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'{{Short description|Latin Americans of European descent}} {{For|European-descended people of Hispanic/Latino heritage living in or native to the United States|White Hispanic and Latino Americans}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = White Latin Americans | native_name = Eurolatinoamericanos | native_name_lang = <!-- Please don't remove this without specifying a reason, either on the Talk page or in the edit summary! --> | pop = '''191.5 million – 220.6 million'''<ref name=CIAethn/><ref name=Lizcano/><br /><small>''' 40.0% of Latin American population'''</small> * Figures exclude French, Dutch, and English-speaking areas of the Americas | region1 = {{flagcountry|Brazil}} | pop1 = 88M<ref name="Igbe Brasil 2010" /> | region2 = {{flagcountry|Mexico}} | pop2 = 18M–59M (52M)<ref name=BritannicaMex>''Approximately two fifths''{{cite encyclopedia |title=Mexico: Ethnic groups |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/Ethnic-groups |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=March 8, 2024}}</ref><ref name="conapred21Marzo2">{{cite web |url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf|title=21 de Marzo: Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial|trans-title=March 21: International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination |language=es|publisher=[[National Council to Prevent Discrimination|CONAPRED]]|location=Mexico|page=7|date=2017|access-date=August 23, 2017 |archive-date=May 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525133622/http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="conapredEncuesta">{{cite web |url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf |title=Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico 2010|trans-title=National Survey on Discrimination in Mexico 2010|language=es |publisher=CONAPRED|location=Mexico |date=June 2011|access-date=August 24, 2017|url-status=live |archive-date=November 8, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108095738/http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf}}</ref> | region3 = {{flagcountry|Argentina}} | pop3 = 38M<ref name=Lizcano/> | region4 = {{flagcountry|Colombia}} | pop4 = 8.4M–13M (10.7M)<ref name=Lizcano/><ref>{{cite web |title=Raza/Etnia a la que pertenece |url=https://www.latinobarometro.org/latOnline.jsp |access-date=13 February 2024 |work=Latinobarómetro 2023 Colombia}}</ref> | region5 = {{flagcountry|Chile}} | pop5 = 12M<ref name="Lizcano">{{cite journal |last1=Lizcano Fernández |first1=Francisco |title=Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI |trans-title=Ethnic Composition of the Three Cultural Areas of the American Continent at the Beginning of the 21st Century |language=es |journal=Convergencia |date=August 2005 |volume=12 |issue=38 |pages=185–232 |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1405-14352005000200185 }}</ref> | region6 = {{flagcountry|Venezuela}} | pop6 = 4.1M–13M (8.55M)<ref name=Lizcano/><ref name="Census2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.gob.ve/documentos/Demografia/CensodePoblacionyVivienda/pdf/nacional.pdf|title=Resultado Básico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011 (Mayo 2014)|page=29|publisher=Ine.gov.ve|access-date=8 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="ine.gob.ve"/> | region7 = {{flagcountry|Peru}} | pop7 = 7.175M<ref name="BibliotecaUniversitariadelaUNSAAC">{{cite news|url= http://www.espejodelperu.com.pe/Poblacion-del-Peru/Inmigracion-Europea-al-Peru.htm |title=Inmigración Europea al Perú|work=Biblioteca Universitaria de la UNSAAC|date=1 January 2007|last1=Abuhadba Rodrigues|first1=Daniel}}</ref> | region8 = {{flagcountry|Cuba}} | pop8 = 4.1M–7.16M (5.63M)<ref name=Lizcano/><ref name="onei.cu">[http://www.onei.gob.cu/sites/default/files/informe_nacional_censo_0.pdf The Official 2012 Cuba Census] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603230454/http://www.one.cu/publicaciones/cepde/cpv2012/20140428informenacional/46_tabla_II_4.pdf |date=June 3, 2014 }}</ref> | region9 = {{flagcountry|Costa Rica}} | pop9 = 3.3M<ref name=Lizcano/> | region10 = {{flagcountry|Uruguay}} | pop10 = 2.9M<ref name="UR">{{cite web | title=Uruguay: People and Society| url =https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/uruguay/ | work =CIA World Factbook | access-date = 5 February 2014}}</ref> | region11 = {{flagcountry|Paraguay}} | pop11 = 1.1M–2.1M (1.6M)<ref name="Pastore 1972 526">{{cite book |title=La lucha por la tierra en el Paraguay: Proceso histórico y legislativo.|last=Pastore|first=Carlos|publisher=Antequera|page=526|year=1972}}</ref> | region12 = {{flagcountry|Dominican Republic}} | pop12 = 1.2M–1.6M (1.4M)<ref name=Lizcano/><ref name="DR">{{cite web | title=D.R.: People; Ethnic groups| url =https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/dominican-republic/ | work =CIA World Factbook | access-date = 2007-11-26}}</ref> | region13 = {{flagcountry|Ecuador}} | pop13 = 1.3M<ref name=Lizcano/> | region14 = {{flagcountry|Bolivia}} | pop14 = 1.2M<ref name=Lizcano/> | region15 = {{flagcountry|El Salvador}} | pop15 = 0.812M | ref15 = <ref>{{cite web |title=El Salvador-The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/el-salvador/ |website=CIA.gov |access-date=23 July 2021}}</ref> | region16 = {{flagcountry|Nicaragua}} | pop16 = 0.71M<ref name=Lizcano/> | ref16 = <ref name="NI">{{cite journal |last1=Nuñez |first1=Carolina |last2=Baeta |first2=Miriam |last3=Sosa |first3=Cecilia |last4=Casalod |first4=Yolanda |last5=Ge |first5=Jianye |last6=Budowle |first6=Bruce |last7=Martínez-Jarreta |first7=Begoña |title=Reconstructing the population history of Nicaragua by means of mtDNA, Y-chromosome STRs, and autosomal STR markers |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |date=December 2010 |volume=143 |issue=4 |pages=591–600 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.21355 |pmid=20721944 }}</ref> | region17 = {{flagcountry|Puerto Rico}} | pop17 = 0.56M<ref name="2020PRCensus">{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/improved-race-ethnicity-measures-reveal-united-states-population-much-more-multiracial.html |title=2020 Census Illuminates Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Country |work=[[United States Census]] |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref> | region18 = {{flagcountry|Guatemala}} | pop18 = 0.455M<ref name=Lizcano/> | region19 = {{flagcountry|Panama}} | pop19 = 0.366M<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.monografias.com/trabajos76/poblacion-panamena/poblacion-panamena2.shtml|title=Población panameña (página 2)|author=José Reyes Alveo|website=Monografias.com|access-date=8 October 2017}}</ref> | region20 = {{flagcountry|Honduras}} | pop20 = 0.09M | ref20 = <ref name="HR">{{cite web | title=Honduras; People; Ethnic groups | url =https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/honduras/ | work =CIA World Factbook | access-date = 2007-11-21}}</ref> | languages = '''Major languages'''<br />[[Spanish language in the Americas|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language in the Americas|Portuguese]]<br />'''Minor languages'''<br />[[Italian language|Italian]], [[French language|French]], [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], and other languages<ref>More precisely, these are the chief languages of Latin America, as per [https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004519/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2098.html CIA – The World Factbook – Field Listing :: Languages], accessed 2010-02-24.</ref> | religions = [[Christianity]] (mainly [[Roman Catholicism]], with minority [[Protestantism]]),<ref>The religious profile of the Latin American countries can be seen in [https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003300/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2122.html CIA – The World Factbook – Field Listing :: Religions] (accessed 2010-02-24). As such, it is not the religious profile of white Latin Americans in particular, but is a good indication of white religious affiliation in the region's white-majority countries, especially.</ref><br>Minority: [[Judaism]] | footnotes = | related_groups = [[Mestizo]]s, [[Spaniards]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[French people|French]], [[Italians]], [[Romanians]], [[British people|British]], [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Germans]], [[Danes]], [[Norwegians]], [[Dutch people|Dutch]], [[Belgians]], [[Swedes]], [[Polish people|Poles]], [[Ukrainians]], [[Russians]], [[Croats]], [[Swiss people|Swiss]], [[Hungarians]], [[Greeks]], [[Jews]], [[Arabs]], [[Armenians]] }} '''White Latin Americans''' or '''European Latin Americans''' (sometimes ''[[Euro-Latinos]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dlcl.stanford.edu/publications/latins-world-system-decolonization-struggles-21st-century-us-empire |title=Latin@s in the World-System: Decolonization Struggles in the 21st Century U.S. Empire |author=Ramón Grosfoguel, Nelson Maldonado-Torres, José David Saldívar |date=April 15, 2006 |website=dlcl.stanford.edu |publisher= |language= |quote=Latino/as are multiracial (Afro-Latinos, Indo-Latinos, Asian-Latinos, and Euro-Latinos)}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Various|year=2001|chapter=Introduction|title=Mambo Montage: The Latinization of New York City|editor=Agustín Laó-Montes and Arlene Dávila|publisher=Columbia University Press|quote=For instance, in the global chain of otherness, upper-class Euro-Latinos can be located... (p. 10)}}</ref>) are [[Latin Americans]] who claim or being classified with a dominant [[European diaspora|European]] ancestry.<ref>{{cite book|author=Chambers, Sarah C.|year=2003|chapter=Little Middle Ground The Instability of a Mestizo Identity in the Andes, 18th and 19th centuries|title=Race and Nation in Modern Latin American|editor=Nancy P. Appelbaum|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|quote=This blending of culture and genealogy is also reflected in the use of the terms "Spanish" and "white". For most of the colonial period, Americans of European descent were simply referred to as "Spaniards"; beginning in the late 18th century, the term "blanco" (white) came into increasing but not exclusive use. Even those of presumably mixed ancestry may have felt justified in claiming to be Spanish (and later white) if they participated in the dominant culture by, for example, speaking Spanish and wearing European clothing.(p. 33)}}</ref> Theoretically, notable or direct descendants of European settlers who arrived in [[Americas|the Americas]] during the colonial and post-colonial periods can be found throughout Latin America. Most immigrants who settled the region for the past five centuries were [[Spanish people|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]; after independence, the most numerous non-[[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] immigrants were [[French people|French]], [[Italian people|Italians]], and [[Germans]], followed by other Europeans as well as [[West Asia]]ns (such as Levantine [[Arabs]] and [[Armenian people|Armenians]]).<ref name=britsa/><ref name=Leiden>{{cite web |url=http://www.let.leidenuniv.nl/history/migration/chapter53.thml |title=Migration to Latin America |access-date=2010-02-24 |last=Schrover |first=Marlou }}{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=International migration and development in the Americas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAt3cSt-dEAC&pg=PA122 |author=CELADE (Organization)|isbn = 9789211213287|year = 2001| publisher=Naciones Unidas, CEPAL/ECLAC, Population Division, Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre (CELADE) }}</ref> Composing from 33% of the population {{As of|2010|lc=y}}, according to some sources,<ref name="CIAethn">[[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] data from [[The World Factbook]]'s [https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003008/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html Field Listing :: Ethnic groups] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003851/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2119.html Field Listing :: Population], retrieved on May 09 2011. They show 191,543,213 whites from a total population of 579,092,570. For a few countries the percentage of white population is not provided as a standalone figure, and thus that datum is considered to be not available; for example, in Chile's case the CIA states "white and white-Amerindian 95.4%". Unequivocal data are given for the following: Argentina 41,769,726 * 97% white = 40,516,634; Bolivia 10,118,683 * 5% white = 505,934; Brazil 203,429,773 * 53.7% white = 109,241,788; Colombia 44,725,543 * 20% white = 8,945,109; Cuba 11,087,330 * 65.1% white = 7,217,852; Dominican Republic 9,956,648 * 16% white = 1,593,064; El Salvador 6,071,774 * 9% white = 546,460; Honduras 8,143,564 * 1% white = 81,436; Mexico 113,724,226 * 9% white = 10,235,180; Nicaragua 5,666,301 * 17% white = 963,272; Panama 3,460,462 * 10% white = 346,046; Peru 29,248,943 * 15% white = 4,387,342; Puerto Rico 3,989,133 * 76.2% white = 3,039,719; Uruguay 3,308,535 * 88% white = 2,911,511. Total white population in these countries: 191,543,213, i.e 33.07% of the region's population.</ref><ref name=Lizcano/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Lizcano Fernández |first=Francisco |url=https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/128/12891701.pdf |title=Las etnias centroamericanas en la segunda mitad del siglo XX |journal=Revista Mexicana del Caribe |volume=IX |issue=17 |date=2004 |access-date=2011-05-04}}</ref> White Latin Americans constitute the second largest [[race (classification of humans)|racial]]-[[Ethnic group#"Ethnies" or ethnic categories|ethnic group]] after [[mestizo]] people (Amerindian and European [[mixed race|mixed]]) in the region. Latin American countries have often tolerated [[interracial marriage]] since the beginning of the colonial period.<ref>{{cite book|editor=Schaefer, Richard T. |year=2008|title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediarace00scha|url-access=limited|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediarace00scha/page/n952 900]|publisher=Sage|isbn=978-1-4129-2694-2|quote=In New Spain, there was no strict idea of race (something that continued in Mexico). The Indians that had lost their connections with their communities and had adopted different cultural elements could "pass" and be considered mestizos. The same applied to blacks and castas. Rather, the factor that distinguished the various social groups was their ''calidad'' ("quality"); this concept was related to an idea of blood as conferring status, but there were also other elements, such as occupation and marriage, that could have the effect of blanqueamiento (whitening) on people and influence their upward social mobility.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Schaefer, Richard T. |year=2008|title=Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediarace00scha|url-access=limited|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediarace00scha/page/n1148 1096]|publisher=Sage|isbn=978-1-4129-2694-2|quote=The variation of racial groupings between nations is at least partially explained by an unstable coupling between historical patterns of colonization and miscegenation. First, divergent patterns of colonization may account for differences in the construction of racial groupings, as evidenced in Latin America, which was colonized primarily by the Spanish. The Spanish colonials had a longer history of tolerance of non-White racial groupings through their interactions with the Moors and North African social groups, as well as a different understanding of the rights of colonized subjects and a different pattern of economic development.}}</ref> ''[[White people|White]]'' ({{lang-es|blanco}} or {{lang|es|güero}}; {{lang-pt|branco}}) is the self-identification of many Latin Americans in some national censuses. According to a survey conducted by ''Cohesión Social'' in Latin America, conducted on a sample of 10,000 people from seven countries of the region, 34% of those interviewed identified themselves as white.<ref name= schwartzman/> ==Being white== {{Main|Race and ethnicity in Latin America}} ''Being white'' is a term that emerged from a tradition of [[Race (classification of humans)|racial classification]] that developed as many Europeans colonized large parts of the world and employed classificatory systems to distinguish themselves from the local inhabitants. However, while most present-day racial classifications include a concept of being white that is ideologically connected to European heritage and specific phenotypic and biological features associated with European heritage, there are differences in how people are classified. These differences arise from the various historical processes and social contexts in which a given racial classification is used. As Latin America is characterized by differing histories and social contexts, there is also variance in the perception of whiteness throughout Latin America.