 10,000 euros to the Jewish Community of Leipzig.[71][72]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e Russell-Brown (1998), p. 70
  2. ^ Greene, Helen Taylor; Gabbidon, Shaun L. (2009). Encyclopedia of Race and Crime (volume 1). SAGE Publications. p. 166; ISBN 978-1-4129-5085-5
  3. ^ a b c Russell-Brown, p. 71.
  4. ^ Russell-Brown, pp. 70–71.
  5. ^ See (2001), p. 13
  6. ^ Simpson and Agnew, p. 56.
  7. ^ Russell-Brown, pp. 71–76.
  8. ^ Russell-Brown, pp. 77–78.
  9. ^ Russell-Brown, pg. 79.
  10. ^ Schmidt, Samantha (8 November 2017). "Racist messages at Air Force Academy were written by student who claimed to be targeted". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 8 November 2017. It's unclear exactly what prompts people to commit these hoaxes, stunts and false reports. But such revelations have become a major concern for civil rights activists who document racist and anti-Semitic incidents, particularly amid a rise in reported hate crimes since the election.
  11. ^ Simpson and Agnew, p. 5.
  12. ^ Russell-Brown, pg. 70.
  13. ^ "Suraskys and Poliers: The Old World Meets the New". Jewish Historical Society of South Carolina. Retrieved 2022-05-15.
  14. ^ Lucky Morrow, Jason (2014). Famous Crimes the World Forgot: Ten Vintage True Crimes Rescued from Obscurity Volume One. Tulsa: Historical Crime Detective Books. pp. 125–145. ISBN 9780692352472.
  15. ^ "Black Legion". Time. June 1, 1936.
  16. ^ "Full Interview with Timothy Tyson, Author of The Blood of Emmett Till". Matter of Fact TV. 11 February 2017. Retrieved 21 September 2020.
  17. ^ Mitchell, Jerry, Jerry. "NEWS Bombshell quote missing from Emmett Till tape. So did Carolyn Bryant Donham really recant?". Mississippi Clarion Ledger. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
  18. ^ Sue Sturgis (April 25, 2014), "Remembering Southern Black freedom fighter Mabel Williams", Facing South, Institute of Southern Studies, retrieved January 19, 2017
  19. ^ Bugliosi, Vincent with Gentry, Curt. Helter Skelter: The True Story of the Manson Murders 25th Anniversary Edition, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994. ISBN 039308700X. OCLC 15164618.
  20. ^ Ressler, Robert K.; Schactman, Tom (1992). Whoever Fights Monsters: My Twenty Years Hunting Serial Killers for the FBI. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 157-161. ISBN 0-312-95044-6.
  21. ^ "Georgia Inmate Executed for Murdering Prostitute", Associated Press report April 4, 1994. Retrieved from Logansport Pharos-Tribune via NewspaperArchive.Com. November 30, 2008.
  22. ^ a b Blumenthal, Ralph (1998). "Abrams Considers a Possible Hoax In Brawley Case". The New York Times. Retrieved May 21, 2018.
  23. ^ Tawana Brawley Grand Jury Report, October 1988
  24. ^ Rosenblatt, Albert M. (2015). "County Legal History" (PDF). The Historical Society of the New York Courts: 39.
  25. ^ Henry and Lanier, p. 158.
  26. ^ Willis, Jim (2010). 100 Media Moments That Changed America, ABC-CLIO. pp. 146–47; ISBN 978-0-313-35517-2
  27. ^ Once A Victim, Now A Suspect, ChicagoTribune.com; accessed 16 June 2016.
  28. ^ Russell-Brown (1998), p. 69
  29. ^ Markovitz, p. 85.
  30. ^ Dance, Lory Janelle (2002). Tough Fronts: The Impact of Street Culture on Schooling, Routledge. pg. 132; ISBN 0-415-93300-5
  31. ^ Robinson, Eugene (2005-06-28). "Runaway Racism". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2023-06-13.
  32. ^ "Runaway Bride's Sordid Sex Tale". www.cbsnews.com. 13 May 2005. Retrieved 2023-03-02.
  33. ^ Hart, Ariel (2005-06-03). "In Plea Deal, Runaway Bride Gets Probation". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-03-02.
  34. ^ "Crystal Gail Mangum: Profile of the Duke Rape Accuser" Fox News, April 11, 2007.
  35. ^ Katz, Neil (February 18, 2010). "Crystal Mangum, Stripper Who Falsely Accused Duke Lacrosse Players, Charged with Attempted Murder". CBS News. CBS. Retrieved May 6, 2010. In 2006, Mangum, then a North Carolina Central University student earning money as a stripper, said that three Duke lacrosse players raped her
  36. ^ Siemaszko, Corky (February 18, 2010). "Crystal Gail Mangum, stripper in Duke lacrosse rape case, charged with arson and attempted murder". nydailynews.com. New York. Archived from the original on February 21, 2010. Retrieved September 11, 2010.
  37. ^ Alexandria Harper, "Woman behind Duke lacrosse scandal speaks out", The A&T Register, April 28, 2008 Archived 2009-05-16
  38. ^ Melissa McNamara (March 30, 2006). "DA Stands Behind Duke Rape Charge – The Early Show". CBS News. Archived from the original on April 8, 2006. Retrieved April 16, 2010.
  39. ^ Nancy Grace: Was Young Woman Assaulted by Duke Lacrosse Team?, cnn.com, March 31, 2006.
  40. ^ "'Rita Cosby Live & Direct'". NBC News. April 11, 2006. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
  41. ^ "John McCain volunteer admits mugging story is lie". Boston Herald. Pittsburgh, USA. October 25, 2008. Retrieved May 12, 2011.