<ref>{{cite book|author=Chambers, Sarah C.|year=2003|chapter=Little Middle Ground The Instability of a Mestizo Identity in the Andes, 18th and 19th centuries|title=Race and Nation in Modern Latin American|editor=Nancy P. Appelbaum|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|quote=This blending of culture and genealogy is also reflected in the use of the terms ''Spanish'' and ''white''. For most of the colonial period, Americans of European descent were simply referred to as ''Spaniards''; beginning in the late 18th century, the term ''blanco'' (white) came into increasing but not exclusive use. Even those of presumably mixed ancestry may have felt justified in claiming to be Spanish (and later white) if they participated in the dominant culture by, for example, speaking Spanish and wearing European clothing.(p. 33)}}</ref> According to [[Peter Wade]], a specialist in race concepts of Latin America, <blockquote>...racial categories and racial ideologies are not simply those that elaborate social constructions on the basis of phenotypical variation or ideas about innate difference but those that do so using the particular aspects of phenotypical variation that were worked into vital signifiers of difference during European colonial encounters with others.<ref>Wade, Peter. 1997. Race and Ethnicity in Latin America. Critical Studies On Latin America. Pluto Press p. 15</ref></blockquote> In many parts of Latin America, being white is more a matter of socio-economic status than specific phenotypic traits, and it is often said that in Latin America "money whitens".<ref>Levine-Rasky, Cynthia. 2002. "Working through whiteness: international perspectives. SUNY Press (p. 73) " 'Money whitens' If any phrase encapsulates the association of whiteness and the modern in Latin America, this is it. It is a cliché formulated and reformulated throughout the region, a truism dependent upon the social experience that wealth is associated with whiteness, and that in obtaining the former one may become aligned with the latter (and vice versa)."</ref> Within Latin America there are variations in how racial boundaries have been defined. In Argentina, for example, the notion of mixture has been downplayed. Alternately, in countries like Mexico and Brazil mixture has been emphasized as fundamental for nation-building, resulting in a large group of bi-racial ''mestizos'', in Mexico, or tri-racial ''[[pardo]]s'', in Brazil,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_visualiza.php?id_noticia=2170&id_pagina=1|title=IBGE - sala de imprensa - notícias|author=IBGE|work=ibge.gov.br}}</ref><ref name="laboratoriogene">[http://www.laboratoriogene.com.br/geneImprensa/2009/pensamento.pdf Do pensamento racial ao pensamento racional] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522233206/http://www.laboratoriogene.com.br/geneImprensa/2009/pensamento.pdf |date=May 22, 2014 }}, [http://www.laboratoriogene.com.br laboratoriogene.com.br].</ref> who are considered neither fully white nor fully non-white.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wade, Peter|chapter=Race in Latin America|editor=Poole, Deborah|year=2008|title=Companion to Latin American Anthropology|url=https://archive.org/details/companiontolatin00pool|url-access=limited|publisher=Blackwell publishing|page=[https://archive.org/details/companiontolatin00pool/page/n193 182]|isbn=9780631234685|quote=The nature of Latin American societies as mestizo – with the variations that run from Argentina, where the image of mixture is downplayed in favor of whiteness, to Brazil or Mexico, where mixture is foregrounded in discourse on the nation – has powerfully shaped ideas about race in the region.}}</ref> Unlike in the United States (where ancestry may be used exclusively to define race), by the 1970s, Latin American scholars came to agree that race in Latin America could not be understood as the "genetic composition of individuals" but instead must be "based upon a combination of cultural, social, and [[wiktionary:somatic|somatic]] considerations". In Latin America, a person's ancestry may not be decisive in racial classification. For example, full-blooded siblings can often be classified as belonging to different races (Harris 1964).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s7846.html|title=Sample Chapter for Telles, E.E.: Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil.|work=princeton.edu|access-date=2011-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125201950/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s7846.html|archive-date=2012-01-25|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis|url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/4222t703|title=The Japanese in multiracial Peru, 1899-1942|work=eScholarship|year=2009|publisher=UC San Diego}}</ref> For these reasons, the distinction between "white" and "mixed", and between "mixed" and "black" and "indigenous", is largely subjective and situational, meaning that any attempt to classify by discrete racial categories is fraught with problems.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wade, Peter|chapter=Race in Latin America|editor=Poole, Deborah|year=2008|title=Companion to Latin American Anthropology|publisher=Blackwell publishing|page=184|quote=However, "black" and "indigenous" are often vaguely defined and there is an indecisive, subjective distinction between them and "mixed" and between the latter and "white" (hence the problems of enumerating these populations).}}</ref> ==History== [[File:Map-Latin America.png|thumb|right|upright=1.32|Latin America]] [[File:Nebel Voyage 16 La Mantilla.jpg|thumb|White Mexican women wearing the ''[[mantilla]]'', painting by [[Carl Nebel]], 1836]] People of [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] origin began to arrive in the Americas in the 15th century since the first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. Most early migrants were male, but by the early and mid-16th century, more and more women also began to arrive from Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2012/05/29/inenglish/1338297350_910456.html|title=The women who made America|publisher=El Pais|author=Tereixa Constenla|language=English|date=29 May 2012|accessdate=19 September 2022}}</ref> After the Wars of Independence, the elites of most of the countries of the region concluded that their underdevelopment was caused by their populations being mostly [[Amerindian]], [[Mestizo]] or [[Mulatto]];<ref name=euram>{{cite web |title=L'emigració dels europeus cap a Amèrica |trans-title=The Emigration of Europeans to America |url=http://www.edualter.org/material/vld/amlat13.pdf |website=EduAlter.org |language=ca |access-date=26 March 2018 |archive-date=8 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108002752/http://www.edualter.org/material/vld/amlat13.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> so a major process of "[[Racial whitening|whitening]]" was required, or at least desirable.<ref name=branqueamento /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loveman |first1=Mara |title=Whiteness in Latin America: measurement and meaning in national censuses (1850-1950) |journal=Journal de la société des américanistes |date=5 December 2009 |volume=95 |issue=95–2 |pages=207–234 |doi=10.4000/jsa.11085 |s2cid=161642153 |url=http://journals.openedition.org/jsa/pdf/11085 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Most Latin American countries then implemented [[blanqueamiento]] policies to promote European immigration, and some were quite successful, especially Argentina, [[Uruguay]], and Brazil. From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the number of European immigrants who arrived far surpassed the number of original colonists. Between 1821 and 1932, of a total 15 million immigrants who arrived in Latin America,<ref name=britsa>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-41807/South-America South America: Postindependence overseas immigrants]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Retrieved 26-11-2007</ref> Argentina received 6.4 million, and Brazil 5.5 million.<ref name=WhitakerArgentina /> === Historical demographic growth === The following table shows estimates (in thousands) of white, black/mulatto, Amerindian, and mestizo populations of Latin America, from the 17th to the 20th centuries. The figures shown are, for the years between 1650 and 1980, from the Arias' ''The Cry of My People...'',<ref>''The Cry of My People. Out of Captivity in Latin America'', escrita por Esther and Mortimer Arias. Editorial New York Friendship Press. 1980. Páginas 17 y 18.</ref> for 2000, from Lizcano's ''Composición Étnica...''.<ref name=Lizcano/> Percentages are by the editor. {| class="wikitable" ! Year !! White !! Black !! Amerindian !! Mestizo !! Total |- | 1650 || 138 || 67 || 12,000 || 670 || 12,875 |- | Percentages || 1.1% || 0.5% || 93.2% || 5.2% || 100% |- | 1825 || 4,350 || 4,100 || 8,000 || 6,200 || 22,650 |- | Percentages || 19.2% || 18.1% || 35.3% || 27.3% || 100% |- | 1950 || 72,000 || 13,729 || 14,000 || 61,000 || 160,729 |- | Percentages || 44.8% || 8.5% || 8.7% || 37.9% || 100% |- | 1980 || 150,000 || 27,000 || 30,000 || 140,000 || 347,000 |- | Percentages || 43.2% || 7.7% || 8.6% || 40.3% || 100% |- | 2000 || 181,296 || 119,055 || 46,434 || 152,380 || 502,784 |- | Percentages || 36.1% || 23.6% || 9.2% || 30.3% || 100% |} ==Admixture== [[Image:Casta painting all.jpg|thumb|upright=1.14|''Las [[casta]]s''. 18th century, Museo Nacional del Virreinato, [[Tepotzotlán]], Mexico.]] Since European [[Colonialism|colonization]], Latin America's population has had a long history of intermixing. Today, many Latin Americans who have European ancestry, may have varying degrees of Indigenous or Sub-Saharan African ancestry as well. The ''[[casta]]'' categories used in 18th-century colonial Latin America designated people according to their ethnic or racial background, with the main classifications being ''[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indio]]'' (used to refer to Native American people), [[Spaniard]], and ''[[mestizo]]'', although the categories were rather fluid and inconsistently used. Under this system, those with one Indio great-grandparent but the remainder being Spaniards, were legally Spaniards. The offspring of a castizo and Spaniard was a Spaniard. The same was not true for African ancestry. As in Spain, persons of Moorish or Jewish ancestry within two generations were generally not allowed to enroll in the Spanish Army or the Catholic Church in the colonies, although this prohibition was inconsistently applied. Applicants to both institutions, and their spouses, had to obtain a ''[[Limpieza de sangre]]'' (purity of blood) certificate that proved that they had no Jewish or Moorish ancestors, in the same way as those in the Peninsula did. However, being a medieval concept that was more of a religious issue rather than a racial issue, it was never a problem for the native or slave populations in the colonies of the Spanish Empire, and by law people from all races were to join the army, with openly practicing Roman Catholicism being the only prerequisite. One notable example was that of [[Francisco Menendez (creole)|Francisco Menendez]], a freed-black military officer of the Spanish Army during the 18th century at the [[Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose]] fort in St. Augustine, Florida.<ref>{{cite book | title=Black society in Spanish Florida | publisher=University of Illinois Press | author=Landers, Jane | year=1999 | pages=29 | isbn=0-252-06753-3}}</ref> === European DNA === {| class="wikitable sortable" |-<!-- Please don't edit this without specifying a reliable reason on the Talk page! --> ! Country !! colspan="2"| European DNA average |- | [[Genetic history of Europe|Native European]]|| {{bartable|99||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Argentina<ref name="Paroli et al">{{cite journal|title=Genetic admixture patterns in Argentinian Patagonia|year=2019|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0214830|pmid=31206551|pmc=6576754 |doi-access=free |last1=Parolin |first1=María Laura |last2=Toscanini |first2=Ulises F. |last3=Velázquez |first3=Irina F. |last4=Llull |first4=Cintia |last5=Berardi |first5=Gabriela L. |last6=Holley |first6=Alfredo |last7=Tamburrini |first7=Camila |last8=Avena |first8=Sergio |last9=Carnese |first9=Francisco R. |last10=Lanata |first10=José L. |last11=Sánchez Carnero |first11=Noela |last12=Arce |first12=Lucas F. |last13=Basso |first13=Néstor G. |last14=Pereira |first14=Rui |last15=Gusmão |first15=Leonor |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=e0214830 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1414830P }}</ref>|| {{bartable|62||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Bolivia<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0058980 | doi-access=free | title=The Genetic Legacy of the Pre-Colonial Period in Contemporary Bolivians | year=2013 | last1=Taboada-Echalar | first1=Patricia | last2=Álvarez-Iglesias | first2=Vanesa | last3=Heinz | first3=Tanja | last4=Vidal-Bralo | first4=Laura | last5=Gómez-Carballa | first5=Alberto | last6=Catelli | first6=Laura | last7=Pardo-Seco | first7=Jacobo | last8=Pastoriza | first8=Ana | last9=Carracedo | first9=Ángel | last10=Torres-Balanza | first10=Antonio | last11=Rocabado | first11=Omar | last12=Vullo | first12=Carlos | last13=Salas | first13=Antonio | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=8 | issue=3 | pages=e58980 | pmid=23527064 | pmc=3604014 | bibcode=2013PLoSO...858980T }}</ref> || {{bartable|25||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Brazil<ref name="Interethnic">{{cite journal |last1=Salano |first1=F. |last2=Sanz |first2=M. |title=Interethnic admixture and the evolution of Latin American populations |journal=NIH National Library of Medicine |date=31 March 2014 |volume=37 |doi=10.1590/s1415-47572014000200003 |pmid=24764751 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3983580/ |access-date=7 October 2024}}</ref> || {{bartable|59||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Chile<ref name="Eyheramendy2015">{{cite journal |last1=Eyheramendy |first1=Susana |last2=Martinez |first2=Felipe I. |last3=Manevy |first3=Federico |last4=Vial |first4=Cecilia |last5=Repetto |first5=Gabriela M. |title=Genetic structure characterization of Chileans reflects historical immigration patterns |journal=Nature Communications |date=17 March 2015 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=6472 |doi=10.1038/ncomms7472 |pmid=25778948 |pmc=4382693 |bibcode=2015NatCo...6.6472E }}</ref> || {{bartable|54||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Colombia<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Criollo-Rayo |last2=et al |title=Colorectal Cancer Risk and Ancestry in Colombian admixed Populations |journal=medRxiv |date=2 March 2023 |doi=https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.03.02.23286692 |url=https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.03.02.23286692v1 |access-date=7 October 2024}}</ref> || {{bartable|51||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Costa Rica<ref name="Interethnic"/> || {{bartable|58||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Cuba<ref>{{cite journal | pmid=30061702 | year=2018 | last1=Fortes-Lima | first1=C. | last2=Bybjerg-Grauholm | first2=J. | last3=Marin-Padrón | first3=L. C. | last4=Gomez-Cabezas | first4=E. J. | last5=Bækvad-Hansen | first5=M. | last6=Hansen | first6=C. S. | last7=Le | first7=P. | last8=Hougaard | first8=D. M. | last9=Verdu | first9=P. | last10=Mors | first10=O. | last11=Parra | first11=E. J. | last12=Marcheco-Teruel | first12=B. | title=Exploring Cuba's population structure and demographic history using genome-wide data | journal=Scientific Reports | volume=8 | issue=1 | page=11422 | doi=10.1038/s41598-018-29851-3 | pmc=6065444 | bibcode=2018NatSR...811422F }}</ref> || {{bartable|71||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Ecuador<ref name="Ecuador genes">{{cite journal |last1=Gaviria |first1=Zambrano |display-authors=et al |title=The three-hybrid genetic composition of an Ecuadorian population using AIMs-InDels compared with autosomes, mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome data |journal=National Library of Medicine |date=25 June 2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=9247 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-45723-w |pmid=31239502 |pmc=6592923|bibcode=2019NatSR...9.9247Z }}</ref> || {{bartable|36||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | El Salvador<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0018442X14001036 | doi=10.1016/j.jchb.2014.08.005 | title=Admixture and genetic relationships of Mexican Mestizos regarding Latin American and Caribbean populations based on 13 CODIS-STRS | year=2015 | last1=Salazar-Flores | first1=J. | last2=Zuñiga-Chiquette | first2=F. | last3=Rubi-Castellanos | first3=R. | last4=Álvarez-Miranda | first4=J.L. | last5=Zetina-Hérnandez | first5=A. | last6=Martínez-Sevilla | first6=V.M. | last7=González-Andrade | first7=F. | last8=Corach | first8=D. | last9=Vullo | first9=C. | last10=Álvarez | first10=J.C. | last11=Lorente | first11=J.A. | last12=Sánchez-Diz | first12=P. | last13=Herrera | first13=R.J. | last14=Cerda-Flores | first14=R.M. | last15=Muñoz-Valle | first15=J.F. | last16=Rangel-Villalobos | first16=H. | journal=Homo | volume=66 | issue=1 | pages=44–59 | pmid=25435058 | hdl=11336/15953 | hdl-access=free }}</ref> || {{bartable|47||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Guatemala<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Söchtig |first1=J. |last2=et al |title=Genomic insights on the ethno-history of the Maya and the ‘Ladinos’ from Guatemala |journal=NIH National Library of Medicine |date=25 February 2015 |volume=16 |doi=10.1186/s12864-015-1339-1 |pmid=25887241 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4422311/ |access-date=7 October 2024}}</ref> || {{bartable|35||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Haiti<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fonte |first1=F. |title=45 Haitian AncestryDNA Results |url=https://tracingafricanroots.wordpress.com/2016/11/06/45-haitian-ancestrydna-results/ |website=Tracing African Roots |publisher=06 November 2016 |access-date=7 October 2024}}</ref> || {{bartable|11||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Honduras<ref name="Fuerst">{{Cite journal |last=Kirkegaard |first=Fuerst et |date=March 2016 |title=Estimación de la mezcla genética en la población de Nicaragua |trans-title=Admixture in the Americas: Regional and National Differences|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/298214364 |journal=ResearchGate |volume=56 |page=366 |language=en}}</ref> || {{bartable|50||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Mexico<ref name="Interethnic"/> || {{bartable|45||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Nicaragua<ref name="Fuerst"/> || {{bartable|57||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Panama<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castro-Pérez |first1=E. |last2=et al |title=Genetic Ancestry of the Panamanian Population: Polymorphic Structure, Chibchan Amerindian Genes; and Biological Perspectives on Diseases |journal=Internet Scientific Publications |date=2016 |volume=9 |doi=10.5580/IJBA.44045 |url=https://ispub.com/IJBA/9/1/44045 |access-date=7 October 2024}}</ref> || {{bartable|25||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Paraguay<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simão |first1=F. |last2=et al |title=Making PrEP easy |journal=The Lancet HIV |date=April 2022 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=e226–e228 |doi=e226-e228 |url=https://www.fsigeneticssup.com/article/S1875-1768(17)30025-2/fulltext |access-date=7 October 2024}}</ref> || {{bartable|60||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Peru<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Asgari |first1=S. |last2=et al |title=Higher native Peruvian genetic ancestry proportion is associated with tuberculosis progression risk |journal=ScienceDirect |date=13 July 2022 |volume=2 |issue=7 |doi=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xgen.2022.100151 |pmid=100151 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666979X2200088X |access-date=7 October 2024}}</ref> || {{bartable|26||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Puerto Rico<ref name="Interethnic"/> || {{bartable|64||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Dom. Rep.<ref name="Genetic History">{{cite journal | doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1003925 | title=Reconstructing the Population Genetic History of the Caribbean | year=2013 | last1=Moreno-Estrada | first1=Andrés | last2=Gravel | first2=Simon | last3=Zakharia | first3=Fouad | last4=McCauley | first4=Jacob L. | last5=Byrnes | first5=Jake K. | last6=Gignoux | first6=Christopher R. | last7=Ortiz-Tello | first7=Patricia A. | last8=Martínez | first8=Ricardo J. | last9=Hedges | first9=Dale J. | last10=Morris | first10=Richard W. | last11=Eng | first11=Celeste | last12=Sandoval | first12=Karla | last13=Acevedo-Acevedo | first13=Suehelay | last14=Norman | first14=Paul J. | last15=Layrisse | first15=Zulay | last16=Parham | first16=Peter | last17=Martínez-Cruzado | first17=Juan Carlos | last18=Burchard | first18=Esteban González | last19=Cuccaro | first19=Michael L. | last20=Martin | first20=Eden R. | last21=Bustamante | first21=Carlos D. | journal=PLOS Genetics | volume=9 | issue=11 | pages=e1003925 | pmid=24244192 | pmc=3828151 | doi-access=free }}</ref> || {{bartable|57||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Uruguay<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonilla |first1=Carolina |last2=Bertoni |first2=Bernardo |last3=González |first3=Susana |last4=Cardoso |first4=Horacio |last5=Brum-Zorrilla |first5=Nadir |last6=Sans |first6=Mónica |title=Substantial native American female contribution to the population of Tacuarembó, Uruguay, reveals past episodes of sex-biased gene flow: Native American Admixture in Uruguay |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |date=May 2004 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=289–297 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.20025 |pmid=15101054 |s2cid=34341356 }}</ref> || {{bartable|69||2||background:#0080FF}} |- | Venezuela<ref name="Fuerst"/> || {{bartable|56||2||background:#0080FF}} |} == Self-identified Populations== The country with the largest number of self-identified Euro-Latino inhabitants in [[Latin America]] is Brazil, with 88 million out of 203.0 million total Brazilians,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibge.gov.br/en/home-eng.html?id_noticia=2018&id_pagina=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117081541/http://www.ibge.gov.br/english/presidencia/noticias/noticia_visualiza.php?id_noticia=2018&id_pagina=1|url-status=dead|title=IBGE &#124; Portal do IBGE &#124; IBGE|archive-date=January 17, 2013|website=www.ibge.gov.br}}</ref> or 43.4% of the total population, as of the 2022 census. Brazil's southern region contains the highest concentration, at 79% of the population self-identificated.<ref name="Igbe Brasil 2010">{{cite web |title=Censo Demográfico 2010: Características gerais da população, religião e pessoas com deficiência |trans-title=Census 2010: general characteristics of the population, religion and people with disabilities |url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/caracteristicas_religiao_deficiencia/default_caracteristicas_religiao_deficiencia.shtm |year=2010 |website=[[Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics|Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística]] |language=pt |access-date=7 October 2016}}</ref> [[Argentina]] received the largest number of post-colonial European immigrants, with more than 7 million,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/argentina/|title=Argentina - The World Factbook|website=www.cia.gov|date=14 April 2022}}</ref> second only to the United States, which received 24 million.In terms of percentage of the total population, [[Uruguay]] has the highest concentrations of self-identified or classified whites, who constitute +70% of their total population, while [[Honduras]] and [[El Salvador]] have the smallest classified white population, in a range of 1-13%. {| class="sortable wikitable" !Country!!Self identified (ethnic or skin color)!!Classified (cultural perception) |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Demographics of Argentina|Argentina]] |54<ref name="latinobarometro2023"/> |85<ref name="Lizcano"/> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Bolivia}} [[Demographics of Bolivia|Bolivia]] |5<ref name="BL">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bolivia/|title=Bolivia: People; Ethnic groups|work=CIA World Factbook|access-date=2007-11-26}}</ref> | 15<ref name=Lizcano/> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Demographics of Brazil|Brazil]] |44<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/english/estatistica/populacao/censo2022/caracteristicas_da_populacao/tabelas_pdf/tab3.pdf | title=IBGE &#124; Portal do IBGE &#124; IBGE }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://g1.globo.com/google/amp/economia/censo/noticia/2023/12/22/censo-2022-cor-ou-raca.ghtml | title=Censo 2022: Pela 1ª vez, Brasil se declara mais pardo que branco; populações preta e indígena também crescem | date=22 December 2023 | access-date=22 December 2023 | archive-date=22 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231222234415/https://g1.globo.com/google/amp/economia/censo/noticia/2023/12/22/censo-2022-cor-ou-raca.ghtml | url-status=live }}</ref> | |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Chile}} [[Demographics of Chile|Chile]] | 46<ref name="latinobarometro2023"/> | 53<ref name=Lizcano/> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Colombia}} [[Demographics of Colombia|Colombia]] | 23<ref name="latinobarometro2023">{{cite web |title=Raza/Etnia a la que pertenece |url=https://www.latinobarometro.org/latOnline.jsp |access-date=13 February 2024 |work=Latinobarómetro 2023 Colombia}}</ref> | 21<ref name=Lizcano/> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Costa Rica}} [[Demographics of Costa Rica|Costa Rica]] |34<ref name="latinobarometro2023"/> |83<ref name="Costa Rica">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Costa_Rica.html|title=Costa Rica|work=worldstatesmen.org}}</ref><ref name="LUN.COM Mobile">{{Cite web|url=http://www.lun.com/LunMobileIphone//Pages/NewsDetailMobile.aspx?dt=2013-11-23&BodyId=0&PaginaID=18&NewsID=246141&|title=LUN.COM Mobile}}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Cuba}} [[Demographics of Cuba|Cuba]] |64<ref>[http://www.one.cu/publicaciones/cepde/cpv2012/20140428informenacional/46_tabla_II_4.pdf official 2012 Census] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603230454/http://www.one.cu/publicaciones/cepde/cpv2012/20140428informenacional/46_tabla_II_4.pdf |date=June 3, 2014 }} |</ref> |37<ref name=Lizcano/> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Ecuador}} [[Demographics of Ecuador|Ecuador]] |2<ref name="Ecuador2022">{{cite web|url=https://www.primicias.ec/noticias/sociedad/censo-ecuador/resultados-poblacion-mestizos-afro-indigena/|title= Más mestizos, menos afros y pocos blancos: así se ven los ecuatorianos|website=Primicias|date=22 September 2023|accessdate=14 November 2023}}</ref> | 10<ref name=Lizcano/> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|El Salvador}} [[Demographics of El Salvador|El Salvador]] |13<ref>{{cite web |url=http://internacional.us.es/uploads/images/EL%20SALVADOR%202013.pdf |title=Voluntariado internacional 2013 – EL SALVADOR |publisher=Solidaridad Internacional Andalucía |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222091210/http://internacional.us.es/uploads/images/EL%20SALVADOR%202013.pdf |archive-date=2015-12-22 }}</ref><ref name="2007 El Salvador Census">{{cite web|url=http://www.digestyc.gob.sv/biblioteca/CENSOS/CENAPOVI2007/Tomo_IV_Vol.I_Municipios_Caracteristicas_Generales.pdf#page=336|title=VI Censo de población y V de vivienda 2007|page=273|publisher=Dirección General de Estadística y Censos|access-date=2021-05-02|language=es|archive-date=2019-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220071530/http://www.digestyc.gob.sv/biblioteca/CENSOS/CENAPOVI2007/Tomo_IV_Vol.I_Municipios_Caracteristicas_Generales.pdf#page=336|url-status=dead}}</ref> |1<ref name=Lizcano/> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Guatemala}} [[Demographics of Guatemala|Guatemala]] | 5<ref name="latinobarometro2023"/> | 4<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lizcano Fernandez |first1=Francisco |title=Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1405-14352005000200185 |journal=Convergencia |date=August 2005 |volume=12 |issue=38 |pages=185–232 |access-date=23 July 2021}}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Haiti}} [[Demographics of Haiti|Haiti]] | |5<ref name="CIA World Factbook : Haiti">[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/haiti/ CIA World Factbook : Haiti].</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Honduras}} [[Demographics of Honduras|Honduras]] |8<ref>Honduras - XVII Censo de Población y VI de Vivienda 2013. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210225073620/http://170.238.108.229/index.php/catalog/69/vargrp/VG8]</ref> |1<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.embajadahonduras.org.mx/v1/cultura.php|title=Embajada de Honduras en México|website=Embajadahonduras.org.mx|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222170837/http://www.embajadahonduras.org.mx/v1/cultura.php|archive-date=2015-12-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.latribuna.hn/2015/07/25/conozcas-mas-de-nuestras-costumbres-y-tradiciones/|title=Conozca más de nuestras costumbres y tradiciones|work=Diario La Tribuna Honduras|access-date=2015-12-28|archive-date=2015-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222160020/http://www.latribuna.hn/2015/07/25/conozcas-mas-de-nuestras-costumbres-y-tradiciones/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Mexico}} [[Demographics of Mexico|Mexico]] |41<ref name="conapred21Marzo2">{{cite web |url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf|title=21 de Marzo: Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial|trans-title=March 21: International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination |language=es|publisher=[[National Council to Prevent Discrimination|CONAPRED]]|location=Mexico|page=7|date=2017|access-date=August 23, 2017 |archive-date=May 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525133622/http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="conapredEncuesta">{{cite web |url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf |title=Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico 2010|trans-title=National Survey on Discrimination in Mexico 2010|language=es |publisher=CONAPRED|location=Mexico |date=June 2011|access-date=August 24, 2017|url-status=live |archive-date=November 8, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108095738/http://www.conapred.org.mx/userfiles/files/Enadis-2010-RG-Accss-002.pdf}}</ref> |20<ref name=BritannicaMex>''Approximately two fifths''{{cite encyclopedia |title=Mexico: Ethnic groups |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/Ethnic-groups |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=March 8, 2024}}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Nicaragua}} [[Demographics of Nicaragua|Nicaragua]] |9<ref>Latinobarómetro 2020. [https://www.latinobarometro.org/latOnline.jsp] "Raza/Etnia a la que pertenece"</ref> |17<ref>{{cite web |title=Nicaragua |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nicaragua/Plant-and-animal-life#ref277483 |website=britannica.com |publisher=BRITANNICA |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Panama}} [[Demographics of Panama|Panama]] |15<ref name="latinobarometro2023"/> |10<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espana.panamaemb.gob.pa/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=62&Itemid=43|title=Cultura y Etnias|website=Espana.panamaemb.gob.pa|access-date=8 October 2017}}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Paraguay}} [[Demographics of Paraguay|Paraguay]] |23<ref name="latinobarometro2023"/> |20<ref name=Lizcano/> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Peru}} [[Demographics of Peru|Peru]] | 6<ref name="census2017">{{cite web|url=https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1539/libro.pdf |title=Censo 2017 Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico |page = 214 |website = Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática|accessdate=22 November 2023}}</ref> | 12<ref name=Lizcano/> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Puerto Rico}} [[Demographics of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]] (U.S) |17<ref name="2020PRCensus"/> | |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Dominican Republic}} [[Demographics of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]] |18<ref name="ONE-Encuesta-Autopercepcion">{{cite web|date=September 2021|location=Santo Domingo |title=Breve Encuesta Nacional de Autopercepción Racial y Étnica en la República Dominicana |publisher=Oficina Nacional de Estadística de la República Dominicana|url=https://dominicanrepublic.