  42. ^ "McCain Campaign Volunteer Admits Alleged Attack Was a Hoax". Fox News. October 24, 2008. Archived from the original on October 26, 2008. Retrieved October 26, 2008.
  43. ^ a b "Police: Wife Of Millbury Cop Faked Robbery, Vandalism Of Own Home". WBZ-TV. October 28, 2016. Retrieved March 4, 2019. We woke up to not only our house being robbed while we were sleeping, but to see this hatred for no reason.
  44. ^ "Cop's wife 'fakes home robbery and tries to blame Black Lives Matter'". The Independent. 31 October 2016. Retrieved 2024-09-07.
  45. ^ Spencer, Susan (June 7, 2017). "Millbury police officer's wife admits to filing false burglary report". Telegram & Gazette. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
  46. ^ "Missing California 'Super Mom' Found Alive, Bound by Road, Sheriff Says". ABC News. November 24, 2016. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
  47. ^ "Sheriff: Sherri Papini Was Kidnapped; Captors Still At Large « CBS Sacramento". Sacramento.cbslocal.com. November 24, 2016. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
  48. ^ "Full Text Of Nov 30 Press Conference About Sherri Papini's Abduction". November 30, 2016. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
  49. ^ Heise, Sarah (November 7, 2017). "New video shows Sherri Papini moments before she was found". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved November 8, 2017.
  50. ^ "Sherri Papini, accused of faking 2016 kidnapping, injured herself to further her hoax, feds say". Yahoo! News. 4 March 2022. Retrieved 2022-03-04.
  51. ^ "Sherri Papini's alleged kidnapping hoax is a 'slap in the face' to Latinos: advocate". 2022-03-04. Retrieved 2023-06-13.
  52. ^ "Sherri Papini: US woman who staged her own disappearance sentenced to 18 months". BBC News. 19 September 2022. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
  53. ^ "Muslim Woman Harassed on Subway by 3 Men Who Call Her 'Terrorist,' Chant Trump's Name: NYPD". www.nbcnewyork.com. December 3, 2016. Retrieved December 10, 2021.
  54. ^ "'My Family Did Not Want This': Yasmin Seweid's Sister Says Sending Her to Jail for Lying Would be 'Violent and Abhorrent,' Accuses NYPD of Leaking Private Info". www.nbcnewyork.com. December 15, 2016. Retrieved December 10, 2021.
  55. ^ "Muslim college student who lied about Trump supporter subway attack pleads guilty". www.nydailynews.com. September 8, 2017. Retrieved December 10, 2021.
  56. ^ "Teenager admits lying about being raped by three black men in ski masks, say police". The Independent. 2017-03-24. Retrieved 2023-06-13.
  57. ^ "Breana Harmon pleads guilty" Drew Smith, Feb 22, 2018, Herald Democrat https://www.heralddemocrat.com/news/20180222/breana-harmon-pleads-guilty
  58. ^ "Jussie Smollett case: FBI investigates whether actor had any role in threatening letter". USA Today. McLean, Virginia: Gannett Company. Retrieved February 21, 2019.
  59. ^ Gonzalez, Sandra (January 29, 2019). "Empire star Jussie Smollett attacked in possible hate crime". CNN. Atlanta: Turner Broadcasting System. Retrieved January 29, 2019.
  60. ^ Nemetz, Dave (February 20, 2019). "Jussie Smollett Indicted, Charged With Felony for Filing False Police Report". TVLine. United States: TVLine Media, LLC (Penske Media Corporation). Retrieved February 20, 2019.
  61. ^ Crepeau, Megan; Buckley, Madeline (March 26, 2019). "Cook County prosecutors drop all charges against Empire actor Jussie Smollett". Chicago Tribune. United States: Tribune Publishing. Retrieved March 26, 2019.
  62. ^ "Jussie Smollett update: FBI reviewing circumstances of Jussie Smollett's charges being dropped, sources confirm". ABC7 Chicago. Retrieved 2023-03-13.
  63. ^ "The FBI Is Looking Into Why Charges Against Jussie Smollett Were Dropped". BuzzFeed News. 28 March 2019.
  64. ^ "Actor Jussie Smollett faces six new charges". BBC News. 2020-02-12. Retrieved 2020-02-12.
  65. ^ Jacobs, Julia; Guarino, Mark (2021-12-09). "Jussie Smollett Trial Live Updates: Actor Found Guilty in Fake Hate Crime Case". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-12-09.
  66. ^ Feurer, Todd (2024-11-21). "Actor Jussie Smollett's conviction overturned by Illinois Supreme Court - CBS Chicago". www.cbsnews.com. Retrieved 2024-11-21.
  67. ^ "Black girl who said 3 white boys cut her dreadlocks at school now says she was lying". NBC News. 30 September 2019. Retrieved 2019-10-03.
  68. ^ "6th-grader lied about white students attacking her and cutting hair, family admits". ABC News. Retrieved 2019-10-03.
  69. ^ Gutensohn, David (2021-10-17). "Ofarim trug bei Hotelvorfall laut Medien womöglich keinen Davidstern" [During hotel incident, media report that Ofarim possibly did not wear a Star of David]. Die Zeit. Retrieved 17 June 2023.
  70. ^ LTO. "Staatsanwaltschaft erhebt Anklage gegen Gil Ofarim". Legal Tribune Online (in German). Retrieved 2023-06-17.
  71. ^ LTO (28 November 2023). "Gil Ofarim legt vor Gericht Geständnis ab". Der Spiegel (in German). Retrieved 2023-11-28.
  72. ^ mdr.de. "Wende im Prozess: Ofarim gesteht Falschaussage und entschuldigt sich | MDR.DE". www.mdr.de (in German). Retrieved 2023-11-28.

Sources

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