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/encuesta_nacional_de_autopercepcion_racial_y_etnica_en_rd_100322.pdf|page=22|accessdate=December 8, 2022}}</ref> | |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Demographics of Uruguay|Uruguay]] |58<ref name="latinobarometro2023"/> |88<ref name="Lizcano"/><ref name=CIA>{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |title=Uruguay |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |location=Langley, Virginia |year=2016 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/uruguay/ |access-date=1 January 2017}}</ref> |- bgcolor=#ffffff |{{flagicon|Venezuela}} [[Demographics of Venezuela|Venezuela]] |44<ref name="Census2011" /><ref name="ine.gob.ve">{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.gob.ve/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=95&Itemid=26|title=DEMOGRÁFICOS : Censos de Población y Vivienda|website=Ine.gov.ve|access-date=8 October 2017}}</ref> |17<ref name=Lizcano/> |} == European influence by country == ===North America=== ====Mexico==== {{Main|Mexicans of European descent|Immigration to Mexico|Mexican people}} The European influence in Mexico started by Spanish immigrants who arrived mainly from northern regions of Spain such as [[Cantabria]], [[Navarra]], [[Asturias]], [[Burgos]], [[Galicia Spain|Galicia]] and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]];<ref name="MinerosYcomerciantes">{{cite book |last1=Brading |first1=David A. |title=Mineros y comerciantes en el México borbónico (1763-1810) |date=1975 |publisher=Fondo de Cultura Economica |isbn=978-607-16-2741-4 |page=150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYH_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT150 }}</ref> also in the 19th and 20th century many non-[[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] immigrants arrived to the country, either motivated by economic opportunity (Americans, Canadians, English), government programs (Italians, Irish, Germans) or political motives such as the French during the [[Second Mexican Empire]].<ref name="extranjeros">{{cite journal |last1=Palma Mora |first1=Mónica |title=Asociaciones de inmigrantes extranjeros en la ciudad de México: Una mirada a fines del siglo XX |trans-title=Associations of foreign immigrants in Mexico City. A look at the end of the 20th century |language=es |journal=Migraciones Internacionales |date=December 2005 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=29–57 |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S1665-89062005000200002&script=sci_arttext }}</ref><ref name="religiosa">{{cite journal |last1=Enciso |first1=Fernando Saúl Alanís |title=Los extranjeros en México, la inmigración y el gobierno: ¿tolerancia o intolerancia religiosa?, 1821-1830 |trans-title=Foreigners in Mexico, immigration and the government: tolerance or religious intolerance?, 1821-1830 |language=es |journal=Historia Mexicana |date=1996 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=539–566 |url=https://historiamexicana.colmex.mx/index.php/RHM/article/view/2316 |jstor=25139003 }}</ref> In the 20th century, international political instability was a key factor to drive immigration to Mexico; in this era Greeks, Armenians, Poles, Russians, Lebanese, Palestinians and Jews,<ref name="religiosa"/> along with many Spanish refugees fleeing the [[Spanish Civil War]], also settled in Mexico<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/espanol/schedule|title=HISTORY TV Schedule|website=HISTORY}}</ref> whereas in the 21st century, due to Mexico's economic growth, immigration from Europe has increased (mainly France and Spain), people from the United States have arrived as well, nowadays making up more than three-quarters of Mexico's roughly one million legal migrants. In that time, more people from the United States have been added to the population of Mexico than Mexicans to that of the United States, according to government data in both nations.<ref name="For Migrants, New Land of Opportunity Is Mexico">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/22/world/americas/for-migrants-new-land-of-opportunity-is-mexico.html|title=For Migrants, New Land of Opportunity Is Mexico|date=22 September 2013|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Mexico's northern and western regions have the highest percentages of [[Ethnic groups of Europe|European]] population, according to the American historian [[Howard F. Cline]] the majority of Mexicans in these regions have no native admixture and their aspect resemble that of [[Spaniards|northern Spaniards]].<ref name="UnitedStatesandMexico">{{cite book|author1=Howard F. Cline|title=THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPl8c4XINgoC&q=northern+spanish|access-date=May 18, 2017|date=1963|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674497061|page=104}}</ref> In the north and west of Mexico, the indigenous tribes were substantially smaller than those found in central and southern Mexico, and also much less organized, thus they remained isolated from the rest of the population or even in some cases were hostile towards Mexican colonists. Because of this, Europeans often were the most numerous ethnic group within colonial cities in northern and western Mexico (albeit this trend is also seen in large central Mexican cities such as Mexico City) and became the regions with the highest proportion of whites during the [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|Spanish colonial period]].<ref name="EnsayospoblaciónMéxico">{{cite book|author1=Sherburne Friend Cook|last2=Borah|first2=Woodrow|title=Ensayos sobre historia de la población. México y el Caribe 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSCVztyTANcC&pg=PA223|access-date=September 12, 2017|date=1998|publisher=Siglo XXI|isbn=9789682301063|page=223}}</ref><ref>[https://fsu.digital.flvc.org/islandora/object/fsu:182427/datastream/PDF/view "Household Mobility and Persistence in Guadalajara, Mexico: 1811–1842, page 62"], ''fsu org'', 8 December 2016. Retrieved on 9 December 2018.</ref> However, recent immigrants from southern Mexico have been changing, to some degree, its demographic trends. Estimates of Mexico's white population differ greatly in both, methodology and percentages given, extra-official sources such as the World factbook and Encyclopædia Britannica, which use the 1921 census results as the base of their estimations calculate Mexico's White population as only 9%<ref name=CIA-Factbook>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/|title=The World Factbook: North America: Mexico: People and Society|publisher=The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)|quote=mestizo (Amerindian-Spanish) 62%, predominantly Amerindian 21%, Amerindian 7%, other 10% (mostly European)|access-date=August 23, 2017}}</ref> or between one tenth to one fifth<ref name=Britannica2>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/Ethnic-groups|title=Mexico: Ethnic groups|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=August 23, 2017}} Ethnic composition (2010): 64.3% mestizo; 15% Mexican white; 10.5% detribalized Amerindian; 7.5% other Amerindian; 1% Arab; 0.5% Mexican black; 1.2% other.</ref> (the results of the 1921 census, however, have been contested by various historians and deemed inaccurate).<ref name="MexicoRacista1">{{cite book|last1=Navarrete|first1=Federico|title=Mexico Racista|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FC_4CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT86|access-date=February 23, 2018|date=2016|publisher=Penguin Random house Grupo Editorial Mexico|isbn=9786073143646|page=86}}</ref> Surveys that account for phenotypical traits and have performed actual field research suggest rather higher percentages: using the presence of [[blond hair]] as reference to classify a Mexican as white, the [[Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana|Metropolitan Autonomous University of Mexico]] calculated the percentage of said ethnic group at 23%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ortiz-Hernández |first1=Luis |last2=Compeán-Dardón |first2=Sandra |last3=Verde-Flota |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Flores-Martínez |first4=Maricela Nanet |title=Racism and mental health among university students in Mexico City |journal=Salud Pública de México |date=April 2011 |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=125–133 |doi=10.1590/s0036-36342011000200005 |pmid=21537803 |doi-access=free }}</ref> With a similar methodology, the [[American Sociological Association]] obtained a percentage of 18.8% having its higher frequency on the North region (22.3%–23.9%) followed by the Center region (18.4%–21.3%) and the South region (11.9%).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Villarreal |first1=Andrés |title=Stratification by Skin Color in Contemporary Mexico |journal=American Sociological Review |date=2010 |volume=75 |issue=5 |pages=652–678 |doi=10.1177/0003122410378232 |jstor=20799484 |s2cid=145295212 }}</ref> Another study made by the [[University College London]] in collaboration with Mexico's [[Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia|National Institute of Anthropology and History]] found that the frequencies of blond hair and light eyes in Mexicans are of 18% and 28% respectively,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ruiz-Linares |first1=Andrés |last2=Adhikari |first2=Kaustubh |last3=Acuña-Alonzo |first3=Victor |last4=Quinto-Sanchez |first4=Mirsha |last5=Jaramillo |first5=Claudia |last6=Arias |first6=William |last7=Fuentes |first7=Macarena |last8=Pizarro |first8=María |last9=Everardo |first9=Paola |last10=de Avila |first10=Francisco |last11=Gómez-Valdés |first11=Jorge |last12=León-Mimila |first12=Paola |last13=Hunemeier |first13=Tábita |last14=Ramallo |first14=Virginia |last15=Silva de Cerqueira |first15=Caio C. |last16=Burley |first16=Mari-Wyn |last17=Konca |first17=Esra |last18=de Oliveira |first18=Marcelo Zagonel |last19=Veronez |first19=Mauricio Roberto |last20=Rubio-Codina |first20=Marta |last21=Attanasio |first21=Orazio |last22=Gibbon |first22=Sahra |last23=Ray |first23=Nicolas |last24=Gallo |first24=Carla |last25=Poletti |first25=Giovanni |last26=Rosique |first26=Javier |last27=Schuler-Faccini |first27=Lavinia |last28=Salzano |first28=Francisco M. |last29=Bortolini |first29=Maria-Cátira |last30=Canizales-Quinteros |first30=Samuel |last31=Rothhammer |first31=Francisco |last32=Bedoya |first32=Gabriel |last33=Balding |first33=David |last34=Gonzalez-José |first34=Rolando |display-authors=5 |title=Admixture in Latin America: Geographic Structure, Phenotypic Diversity and Self-Perception of Ancestry Based on 7,342 Individuals |journal=PLOS Genetics |date=25 September 2014 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=e1004572 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004572 |pmid=25254375 |pmc=4177621 |doi-access=free }}</ref> surveys that use as reference skin color such as those made by Mexico's [[National Council to Prevent Discrimination]] and Mexico's [[National Institute of Statistics and Geography]] reported a percentages of 47% in 2010<ref name="conapred21Marzo">{{cite web|url=http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf|title=21 de Marzo: Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial|trans-title=March 21: International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination|language=es|publisher=[[National Council to Prevent Discrimination|CONAPRED]]|location=Mexico|page=7|date=2017|access-date=August 23, 2017|archive-date=May 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525133622/http://www.conapred.org.mx/documentos_cedoc/21_Marzo_DiaIntElimDiscRacial_INACCSS.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> and 49% in 2017<ref name=MMSI2>[http://bibliodigitalibd.senado.gob.mx/bitstream/handle/123456789/3525/JASC%2520IBD%2520MMSI%25202016%2520V1.0.pdf?sequence=6&isAllowed=y " Visión INEGI 2021 Dr. Julio Santaella Castell"], ''INEGI'', 03 July 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.</ref><ref name=MMSI1>[http://www.inegi.org.mx/saladeprensa/boletines/2017/mmsi/mmsi2017_06.pdf "Resultados del Modulo de Movilidad Social Intergeneracional"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709120023/http://www.inegi.org.mx/saladeprensa/boletines/2017/mmsi/mmsi2017_06.pdf |date=2018-07-09 }}, ''INEGI'', 16 June 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.</ref> respectively. Another survey published in 2018 reported a percentage significantly lower at 29%,<ref name=ENADIS2017-1>[http://www.cndh.org.mx/sites/all/doc/OtrosDocumentos/Doc_2018_061.pdf "Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación 2017"], ''CNDH'', 6 August 2018, Retrieved on 10 August 2018.</ref> this time however, the surveying of Mexicans from "vulnerable groups" was prioritized, which among other measures meant that states known to have high numbers of people from said groups surveyed more people.<ref name=ENADIS2017-2>[http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/enadis/2017/doc/enadis2017_diseno_muestral.pdf "Encuesta Nacional sobre Discriminación 2017. ENADIS. Diseño muestral. 2018"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810235340/http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/proyectos/enchogares/especiales/enadis/2017/doc/enadis2017_diseno_muestral.pdf |date=2018-08-10 }}, ''INEGI'', 6 August 2018, Retrieved on 10 August 2018.</ref> A study performed in hospitals of Mexico City reported that an average 51.8% of Mexican newborns presented the [[Congenital disorder|congenital]] skin [[birthmark]] known as the [[Mongolian spot]] whilst it was absent in 48.2% of the analyzed babies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Magaña |first1=Mario |last2=Valerio |first2=Julia |last3=Mateo |first3=Adriana |last4=Magaña-Lozano |first4=Mario |title=Alteraciones cutáneas del neonato en dos grupos de población de México |trans-title=Skin lesions two cohorts of newborns in Mexico City |language=es |journal=Boletín médico del Hospital Infantil de México |date=April 2005 |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=117–122 |url=http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1665-11462005000200005 }}</ref> The Mongolian spot appears with a very high frequency (85-95%) in Native American, and African children, but can be present in some individuals in the Mediterranean populations.<ref>{{cite book|page=90|edition=3, illustrated|year=1999|access-date=May 17, 2014|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|author=Miller|title=Nursing Care of Older Adults: Theory and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nJ3pBEh1osMC&q=ines+mongolian+spot|isbn=0781720761}}</ref> The skin lesion reportedly almost always appears on South American<ref name=med>{{cite journal|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1068732-overview#a0199|title=Congenital Dermal Melanocytosis (Mongolian Spot): Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology|date=7 January 2017|access-date=8 October 2017|website=EMedicine.medscape.com}}</ref> and Mexican children who are racially [[Mestizo]]s,<ref>{{cite book|page=197|year=2012|access-date=May 17, 2014|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|editor1=Lawrence C. Parish|editor2=Larry E. Millikan|others=M. Amer, R.A.C. Graham-Brown, S.N. Klaus, J.L. Pace|title=Global Dermatology: Diagnosis and Management According to Geography, Climate, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2JXwBwAAQBAJ&q=spanish+mongolian+spot&pg=PA197|isbn=978-1461226147}}</ref> while having a very low frequency (5–10%) in European children.<ref name=tokyo>{{cite web|url=http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/msp/about.htm|title=About Mongolian Spot|work=tokyo-med.ac.jp|access-date=1 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208184218/http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/msp/about.htm|archive-date=8 December 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to the [[Mexican Social Security Institute]] (shortened as IMSS) nationwide, around half of Mexican babies have the Mongolian spot.<ref>[http://archivo.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/822893.html "Tienen manchas mongólicas 50% de bebés"], ''El Universal'', January 2012. Retrieved on 3 July 2017.</ref> ===Caribbeans=== {{Main|White Caribbeans}} ====Cuba==== {{Main|Cubans}} Self-identified white people in Cuba make up 64.1% of the total population, according to the census of 2012,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.one.cu/ |title=2012 Cuban Census |publisher=One.cu |date=2006-04-28 |access-date=2014-04-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.latercera.com/noticia/mundo/2013/11/678-550807-9-censo-en-cuba-concluye-que-la-poblacion-decrece-envejece-y-se-vuelve-cada-vez.shtml|title=Censo en Cuba concluye que la población decrece, envejece y se vuelve cada vez más mestiza|last=Copesa|first=Grupo|date=8 November 2013|work=latercera.com|access-date=22 May 2014|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305020219/http://www.latercera.com/noticia/mundo/2013/11/678-550807-9-censo-en-cuba-concluye-que-la-poblacion-decrece-envejece-y-se-vuelve-cada-vez.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> with the majority being of Spanish descent. However, after the mass exodus resulting from the [[Cuban Revolution]] in 1959, Cuba's white population diminished. Today, the various records that claim to show the percentage of whites in Cuba are conflicting and uncertain; some reports (usually coming from Cuba) still report a similar-to-pre-1959 number of 65%, and others (usually from outside observers) report 40–45%. Although most white Cubans are of [[Spanish immigration to Cuba|Spanish descent]], others may have [[French immigration to Cuba|French]], Portuguese, German, [[Italian Cuban|Italian]], or Russian ancestry.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cubagenweb.org/french/index.htm#refugees |title=Etat des propriétés rurales appartenant à des Français dans l'île de Cuba}} (from [http://www.cubagenweb.org Cuban Genealogy Center])</ref> During the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, large waves of [[Canarian people|Canarians]], [[Catalan people|Catalans]], [[Andalusian people|Andalusians]], [[Castilian people|Castilians]], and [[Galician people|Galicians]] immigrated to Cuba. Between 1901 and 1958, more than a million Spaniards arrived in Cuba from Spain; many of these and their descendants left after Castro's Communist [[Cuban Revolution|regime took power]]. The country also saw [[History of the Jews in Cuba|Jewish immigrants]] coming to the country.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/02/04/travel/04journeys.html?em&ex=1170824400&en=254a263b2686376e&ei=5087%0A |title=In Cuba, Finding a Tiny Corner of Jewish Life |access-date=2008-11-19 | work=The New York Times | date=2007-02-04}}</ref> Historically, Chinese descendants in Cuba were classified as white. Though more recent censuses would add a yellow (or amarilla) racial category before its removal in 21st century census results.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digital.tcl.sc.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/CCC&CISOPTR=1683&REC=5&CISOBOX=foreign|title=Report on the Census of Cuba, Census of Cuba 1899|website=Digital.tcl.sc.edu|access-date=28 April 2022|pages=81}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=El Color de la Piel según el Censo de Población y Viviendas|url=http://www.onei.gob.cu/sites/default/files/publicacion_completa_color_de_la_piel__0.pdf|access-date=8 February 2022|website=Cuba Statistics and Information|pages=8, 17–18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121050600/http://www.onei.gob.cu/sites/default/files/publicacion_completa_color_de_la_piel__0.pdf|archive-date=21 January 2022}}</ref> An autosomal study from 2014 found the genetic makeup in Cuba to be 72% European, 20% African, and 8% Native American with different proportions depending on the self-reported ancestry (White, Mulatto or Mestizo, and Black). According to this study Whites are on average 86% European, 6.7% African and 7.8% Native American with European ancestry ranging from 65% to 99%. 75% of whites are over 80% European and 50% are over 88% European<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marcheco-Teruel |first1=B |last2=Parra |first2=EJ |last3=Fuentes-Smith |first3=E |last4=Salas |first4=A |last5=Buttenschøn |first5=HN |last6=Demontis |first6=D |last7=Torres-Español |first7=M |last8=Marín-Padrón |first8=LC |last9=Gómez-Cabezas |first9=EJ |last10=Alvarez-Iglesias |first10=V |last11=Mosquera-Miguel |first11=A |last12=Martínez-Fuentes |first12=A |last13=Carracedo |first13=A |last14=Børglum |first14=AD |last15=Mors |first15=O |display-authors=5 |title=Cuba: Exploring the History of Admixture and the Genetic Basis of Pigmentation Using Autosomal and Uniparental Markers |year=2014 |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=e1004488 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004488 |pmid=25058410 |pmc=4109857 |doi-access=free }}</ref> According to a study in 2011 Whites are on average 5.8% African with African ancestry ranging from 0% to 13%. 75% of whites are under 8% African and 50% are under 5% African.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Teruel |first1=Beatriz Marcheco |last2=Rodríguez |first2=Juan J Llibre |last3=McKeigue |first3=Paul |last4=Mesa T |first4=Teresa Collazo |last5=Fuentes |first5=Evelyn |last6=Cepero A |first6=Adolfo Valhuerdi |last7=Hernandez |first7=Milagros A Guerra |last8=Copeland JRM |first8=John RM |last9=Ferri |first9=Cleusa P |last10=Prince |first10=Martin J |title=Interactions between genetic admixture, ethnic identity, APOE genotype and dementia prevalence in an admixed Cuban sample; a cross-sectional population survey and nested case-control study |journal=BMC Medical Genetics |date=December 2011 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=43 |doi=10.1186/1471-2350-12-43 |pmid=21435264 |pmc=3079615 |doi-access=free }}</ref> A study from 2009 analysed the genetic structure of the three principal ethnic groups from [[Havana]] City (209 individuals), and the contribution of parental populations to its genetic pool. A contribution from [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] was not detectable in the studied sample.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cintado |first1=A. |last2=Companioni |first2=O. |last3=Nazabal |first3=M. |last4=Camacho |first4=H. |last5=Ferrer |first5=A. |last6=De Cossio |first6=M. E. Fernandez |last7=Marrero |first7=A. |last8=Ale |first8=M. |last9=Villarreal |first9=A. |last10=Leal |first10=L. |last11=Casalvilla |first11=R. |last12=Benitez |first12=J. |last13=Novoa |first13=L. |last14=Diaz-Horta |first14=O. |last15=Dueñas |first15=M. |title=Admixture estimates for the population of Havana City |journal=Annals of Human Biology |date=1 January 2009 |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=350–360 |doi=10.1080/03014460902817984 |pmid=19381988 |s2cid=10307820 }}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center; font-size: 100%;" ! Self-reported ancestry ! European ! African ! Native American |- | White||86%||6.7%||7.8% |- | White (Havana)||86%||14%||0% |- | Mulatto/Mestizo||50.8%||45.5%||3.7% |- | Mulatto/Mestizo (Havana)||60%||40%||0% |- | Black||29%||65.5%||5.5% |- | Black (Havana)||23%||77%||0% |} ====Dominican Republic==== {{Main|White Dominicans}} The 1750 estimates show that there were 30,863 whites, out of a total population of 70,625, in the colony of Santo Domingo.<ref name=Haines>[https://books.google.com/books?id=BPdgiysIVcgC&dq=17%2C572+whites%3B+5%2C037+22%2C274++44%2C883&pg=PA495 A Population History of North America] By Michael R. Haines, Richard H. Steckel</ref> The census of 1920 was the first national enumeration. The second census, taken in 1935, covered race, religion, literacy, nationality, labor force, and urban–rural residence.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dominican Republic, Summary of Biostatistics: Maps and Charts, Population, Natality and Mortality Statistics |date=1945 |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census |page=5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OE3XAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA5 }}</ref> The [[2022 Dominican Republic Census]] will be the first census since 1960 to gather data on ethnic identification.<ref name="acento.com.do">{{cite web | url=https://acento.com.do/opinion/el-tema-etnico-racial-en-los-censos-nacionales-de-poblacion-de-rd-y-3-9114716.html | title=El tema étnico-racial en los censos nacionales de población de RD (Y 3) |language=Spanish |date=5 October 2022|accessdate=6 April 2023}}</ref> {| class="sort wikitable" style="font-size: 95%" !colspan=5|Identifying as European / white 1750-1960 |- ! style="text-align:center;"| Year ! style="text-align:center;"| Population ! style="text-align:center;"| Percent ! style="text-align:center;"| {{abbr|Ref(s)|Reference(s)}} |- |1750 |30,863 |43.7 |<ref name=Haines/><ref name=Engerman>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-73770-3_3 |chapter=The demographic structure of the Caribbean slave Societies in the eighteenth and nineteenth Centuries |title=General History of the Caribbean |year=2003 |last1=Engerman |first1=Stanley L. |last2=Higman |first2=B. W. |pages=45–104 |isbn=978-1-349-73772-7 }}{{Blockquote|PUERTO RICO: 17,572 whites; 5,037 slaves; 22,274 freed coloured people; total- 44,883. CUBA: 116,947 whites; 28,760 slaves; 24,293 freed coloured people; total- 170,000. SANTO DOMINGO: 30,863 whites; 8,900 slaves; 30,862 freed coloured people; total- 70,625. TOTAL SPANISH COLONIES: 165,382 whites; 42,967 slaves; 77,429 freed coloured people; total- 285,508.}}</ref><br /> |- |1790 |40,000 |32.0 |<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=WtywBgAAQBAJ&dq=40%2C000+whites+1790+santo+domingo&pg=PA41 Dominican Republic Foreign Policy and Government Guide Volume 1 Strategic] By IBP, Inc.</ref><ref name="Country Studies-Library Congress">{{cite book|title=Dominican Republic : country studies|date=December 1999|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|location=Washington, DC|isbn=0844410446|editor=Helen Chapin Metz|access-date=3 August 2013|chapter=The first colony|chapter-url=http://countrystudies.us/dominican-republic/3.htm|quote=As a result of the stimulus provided by the trade reforms, the population of the colony of Santo Domingo increased from about 6,000 in 1737 to approximately 125,000 in 1790. Of this number, about 40,000 were white landowners, about 25,000 were black or mulatto freedmen, and some 60,000 were slaves. The composition of Santo Domingo's population contrasted sharply with that of the neighboring French colony of Saint-Domingue, where some 30,000 whites and 27,000 freedmen extracted labor from at least 500,000 black slaves. To the Spanish colonists, Saint- Domingue represented a powder keg, the eventual explosion of which would echo throughout the island.|url=https://archive.org/details/dominicanrepubli00libr}} *{{cite book |title=Dominican Republic: country studies |date=December 1999 |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |location=Washington, DC |isbn=0-8444-1044-6 |editor=Helen Chapin Metz |editor-link=Helen Chapin Metz |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/2001023524/}}</ref> |- |1846 |80,000 |48.5 |<ref name="Historia-del-Pueblo-Dominicano">{{cite book|last=Franco Pichardo|first=Franklin J.|title=Historia del Pueblo Dominicano|publisher=Ediciones Taller|page=217|location=Santo Domingo|year=2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oHp7AAAAMAAJ&q=franklin+franco|access-date= 23 May 2013|language=es}}</ref><br /> |- |[[1920 Santo Domingo Census|1920]] |223,144 |24.9 |<ref name="1920Census">{{cite book|author=Frank Moya Pons|author-link=Frank Moya Pons|title=Breve Historia Contemporánea de la República Dominicana|year=1999|publisher=Fondo De Cultura Economica USA|page=62|language=es|quote=Según los datos del primer censo nacional, la población dominicana estaba compuesta por un 24.9% de blancos, (...) en 1920 había 223 144 blancos (...)}}</ref> |- |[[1935 Dominican Republic Census|1935]] |192,732 |13.0 |<ref name="Dominican Republic Census p41">{{cite book |title=Dominican Republic, Summary of Biostatistics: Maps and Charts, Population, Natality and Mortality Statistics |date=1945 |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OE3XAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA41 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pons |first1=Frank Moya |title=Historia de la República Dominicana |date=2010 |publisher=Editorial CSIC - CSIC Press |isbn=978-84-00-09240-5 |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wor3UqsHkToC&pg=PA51 }}</ref> |- |[[1950 Dominican Republic Census|1950]] |600,994 |28.14 |<ref name="1920Census"/> |- |[[1960 Dominican Republic Census|1960]] |489,580 |16.1 |<ref name=Censo>{{cite book|title=Cuarto censo nacional de población, 1960|date=1966|publisher=Oficina Nacional del Censo|page=32}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GlQMZUCvWpEC&dq=1935+dominicana+republica+1%2C479%2C417&pg=PA20 Power and Television in Latin America: The Dominican Case] By Antonio V. Menéndez Alarcó</ref> |- |2022 |TBD |TBD |<ref name="acento.com.do"/> |- |} They are 17.8% of the [[Dominican Republic]]'s population, according to a 2021 survey by the [[United Nations Population Fund]].<ref name="UNFPA-Encuesta-Autopercepcion">{{cite web|date=September 2021|location=Santo Domingo |title=Breve Encuesta Nacional de Autopercepción Racial y Étnica en la República Dominicana |publisher=Fondo de Población de las Naciones Unidas ([[United Nations Population Fund]])|url=https://dominicanrepublic.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/encuesta_nacional_de_autopercepcion_racial_y_etnica_en_rd_100322.pdf|page=22|accessdate=November 3, 2022}}</ref> with the vast majority being of Spanish descent. Notable other ancestries includes French, Italian, Lebanese, German, and Portuguese.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.suncaribbean.net/rd_laisla_origen_poblacion.htm|title=Origen de la población dominicana|access-date=2007-12-13|archive-date=2007-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230201113/http://www.suncaribbean.net/rd_laisla_origen_poblacion.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ub.es/geocrit/sn-94-65.htm |title=Revista Electrónica de Geografía y Ciencias Sociales |publisher=[[Universidad de Barcelona]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lacult.org/sitiospatrimonio/showitem.php?id=158 |title=Sitios patrimonio de la humanidad: San Pedro de Macorís, República Dominicana |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114022215/http://www.lacult.org/sitiospatrimonio/showitem.php?id=158 |archive-date=2009-01-14 }}</ref> The government of [[Rafael Trujillo|Rafael Leónidas Trujillo]] made a point of increasing the white population, or "[[Racial whitening|whitening]]" the racial composition of the country, by rejecting black immigrants from Haiti and local blacks as foreigners.<ref>{{cite web|first=Ernesto |last=Sagás |title=A Case of Mistaken Identity: Antihaitianismo in Dominican Culture |url=http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/misctopic/dominican/antihaiti.htm |access-date=2007-12-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008042155/http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/misctopic/dominican/antihaiti.htm |archive-date=2007-10-08 }}</ref> He also welcomed Jewish refugees in 1938 and Spanish farmers in the 1950s as part of this plan.<ref>{{cite web | first=Lauren | last=Levy | title=The Dominican Republic's Haven for Jewish Refugees | url =https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/sosua.html | work =Jerusalem Post | access-date = 2007-12-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title =...no hicieron Las Américas | url =http://portal.constanza.net/historia/historia/losquenohicieronlasamericas.php | work =El País | access-date =2007-12-08 | url-status =dead | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20071212100808/http://portal.constanza.net/historia/historia/losquenohicieronlasamericas.php | archive-date =2007-12-12 }}</ref> The country's German minority is the largest in the Caribbean.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dominican Republic |url=http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/diplo/en/Laender/DominikanischeRepublik.html |date=March 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020225950/http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/diplo/en/Laender/DominikanischeRepublik.html |archive-date=2006-10-20 |website=German [[Federal Foreign Office]] |access-date=6 April 2022}}</ref> ====Haiti==== {{main|White Haitian}} The white and the [[mulatto]] population of [[Haiti]] are classified about 5% of its population, while 95% is classified being African descent.<ref name="CIA World Factbook : Haiti"/> That 5% minority group comprises people of many different ethnic and national backgrounds, who are [[French people|French]], Spanish, Polish and other European ancestry,<ref name="haitimega">{{cite web |title=The Polish Influence in Casale, Haiti and Contribution to the Haitian Revolution |url=http://www.haitimega.com/Haiti_Grand_Anse-The_Polish_Influence_in_Casale_Haiti_and_Contribution_to_the_Haitian_Revolution/84117465590726656/article_86845847910949337.jsp |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225201837/http://www.haitimega.com/Haiti_Grand_Anse-The_Polish_Influence_in_Casale_Haiti_and_Contribution_to_the_Haitian_Revolution/84117465590726656/article_86845847910949337.jsp |archive-date=25 February 2014 |access-date=7 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://zmblackhistorymonth2011.blogspot.com/2011/02/feb-17-polish-haitians-how-they-came-to.html |title=Polish Haitians: How They Came to Be |access-date=6 February 2014|date=2011-02-17 }}</ref> as well as the [[Jewish diaspora]], arriving from the Polish legion and during the Holocaust,<ref name="haitimega"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/haiti.html |title=Haiti |publisher=[[Jewish Virtual Library]] |access-date=2014-02-07}}</ref> [[Germanic peoples|Germans]] (18th century and {{no wrap|[[World War I]]}}),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prevalhaiti.com/messages/7983 |title=Haiti And The German Connection |access-date=30 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.northeastern.edu/haitinet/foreign-relations/#Germany |title=Haiti Net Foreign Relations |access-date=30 January 2014 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016021724/http://www.northeastern.edu/#Germany |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[Italian people|Italian]]. ====Puerto Rico==== {{Main|Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico|White Puerto Ricans}} [[File:RiefkohlyVergesChildren.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.27|The Riefkohl and Verges children of German descent in Maunabo, Puerto Rico (c. 1890s)]] An early census on the island was conducted by Governor Francisco Manuel de Lando in 1530. An exhaustive 1765 census was taken by Lieutenant General [[Alexander O'Reilly]], which, according to some sources, showed 17,572 whites out of a total population of 44,883.<ref name=Haines/><ref>[http://soph.md.rcm.upr.edu/demo/images/VazquezCalzada/Vazques-trabajos/Vazquez-1968-el%20crecimiento%20poblacional.pdf El crecimiento poblacional en Puerto Rico: 1493 al presente] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003174514/http://soph.md.rcm.upr.edu/demo/images/VazquezCalzada/Vazques-trabajos/Vazquez-1968-el%20crecimiento%20poblacional.pdf |date=2015-10-03 }} (Population of Puerto Rico 1493 - present) Page 11.</ref> The censuses from 1765 to 1887 were taken by the [[Spanish government]] who conducted them at irregular intervals. The [[1899 Puerto Rico Census|1899 census]] was taken by the United States War Department. Since 1910, Puerto Rico has been included in every decennial census taken by the United States. {| class="sort wikitable" style="font-size: 100%" !colspan=8|European / white population 1530 - 2020 |- ! Year ! Population ! % !scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{abbr|Ref(s)|Reference(s)}} ! Year ! Population ! % !scope="col" class="unsortable" | {{abbr|Ref(s)|Reference(s)}} |- | 1530||333{{smallsup|a}}, 426{{smallsup|b}}||8.0-10.0||<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sp.rcm.upr.edu/demo/images/CIDEclasico/Pob-politicaPublica/Francisco%20Moscoso-1995-El%20censo%20de%20Lando%201530%20historiografia%20y%20critica.pdf|title=El -Censo de Lando (1530)|website=Sp.rcm.edu|access-date=2 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004121248/http://sp.rcm.upr.edu/demo/images/CIDEclasico/Pob-politicaPublica/Francisco%20Moscoso-1995-El%20censo%20de%20Lando%201530%20historiografia%20y%20critica.pdf|archive-date=4 October 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[https://repasopcmasumet.files.wordpress.com/2008/12/hpr_s-xvi1.pdf HISTORIA DE PUERTO RICO] Page 17.</ref>||1887||474,933||59.5||<ref name="archive.org">{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/reportoncensusof00unitiala#page/58/mode/2up |title=Report on the census of Porto Rico, 1899 Census of "Porto Rico"|page=57|accessdate=10 November 2023}}</ref> |- | 1765||17,572|| - ||{{citation needed|date=June 2023|reason=previous citation led to irrelevant page}}||1897||573,187||64.3||<ref name="archive.org"/> |- | 1775||30,709||40.4||<ref name="soph.md.rcm.upr.edu">[http://soph.md.rcm.upr.edu/demo/images/VazquezCalzada/Vazques-trabajos/Vazquez-1968-el%20crecimiento%20poblacional.pdf El crecimiento poblacional en Puerto Rico: 1493 al presente] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003174514/http://soph.md.rcm.upr.edu/demo/images/VazquezCalzada/Vazques-trabajos/Vazquez-1968-el%20crecimiento%20poblacional.pdf |df=dmy-all |date=2015-10-03}} (Population of Puerto Rico 1493 - present)</ref>||1899||589,426||61.8||<ref name="archive.org"/> |- | 1787||46,756||45.5||<ref name="soph.md.rcm.upr.edu"/>||1910||732,555||65.5|||<ref name="www2.census.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/00476569ch4.pdf|title=Puerto Rico Census of 1910, 1920 & 1930|page=136|accessdate=10 November 2023}}</ref> |- | 1802||78,281||48.0||<ref name="archive.org"/>||1920||948,709||73.0|||<ref name="www2.census.gov"/> |- | 1812||85,662||46.8||<ref name="archive.org"/>||1930||1,146,719||74.3|||<ref name="www2.census.gov"/> |- | 1820'||102,432||44.4||<ref name="archive.org"/>||1940||1,430,744||76.5||<ref name="estadisticas.gobierno.pr">[http://www.estadisticas.gobierno.pr/iepr/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=O55JrWZok74%3D&tabid=186 The population of the United States and Puerto Rico] See (page 53-26).</ref> |- | 1827||150,311||49.7||<ref name="archive.org"/>||1950||1,762,411||79.7||<ref name="estadisticas.gobierno.pr"/> |- | 1830||162,311||50.1||<ref name="archive.org"/>|| 2000||3,064,862||80.5||<ref>[https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/phc-1-53-ENG.pdf Summary Population, Housing Characteristics.] Puerto Rico: 2000 Census. (Page 52).</ref> |- | 1836||188,869||52.9||<ref name="archive.org"/>|| 2010||2,825,100||75.8||<ref>[https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-1-53.pdf Puerto Rico: 2010 - Summary Population and Housing Characteristics] 2010 Census of Population and Housing.</ref> |- | 1860||300,406||51.5||<ref name="archive.org"/>||2020|| 561,884||17.1|| <ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.census.gov/library/stories/state-by-state/puerto-rico-population-change-between-census-decade.html|title= Puerto Rico Population Declined 11.8% From 2010 to 2020 |date=August 25, 2021|access-date= September 3, 2021}}</ref> |- | 1877||411,712||56.3||<ref name="archive.org"/>|||||||| |} In 2010, Self-identifierd white Puerto Ricans are said to comprise the majority of the island's population, with 75.8% of the population identifying as white.<ref>[http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/ 2010.census.gov] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102032304/http://2010.census.gov/2010census/data/ |date=January 2, 2011 }}</ref> Though in the 2020 U.S. census, this percentage dropped to 17.1%.<ref name="2020PRCensus"/> People of self-identified multiracial descent are now the largest demographic in the country, at 49.8%.<ref name="2020PRCensus"/> In 1899, one year after the U.S invaded and took control of the island, 61.8% identified as white. In 2000, for the first time in fifty years, the [[2000 United States Census|census]] asked people to define their race and found the percentage of whites had risen to 80.5% (3,064,862); not because there has been an influx of whites to the island (or an exodus of non-White people), but a change of race perceptions, mainly because Puerto Rican elites wished to portray Puerto Rico as the "white island of the Antilles", partly as a response to scientific racism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rigau-Pérez |first1=José G. |title=Strategies that led to the eradication of smallpox in Puerto Rico, 1882-1921 |journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine |date=1985 |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=75–88 |pmid=3886051 |id={{ProQuest|1296295316}} |jstor=44452038 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loveman |first1=Mara |last2=Muniz |first2=Jeronimo O. |title=How Puerto Rico Became White: Boundary Dynamics and Intercensus Racial Reclassification |journal=American Sociological Review |date=December 2007 |volume=72 |issue=6 |pages=915–939 |doi=10.1177/000312240707200604 |jstor=25472503 |s2cid=144405526 |citeseerx=10.1.1.563.9069 }}</ref> Geologist [[Robert T. Hill]] published a book titled Cuba and Porto Rico, with the other islands of the West Indies (1899), wrote that the island was "notable among the West Indian group for the reason that its preponderant population is of the white race"<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hill |first1=Robert Thomas |author-link1=Robert T. Hill |title=Cuba and Porto Rico: With the Other Islands of the West Indies: Their Topography, Climate, Flora, Products, Industries, Cities, People, Political Conditions, Etc |date=1899 |publisher=Century |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3eRAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA146 }}</ref> and "Porto Rico, at least, has not become [[Africanization|Africanized]]".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hill |first1=Robert Thomas |title=Cuba and Porto Rico: With the Other Islands of the West Indies: Their Topography, Climate, Flora, Products, Industries, Cities, People, Political Conditions, Etc |date=1899 |publisher=Century |page=165 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3eRAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA165 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.loc.gov/item/98001546/|title=Cuba and Porto Rico, with the other islands of the West Indies|date=1899|website=Library of Congress|accessdate=10 November 2023}}</ref> According to a [[genetic research]] by the [[University of Brasília]], Puerto Rican genetic admixture consists in a 60.3% European, 26.4% African, and 13.2% Amerindian ancestry.<ref name=Godinho2008>{{cite thesis |last1=Godinho |first1=Neide Maria de Oliveira |title=O impacto das migrações na constituição genética de populações latino-americanas |date=2008 |url=https://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/5542 |access-date=2020-11-22 |archive-date=2020-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112044147/https://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/5542 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Central America=== ====Costa Rica==== {{Main|Costa Rican people}} [[File:Familia Peters.PNG|thumb|left|upright=1|Family of German immigrants in Costa Rica]] From the late 19th century to when the [[Panama Canal]] opened, European migrants used Costa Rica to get across the isthmus of Central America to reach the west coast of the United States ([[California]]). The most recent [[2022 Costa Rican census]] recorded ethnic or racial identity for all groups separately for the first time in more than ninety-five years since the [[1927 Costa Rican census|1927 census]]. Options included indigenous, Black or Afro-descendant, Mulatto, Chinese, Mestizo, white and other on section IV: question 7.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://admin.inec.cr/sites/default/files/media/_por_que_se_hacen_estas_preguntas_1.pdf|title=INEC Cuestionario Censo 2022|website=INEC|date=2022|accessdate=6 April 2023}}</ref> Estimates of the percentage classified as white people vary between 77%<ref name="Costa Rica"/> and 82%,<ref name=Lizcano/> or about 3.1–3.5 million people. The white and mestizo populations combined equal 83%, according to the [[CIA World Factbook]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/costa-rica/|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov|date=10 May 2022 }}</ref> Many of the first Spanish colonists in Costa Rica may have been Jewish converts to Christianity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jcpa.org/dje/articles2/costarica.htm|title=The Jewish Community in Costa Rica|work=jcpa.org}}</ref> The first sizable group of self-identified Jews immigrated from diaspora communities in Poland, beginning in 1929. From the 1930s to the early 1950s, journalistic and official anti-Semitic campaigns fueled harassment of Jews; however, by the 1950s and 1960s, the immigrants won greater acceptance. Most of the 3,500 Costa Rican Jews today are not highly observant, but they remain largely endogamous.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.everyculture.com/Bo-Co/Costa-Rica.html|title=Culture of Costa Rica - history, people, women, beliefs, food, customs, family, social, marriage|work=everyculture.com}}</ref> A study done in Costa Rica, in the province of Guanacaste, revealed that the average genetic admixture was 45% European, 33% indigenous, 14.6% black and 5.8% Asian.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Wallace |first1=Arturo |title=¿Qué tan diferentes son en realidad los habitantes de Costa Rica a los del resto de los países centroamericanos? |url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-40017780 |newspaper=BBC News Mundo |access-date=22 December 2023}}</ref> ====El Salvador==== {{Main|Demographics of El Salvador}} [[File:FamiliaespañoladeGalicia.png|thumb|[[Galicians|Galician]] family in [[Chalatenango Department]]|alt=FamiliaespañoladeGalicia.png]] According to the official 2007 Census in El Salvador, 12.7% of Salvadorans identified as being "white",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.digestyc.gob.sv/servers/redatam/htdocs/CPV2007S/Docs/RESULTADOS_FINALES.pdf |title=Vi Censo de Población V de Vivienda 2007 |access-date=2015-12-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923214714/http://www.digestyc.gob.sv/servers/redatam/htdocs/CPV2007S/Docs/RESULTADOS_FINALES.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-23 }}{{unreliable source?|date=November 2020}}</ref> and 86.3% as mestizo.<ref>{{cite web |title=El Salvador-The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/el-salvador/ |website=The World Factbook |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref> Before the conquest it was the Central American nation with the lowest Amerindian population,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newson |first1=Linda |translator=Jorge Federico Travieso |title=El Costo de la Conquista |isbn=99926-15-57-5 |location=Tegusigalpa, Honduras |publisher=Editorial Guaymuras |date=1999 |url=https://guaymuras.hn/cienciassocialeslibro.php?idweb=40 |language=es}}</ref> due to diseases and hostility from Europeans, the Amerindian population fell precipitously.<ref>{{cite web |title=Historia de El Salvador |url=https://www.mined.gob.sv/descarga/cipotes/historia_ESA_TomoI_0_.pdf |website=mined.gob.sv |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref> This was due to the small indigenous population in the area and colonial governors wanting to repopulate the land with Europeans.<ref>{{cite web |title=La Gente Blanca de Chalatenango |url=https://chalatenango.sv/la-gente-blanca-de-chalatenango |website=chalatenango.sv |date=22 November 2011 |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Francois Louis Héctor de Carondelet |url=http://michel.turpain.pagesperso-orange.fr/pages/carondelet.htm |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref> Spaniards, mainly from Galicia and Asturias emigrated to El Salvador. Later, the country would experience other waves of other European immigrants, mainly Italian and Spaniards.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Colombo |first1=Alessandra |title=La storia degli italiani in El Salvador |date=10 July 2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/la-storia-degli-italiani-in-el-salvador |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jorge |first1=Ferrer |title=Españoles en El Salvador a fines del siglo XIX y principios del Siglo XX |date=6 September 2003 |url=https://archive.org/details/espanoles-en-el-salvador-a-fines-del-siglo-xix-y-principios-del-siglo-xx |access-date=20 July 2021}}</ref> The immigration of the time had a great demographic impact, since by 1880 there were 480,000 inhabitants in El Salvador, 40 years later in 1920, there were 1.2 million Salvadorans.<ref>{{cite web |title=EL SALVADOR:population growth |url=http://populstat.info/Americas/elsalvac.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321153053fw_/http://populstat.info/Americas/elsalvac.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2015-03-21 |website=Web Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Moises |first1=Gomez |title=er extranjero en Centroamérica. Génesis y evolución de las leyes de extranjería y migración en El Salvador: siglos XIX y XX |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315887603 |website=researchgate.net |publisher=Universidad Centroamericana "José Simeón Cañas" |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> During World War II, El Salvador gave documents to Jews from Hungary, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, and Switzerland. It is estimated that they were up to 40,000 immigrants,<ref>{{cite web |title=El Refugio en Latinoamerica |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/es/article/refuge-in-latin-america |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=La historia del diplomático católico que salvó 40 mil judíos del holocausto |url=https://www.aciprensa.com/noticias/la-historia-del-catolico-de-el-salvador-que-salvo-40-mil-judios-del-holocausto-78277 |website=aciprensa |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> and even up to 50,000.<ref>{{cite web |title=Salvadoreño Salvo a 50 mil judíos |url=https://www.univision.com/shows/noticiero-univision/salvadoreno-salvo-a-50-mil-judios-de-morir-video |website=Univisión |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Castellanos, el Schindler salvadoreño, salta a la gran pantalla |url=https://www.efe.com/efe/america/ame-hispanos/castellanos-el-schindler-salvadoreno-salta-a-la-gran-pantalla/20000034-2555134 |website=efe.com |access-date=21 July 2021}}</ref> Genetic study of the publication ''Genomic Components in America's demography'', in which geneticists from all over the continent and Japan participated, that the average genetic composition of the average Salvadoran is: 52% European, 40% Amerindian, 6% African and 2% Middle Eastern.<ref>https://c1.staticflickr.com/5/4307/35125440893_3566ed7714_o.jpg{{full citation needed|date=November 2020}}</ref> ====Guatemala==== {{Main|Guatemalans}} [[File:Italians in The Central Park of Guatemala City.jpg|thumbnail|right|Italians in the central park of Guatemala City (1900).]] In the recent 2018 Census, those mestizos and whites are included in one category ([[Ladino people|Ladinos]]), accounting 56% of population.<ref>[https://www.censopoblacion.gt/mapas Censo Población y Vivienda, 2018] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217015625/https://www.censopoblacion.gt/mapas |date=2019-12-17 }} INE (Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas).</ref> Into the category Ladino, include part of Amerindians culturally Hispanic along people of mixed heritage, part of mixed Guatemalans could have important European ancestry or being castizo (mixed+white), specially in Metropolitan Areas and the East. The most common European ancestry in Guatemalans mixed is [[Spanish (people)|Spanish]] descent, but there were [[German (people)|German]] and [[Italians|Italian]] migration throughout Nineteen and Twenty Century in the country<ref name=Schoonover>{{cite book |title=Hitler's Man in Havana: Heinz Luning and Nazi Espionage in Latin America |date=2008 |publisher=The University Press of Kentucky |location=United States of America |isbn=978-0-8131-2501-5 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CojTWMNxso4C&q=Hitler%27s+Man+in+Havana%3A+Heinz+Luning+and+Nazi+Espionage+in+Latin+America&pg=PA20 |first=Thomas |last=Schoonover |access-date=27 May 2014}}</ref> ====Honduras==== {{Main|Demographics of Honduras|Hondurans|Spanish migration to Honduras}} Honduras contains perhaps one of the smallest percentages of classified whites in Latin America, according some census with only about 3% classified in this group.<ref>{{Citation |title=English in Honduras |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781474205979.ch-003 |work=World Englishes : Volume III: Central America |year=2013 |publisher=Bloomsbury |doi=10.5040/9781474205979.ch-003 |isbn=978-1-4742-9854-4 |access-date=2022-06-16}}</ref> Another census indicates that only a 7.8% of the total population is white in Honduras.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Riaño |first=María Eugenia |date=2019-12-30 |title=Imputación de datos faltantes del Censo de Población y Vivienda de Uruguay utilizando técnicas de estadística espacial |journal=SaberEs |volume=11 |issue=2 |doi=10.35305/s.v11i2.202 |s2cid=212905166 |issn=1852-4222|doi-access=free }}</ref> During the 19th century several immigrants from [[Catalonia]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Eastern Europe]] arrived to Honduras. Some of these Europeans were Jews from the [[Russian Empire]], escaping the [[Pogrom|pogroms]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ventura Lara |first=Libny Rodrigo |date=2014-05-01 |title=El templo de Colohete (Honduras) y su significado simbólico |journal=Revista de Estudios Históricos de la Masonería Latinoamericana y Caribeña |volume=6 |issue=1 |doi=10.15517/rehmlac.v6i1.15228 |issn=1659-4223|doi-access=free }}</ref> Of these the majority are people of Spanish descent. There is an important Spanish community mostly located in the city of [[San Pedro Sula]] and [[Tegucigalpa]]. There are also people from [[Bay Islands Department|The Bay Islands]] who descend from British settlers (either [[English people|English]], [[Irish people|Irish]], or [[Scottish people|Scottish]]). Another large migratory group in Honduras is the Arabs, predominantly [[Palestinians]] and to a lesser extent [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-01-01 |title=Lebanese Diaspora leaders urge Christians Sunnis, Druse to resist Hezbollah – Ya Libnan |url=https://yalibnan.com/2011/01/01/lebanese-diaspora-leaders-urge-christians-sunnis-druse-to-resist-hezbollah/ |access-date=2023-12-10 |language=en-US}}</ref> Many of these [[Levantine Arabic|Levantine Arabs]] were classified as white in national censuses; around 300,000 Arabs live in Honduras. However, most Hondurans consider themselves as mestizos, regardless of their ethnic category, which is why it is difficult to determine the actual white population of Honduras.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rocha |first1=José Luis |title=Censo estadounidense 2010: cifras e implicaciones de la mayor presencia de centroamericanos en Estados Unidos |journal=Encuentro |date=13 December 2011 |issue=90 |pages=19–33 |doi=10.5377/encuentro.v44i90.598 |doi-access=free }}</ref> According to ''Admixture and genetic relationships of Mexican Mestizos regarding Latin American and Caribbean populations based on 13 CODIS-STRs'', the genetic composition of most Hondurans is 58.4% European, 36.2% Amerindian, and 5.4% African.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salazar-Flores |first1=J. |last2=Zuñiga-Chiquette |first2=F. |last3=Rubi-Castellanos |first3=R. |last4=Álvarez-Miranda |first4=J. L. |last5=Zetina-Hérnandez |first5=A. |last6=Martínez-Sevilla |first6=V. M. |last7=González-Andrade |first7=F. |last8=Corach |first8=D. |last9=Vullo |first9=C. |last10=Álvarez |first10=J. C. |last11=Lorente |first11=J. A. |last12=Sánchez-Diz |first12=P. |last13=Herrera |first13=R. J. |last14=Cerda-Flores |first14=R. M. |last15=Muñoz-Valle |first15=J. F. |last16=Rangel-Villalobos |first16=H. |title=Admixture and genetic relationships of Mexican Mestizos regarding Latin American and Caribbean populations based on 13 CODIS-STRs |journal=HOMO |date=1 February 2015 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=44–59 |doi=10.1016/j.jchb.2014.08.005 |pmid=25435058 |url=http://www.dspace.uce.edu.ec/handle/25000/4043 |hdl=11336/15953 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> ====Nicaragua==== {{Main|Nicaraguan|Demographics of Nicaragua}} According to a 2014 research published in the journal ''Genetics and Molecular Biology'' and to a 2010 research published in the journal "Physical Anthropology", [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] ancestry predominates in majority of Nicaraguans at 69% genetic contribution, followed by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] ancestry at 20%, and lastly [[West Africa|Northwest African]] ancestry at 11%, making Nicaragua the country with one of the highest proportion of [[Europe]]an ancestry in Latin America.<ref name="Interethnic admixture and the evolu">{{cite journal |last1=Salzano |first1=Francisco Mauro |last2=Sans |first2=Mónica |title=Interethnic admixture and the evolution of Latin American populations |journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology |date=2014 |volume=37 |issue=1 suppl 1 |pages=151–170 |doi=10.1590/s1415-47572014000200003 |pmid=24764751 |pmc=3983580 }}</ref><ref name="NI"/> Non-genetic self-reported data from the ''[[CIA World Factbook]]'' consider that Nicaragua's population averages phenotypically at 69% [[Mestizo]]/[[Castizo]], 17% [[White people|White]], 9% [[Black Hispanic and Latino Americans|Afro-Latino]] and 5% [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]].<ref name="CIA-Nicaragua">{{cite web |title=Central America: Nicaragua |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nicaragua/ |website=CIA: The World Factbook |access-date=10 September 2019}}</ref> This fluctuates with changes in migration patterns. The population is 58% urban {{As of|2013|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS|title=Urban population (% of total)|publisher=[[World Bank]]|access-date=26 June 2015}}</ref> In the 19th century, Nicaragua experienced a wave of immigration, primarily from Western Europe. In particular, families moved to Nicaragua to set up businesses with the money they brought from Europe. They established many agricultural businesses, such as coffee and sugarcane plantations, as well as newspapers, hotels, and banks.{{Citation needed|date=September 2022}} A study called "Genomic Components in America's demography" published in 2017, estimates that the average [[Nicaraguan]] is of 58-62% [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] genetic background, primarily of Spanish (43.63%) but also of German, French, and Italian ancestry; 28% of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous American]] ancestry; and 14% of [[West African]] origin.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} ====Panama==== White Panamanians are classified as 6.7% of the population,<ref name="PA">{{cite web | title=Panama; People; Ethnic groups | url =https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/panama/ | work =CIA World Factbook | access-date = 2007-11-21}}</ref> with those of Spanish ancestry being in the majority. Other ancestries includes Dutch, English, French, German, Swiss, Danish, Irish, Greek, Italian, Portuguese, Polish, Russian, and Ukrainian. There is also a sizable and influential Jewish community.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} ===South America=== ==== Argentina ==== {{Main|Argentines of European descent|Immigration to Argentina|Ethnography of Argentina}} [[File:Conventillo1.jpg|thumb|Italian immigrants in a ''[[conventillo]]'' in Buenos Aires]] The ancestry of Argentines is mostly European, with both Native American and African contributions. According to a 2006 [[Autosome|autosomal DNA study]] the genetic structure of Argentina would be: 78.0% European, 19.4% Amerindian and 2.5% African. Using other methods it was found that it could be: 80.2% European, 18.1% Amerindian and 1.7% African.<ref name=Seldin/> A 2010 autosomal DNA study found the Argentine population to average 78.5 percent European, 17.3 percent Native American, and 4.2 percent sub-Saharan African, in which 63.6% of the tested group had at least one ancestor who was [[Indigenous peoples in Argentina|Indigenous]].<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Corach |first1=Daniel |last2=Lao |first2=Oscar |last3=Bobillo |first3=Cecilia |last4=Van Der Gaag |first4=Kristiaan |last5=Zuniga |first5=Sofia |last6=Vermeulen |first6=Mark |last7=Van Duijn |first7=Kate |last8=Goedbloed |first8=Miriam |last9=Vallone |first9=Peter M. |last10=Parson |first10=Walther |last11=De Knijff |first11=Peter |last12=Kayser |first12=Manfred |title=Inferring Continental Ancestry of Argentineans from Autosomal, Y-Chromosomal and Mitochondrial DNA: Genetic Ancestry in Extant Argentineans |journal=Annals of Human Genetics |date=January 2010 |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=65–76 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-1809.2009.00556.x |pmid=20059473 |s2cid=5908692 |hdl=11336/14301 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A unweighted autosomal DNA study from 2012 found the genetic composition of Argentines to be 65% European, 31% Native American, and 4% African. The study's conclusion was not to achieve a generalized autosomal average of the country, but rather the existence of genetic heterogeneity among differing sample regions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Avena |first1=Sergio |last2=Via |first2=Marc |last3=Ziv |first3=Elad |last4=Pérez-Stable |first4=Eliseo J. |last5=Gignoux |first5=Christopher R. |last6=Dejean |first6=Cristina |last7=Huntsman |first7=Scott |last8=Torres-Mejía |first8=Gabriela |last9=Dutil |first9=Julie |last10=Matta |first10=Jaime L. |last11=Beckman |first11=Kenneth |last12=Burchard |first12=Esteban González |last13=Parolin |first13=María Laura |last14=Goicoechea |first14=Alicia |last15=Acreche |first15=Noemí |last16=Boquet |first16=Mariel |last17=Ríos Part |first17=María Del Carmen |last18=Fernández |first18=Vanesa |last19=Rey |first19=Jorge |last20=Stern |first20=Mariana C. |last21=Carnese |first21=Raúl F. |last22=Fejerman |first22=Laura |title=Heterogeneity in Genetic Admixture across Different Regions of Argentina |journal=PLOS ONE |date=10 April 2012 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=e34695 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0034695 |pmid=22506044 |pmc=3323559 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...734695A |doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2015 study concluded that 90% of Argentinians have a genetic composition different from native Europeans.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Campos |first=Delfina |date=2021-07-13 |title=El mito de la "nación blanca": por qué Argentina necesita repensar su identidad nacional |url=https://www.redaccion.com.ar/pueblos-originarios-de-argentina/ |access-date=2023-05-30 |website=RED/ACCIÓN |language=es}}</ref><ref name="Homburguer & Gignoux et al, 2015">{{cite journal| title= Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America | year= 2015 | pmc= 4670080 | last1= Homburger | first1= J. R. | last2= Moreno-Estrada | first2= A. | last3= Gignoux | first3= C. R. | last4= Nelson | first4= D. | last5= Sanchez | first5= E. | last6= Ortiz-Tello | first6= P. | last7= Pons-Estel | first7= B. A. | last8= Acevedo-Vasquez | first8= E. | last9= Miranda | first9= P. | last10= Langefeld | first10= C. D. | last11= Gravel | first11= S. | last12= Alarcón-Riquelme | first12= M. E. | last13= Bustamante | first13= C. D. | journal= PLOS Genetics | volume= 11 | issue= 12 | pages= e1005602 | doi= 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005602 | pmid= 26636962 | doi-access= free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Homburger |first1=Julian R. |last2=Moreno-Estrada |first2=Andrés |last3=Gignoux |first3=Christopher R. |last4=Nelson |first4=Dominic |last5=Sanchez |first5=Elena |last6=Ortiz-Tello |first6=Patricia |last7=Pons-Estel |first7=Bernardo A. |last8=Acevedo-Vasquez |first8=Eduardo |last9=Miranda |first9=Pedro |last10=Langefeld |first10=Carl D. |last11=Gravel |first11=Simon |last12=Alarcón-Riquelme |first12=Marta E. |last13=Bustamante |first13=Carlos D. |date=2015-12-04 |title=Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America |journal=PLOS Genetics |language=en |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=e1005602 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1005602 |issn=1553-7404 |pmc=4670080 |pmid=26636962 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Argentina's [[National Institute of Statistics and Census of Argentina|National Institute of Statistics and Censuses]] (INDEC) does not conduct ethnic/racial censuses; so, no official data exist on the percentage of white Argentines today. White Argentines are dispersed throughout the country, but their greatest concentration is in the east-central region of [[Pampas]], the southern region of [[Patagonia]], the west-central region of [[Cuyo (Argentina)|Cuyo]] and in the north-eastern region of [[Mesopotamia, Argentina|Litoral]]. Their concentration is smaller in the [[Argentine Northwest|north-western region]] (mainly in the provinces of [[Jujuy province|Jujuy]] and [[Salta province|Salta]]), which was the most densely populated region of the country (mainly by [[Amerindian]] and [[Mestizo]] people) before the wave of immigration of 1857-1940 and was the area where European newcomers settled the least.<ref name="white argentina myth">{{cite journal |last1=Chamosa |first1=Oscar |title=Indigenous or Criollo: The Myth of White Argentina in Tucumán's Calchaquí Valley |journal=Hispanic American Historical Review |date=1 February 2008 |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=71–106 |doi=10.1215/00182168-2007-079 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Grasso |first1=Dick Edgar Ibarra |title=Los hombres barbados en la América precolombina: razas indígenas americanas |trans-title=Bearded Men in Pre-Columbian America: Native American Races |language=es |date=1997 |publisher=Editorial Kier |isbn=978-950-17-1703-7 |page=79 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oAlSJ5KJ3IUC&pg=PA79 }}</ref> During the last few decades, due to internal migration from these north-western provinces—as well as to immigration from [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], and [[Paraguay]]—the percentage of white Argentines in certain areas of [[Greater Buenos Aires]] has decreased significantly.<ref name="bolivian settlement in gba">{{Cite web|url=https://www.clarin.com/ediciones-anteriores/bolivianos-argentina-viven-momento-historico-pais_0_rJ77sNIyCtl.html|title=Bolivianos en la Argentina: cómo viven este momento histórico de su país|website=www.clarin.com|date=22 January 2006}}</ref> The white population in Argentina is mostly descended from immigrants arriving from Europe between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with a smaller proportion from Spaniards of the colonial period. From 1506 to 1650—according to M.&nbsp;Möner, Peter Muschamp, and Boyd-Bowman—out of a total of 437,669 Spaniards who settled in the [[Spanish Empire|American Spanish colonies]], between 10,500 and 13,125 ''Peninsulares'' settled in the Río de la Plata region.<ref name= Vita >{{cite book |last1=Vitale |first1=Luis |chapter=Modos de producción y formaciones sociales |trans-title=Modes of production and social formations |language=es |title=Introducción a una teoría de la historia para América Latina |date=1992 |publisher=Planeta |isbn=978-950-9216-32-7 |pages=71– }}</ref> The colonial censuses conducted after the creation of the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] showed that the proportion of Spaniards and [[Criollo people|Criollo]]s was significant in the cities and surrounding countryside, but not so much in the rural areas. The 1778 census of [[Buenos Aires]], ordered by [[Juan José de Vértiz y Salcedo|Viceroy Juan José de Vértiz]], revealed that, of a total population of 37,130 inhabitants (in both the city and surrounding countryside), the Spaniards and Criollos numbered 25,451, or 68.55% of the total. Another census, carried out in the Corregimiento de [[Cuyo (Argentina)|Cuyo]] in 1777, showed that the Spaniards and Criollos numbered 4,491 (or 51.24%) out of a population of 8,765 inhabitants. In [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]] (city and countryside) the Spanish/Criollo people comprised a 39.36% (about 14,170) of 36,000 inhabitants.<ref name= "colonial census">Fuente: ''Argentina: de la Conquista a la Independencia.'' por C. S. Assadourian – C. Beato – J. C. Chiaramonte. Ed. Hyspamérica. Buenos Aires, 1986. Cited in [http://www.revisionistas.com.ar/?=4283 Revisionistas. La Otra Historia de los Argentinos.]{{self-published inline|date=November 2020}}</ref> Data provided by Argentina's ''Dirección Nacional de Migraciones'' (National Bureau of Migrations) states that the country received a total of 6,611,000 immigrants during the period from 1857 to 1940.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1990/1/90.01.06.x.html|title=90.01.06: South American Immigration: Argentina|work=yale.edu}}</ref> The main immigrant group was 2,970,000 Italians (44.9% of the total), who came initially from [[Piedmont]], [[Veneto]], and [[Lombardy]], and later from [[Campania]], [[Calabria]], and [[Sicily]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.feditalia.org.ar/arg/federaciones/feditalia_org_fed_regionales.html|title=Feditalia - Confederación General de Federaciones Italianas en Argentina|work=feditalia.org.ar|access-date=2010-04-13|archive-date=2016-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502020738/http://www.feditalia.org.ar/arg/federaciones/feditalia_org_fed_regionales.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The second group in importance was Spaniards, some 2,080,000 (31.4% of the total), who were mostly [[Galician people|Galicians]] and [[Basque people|Basques]], but also [[Asturia]]ns, [[Cantabria]]ns, [[Catalonia|Catalans]], and [[Andalucia]]ns. In smaller but significant numbers came Frenchmen from [[Occitania]] (239,000, 3.6% of the total) and Poles (180,000&nbsp;– 2.7%). From the [[Russian Empire]] came some 177,000 people (2.6%), who were not only ethnic Russians, but also [[Ukrainians]], [[Belarusians]], [[Volga Germans]], [[Lithuanians]], etc. From the [[Ottoman Empire]] the contribution was mainly [[Armenia]]ns, [[Lebanon|Lebanese]], and [[Syria]]ns, some 174,000 in all (2.6%). Then come the immigrants from the [[German Empire]], some 152,000 (2.2%). From the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] came 111,000 people (1.6%), among them Austríans, Hungarians, [[Croatia]]ns, [[Bosnia]]ks, [[Serbia|Serbs]], [[Ruthenia]]ns, and [[Montenegro|Montenegrins]]. Roughly 75,000 people came from what was then the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]], with the majority of these being Irish immigrants arriving via "[[coffin ship]]s" escaping the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]]. Other minor groups were the Portuguese (65,000), Slavic peoples from the [[Balkans]] (48,000), Swiss (44,000), Belgians (26,000), Danes (18,000), white Americans (12,000), the Dutch (10,000), and the Swedish (7,000). 223,000 came from other countries not listed above. Even colonists from Australia, and [[Boers]] from South Africa, can be found in the Argentine immigration records.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} The city's motto is "Crespo: melting pot, culture of faith and hard work", referring to the Volga Germans, Italians, Spaniards, and other ethnicities that comprise its population.<ref>{{cite web |title=Economía |url=http://www.crespo.gov.ar/area/conozca-crespo/economia/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926145041/http://www.crespo.gov.ar/area/conozca-crespo/economia/ |archive-date=26 September 2008 |website=Municipalidad de la Ciudad de Crespo, Entre Ríos |language=es |access-date=30 April 2021}}</ref> In the 1910s, when immigration reached its peak, more than 30% of Argentina's population had been born in Europe, and over half of the population of the city of [[Buenos Aires]] had been born abroad. According to the 1914 national census, 80% out of a total population of 7,903,662 were people who were either European, or the children and grandchildren of same. Among the remaining 20% (the descendants of the population previous to the immigratory wave), about one third were white. That makes for 86.6%, or about 6.8 million whites residing in Argentina.<ref>''History of Argentina'', de Ricardo.Levene. University of North Carolina Press, 1937.</ref> European immigration continued to account for over half the population growth during the 1920s,<ref name=rock>[https://books.google.com/books ''Argentina: 1516-1982 From Spanish Colonisation to the Falklands War''] escrito por David Rock. University of California Press, 1987. {{ISBN|0-520-05189-0}}</ref> and for smaller percentages after World War II, many Europeans migrating to Argentina after the great conflict to escape hunger and destitution. According to Argentine records, 392,603 people from the Old World entered the country in the 1940s. In the following decade, the flow diminished because the [[Marshall Plan]] improved Europe's economy, and emigration was not such a necessity; but even then, between 1951 and 1970 another 256,252 Europeans entered Argentina.<ref name="immigration post ww2">[http://sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/soc237/papers/cookappendixr.pdf Migration and Nationality Patterns in Argentina.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218231130/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/soc237/papers/cookappendixr.pdf |date=2012-02-18 }} Fuente: ''Dirección Nacional de Migraciones, 1976''.</ref> From the 1960s—when whites were 76.1% of the total—onward, increasing immigration from countries on Argentina's northern border ([[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], and [[Paraguay]])<ref>"Inmigración, Cambio Demográfico y Desarrollo Industrial en la Argentina". Alfredo Lattes and [[María Antonia Ruth Sautu|Ruth Sautu]]. Cuaderno Nº 5 del CENEP (1978). Citado en [https://books.google.com/books ''Argentina: 1516-1982 From Spanish Colonisation to the Falklands War''] by David Rock. University of California Press, 1987. {{ISBN|0-520-05189-0}}</ref> significantly increased the process of [[Mestizaje]] in certain areas of Argentina, especially [[Greater Buenos Aires]], because those countries have [[Amerindian]] and [[Mestizo]] majorities.<ref name="worldstatesmen bolivia">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Bolivia.html|title=Bolivia|work=worldstatesmen.org}}</ref><ref name="worldstatesmen peru">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Peru.htm|title=Peru|work=worldstatesmen.org}}</ref><ref name="worldstatesmen paraguay">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Paraguay.html|title=Paraguay|work=worldstatesmen.org}}</ref> In 1992, after the fall of the Communist regimes of the Soviet Union and its allies, the governments of Western Europe were worried about a possible mass exodus from Central Europe and Russia. President [[Carlos Menem]] offered to receive part of that emigratory wave in Argentina. On December&nbsp;19, 1994, Resolution 4632/94 was enacted, allowing "special treatment" for applicants who wished to emigrate from the republics of the ex-Soviet Union. From January 1994 until December 2000, a total 9,399 Central and Eastern Europeans traveled and settled in Argentina. Of the total, 6,720 were [[Ukrainians]] (71.5%), 1,598 [[Russians]] (17%), 526 [[Romanians]], [[Bulgarians]], [[Armenians]], [[Georgians]], [[Moldovans]], and [[Polish people|Poles]], and 555 (5.9%) traveled with a Soviet passport.<ref>[https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/269/26900104.pdf Recent Migration from Central and Eastern Europe to Argentina, a Special Treatment?] {{in lang|es}} by María José Marcogliese. ''Revista Argentina de Sociología'', 2003</ref> 85% of the newcomers were under age 45 and 51% had tertiary-level education, so most of them integrated quite rapidly into Argentine society, although some had to work for lower wages than expected at the beginning.<ref>[http://www.insumisos.com/diplo/NODE/2132.HTM "Ukrainians, Russians and Armenians, from professionals to security guardians"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915223732/http://www.insumisos.com/diplo/NODE/2132.HTM |date=2011-09-15 }} {{in lang|es}} by Florencia Tateossian. ''Le Monde Diplomatique'', June 2001.</ref> Genetic studies of Argentina population: *Homburguer et al., 2015, ''[[PLOS One]] Genetics'': 67% European, 28% Amerindian, 4% African and 1.4% Asian.<ref name="Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America">{{cite journal | last1 = Homburger |display-authors=et al | year = 2015 | title = Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America | journal = PLOS Genetics | volume = 11| issue = 12| page = e1005602| doi = 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005602 | pmc = 4670080 | pmid = 26636962 |doi-access=free }}</ref> * Seldin et al., 2006, ''[[American Journal of Physical Anthropology]]'': 78.0% European, 19.4% Amerindian and 2.5% African. Using other methods it was found that it could be: 80.2% European, 18.1% Amerindian and 1.7% African.<ref name=Seldin>{{cite journal | last1 = Seldin |display-authors=et al | year = 2006 | title = Argentine Population Genetic Structure: Large Variance in Amerindian Contribution | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 132| issue = 3| page = 455-462| doi =10.1002/ajpa.20534 |pmc=3142769|pmid=17177183 |doi-access=free }}</ref> * According to Caputo et al., 2021, the study of autosomal DIPs show that the genetic contribution is 77.8% European, 17.9% Amerindian and 4.2% African. The X-DIPs matrilineal show 52.9% European, 39.6% Amerindian and 7.5% African.<ref name="M. Caputo et al, 2021">{{cite journal |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00438-020-01755-w |title=Ancestral genetic legacy of the extant population of Argentina as predicted by autosomal and X-chromosomal DIPs |year=2021 |doi=10.1007/s00438-020-01755-w |access-date=13 February 2021 |last1=Caputo |first1=M. |last2=Amador |first2=M. A. |last3=Sala |first3=A. |last4=Riveiro Dos Santos |first4=A. |last5=Santos |first5=S. |last6=Corach |first6=D. |journal=Molecular Genetics and Genomics |volume=296 |issue=3 |pages=581–590 |pmid=33580820 |s2cid=231911367}}</ref> * Corach et al,. 2010, ''[[Annals of Human Genetics]]'': 78.5% European, 17.3% Amerindian, and 4.2% African ancestry.<ref name=":1"/> * Avena et al., 2012, [[PLOS One]]: 65% European, 31% Amerindian, and 4% African.<ref name="Heterogeneity in Genetic Admixture across Different Regions of Argentina">{{cite journal | last1 = Avena |display-authors=et al | year = 2012 | title = Heterogeneity in Genetic Admixture across Different Regions of Argentina | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7| issue = 4| page = e34695| doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0034695 |pmid=22506044 |pmc=3323559 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...734695A |doi-access=free }}</ref> ** Buenos Aires Province: 76% European and 24% others. ** South Zone (Chubut Province): 54% European and 46% others. ** Northeast Zone (Misiones, Corrientes, Chaco & Formosa provinces): 54% European and 46% others. ** Northwest Zone (Salta Province): 33% European and 67% others. * Other studies indicate that the genetic composition between regions would be:<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=3983580 | year=2013 | last1=Salzano | first1=F. M. | last2=Sans | first2=M. | title=Interethnic admixture and the evolution of Latin American populations | journal=Genetics and Molecular Biology | volume=37 | issue=1 Suppl | pages=151–170 | doi=10.1590/s1415-47572014000200003 | pmid=24764751 }}</ref> ** Central Zone: 81% European, 15% Amerindian and 4% African ** South Zone: 68% European, 28% Amerindian and 4% African ** Northeast Zone: 79% European, 17% Amerindian and 4% African ** Northwest Zone: 55% European, 35% Amerindian and 10% African * Oliveira, 2008, on [[Universidade de Brasília]]: 60% European, 31% Amerindian and 9% African.<ref name=Godinho2008/> * [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]: 52% European, 27% Amerindian ancestry, 9% African and 9% others.<ref name="Reference Populations: Geno 2.0 Next Generation">{{cite web|title=Reference Populations – Geno 2.0 Next Generation|url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171124174946/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen/|archive-date=24 November 2017|access-date=15 January 2018|website=Genographic.nationalgeographic.com|df=dmy-all}}</ref> ==== Bolivia ==== {{Main|White Bolivians}} {{Expand section|date=June 2008}} White people in Bolivia are classified as 5% of the nation's population.<ref name="BL"/> The white population consists mostly of ''[[Criollo (people)|criollo]]s'', which consist of families of unmixed Spanish ancestry descended from the [[History of Bolivia|Spanish colonists]] and Spanish refugees fleeing the 1936–1939 Spanish Civil War.{{Citation needed|date=December 2016}} These two groups have constituted much of the aristocracy since independence. Other groups within the white population are Germans, who founded the national airline [[Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano]], as well as Italians, Americans, Basques, Croats, Russians, Polish, English, Irish, and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations.{{Citation needed|date=December 2013}} Comparatively, Bolivia experienced far less immigration than its South American neighbors.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} ====Brazil==== {{Main|White Brazilian|Immigration to Brazil}} [[File:Imigrantes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Italian immigrants newly arrived in Brazil in 1890.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.brazil.org.uk/resources/documents/bs-primary03.pdf |title=Brazil - the Country and its People |publisher=www.brazil.org.uk |access-date=December 3, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021152752/http://www.brazil.org.uk/resources/documents/bs-primary03.pdf |archive-date=October 21, 2014 }}</ref>]] Brazil is one of the few countries in Latin America that includes racial categories in its censuses: ''Branco'' (White), ''Negro'' (Black), ''Pardo'' (Multiracial), ''Amarelo'' (Yellow) and ''Indígena'' (Amerindian), with categorization being by self-identification. Taking into account the data provided by the last National Household Survey, conducted in 2010, Brazil would possess the most numerous white population in Latin America, given that a 47.7%&nbsp;– 91 million people&nbsp;– of Brazilians self-declared as "Brancos".<ref name="Igbe Brasil 2010" /> Comparing this survey with previous censuses, a slow but constant decrease in the percentage of self-identified white Brazilians can be seen: in the 2000 Census it was 53.7%,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov|date=22 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Brazil.html|title=Brazil|work=worldstatesmen.org}}</ref> in the 2006 Household Survey it was 49.9%,<ref name= "igbe pnad 2006" /> and in the last, 2008, survey it decreased to the current 48.4%.<ref name="igbe 2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/protabl.asp?c=262&i=P&nome=on&notarodape=on&tab=262&unit=0&pov=3&opc1=1&poc2=1&OpcTipoNivt=1&opn1=2&nivt=0&orc86=3&poc1=1&orp=6&qtu3=27&opv=1&poc86=2&sec1=0&opc2=1&pop=1&opn2=0&orv=2&orc2=5&qtu2=5&sev=93&sev=1000093&opc86=1&sec2=0&opp=1&opn3=0&sec86=0&sec86=2776&sec86=2777&sec86=2779&sec86=2778&sec86=2780&sec86=2781&ascendente=on&sep=43344&orn=1&qtu7=9&orc1=4&qtu1=1&cabec=on&pon=1&OpcCara=44&proc=1&opn7=0&decm=99 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614225239/http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/protabl.asp?c=262&i=P&nome=on&notarodape=on&tab=262&unit=0&pov=3&opc1=1&poc2=1&OpcTipoNivt=1&opn1=2&nivt=0&orc86=3&poc1=1&orp=6&qtu3=27&opv=1&poc86=2&sec1=0&opc2=1&pop=1&opn2=0&orv=2&orc2=5&qtu2=5&sev=93&sev=1000093&opc86=1&sec2=0&opp=1&opn3=0&sec86=0&sec86=2776&sec86=2777&sec86=2779&sec86=2778&sec86=2780&sec86=2781&ascendente=on&sep=43344&orn=1&qtu7=9&orc1=4&qtu1=1&cabec=on&pon=1&OpcCara=44&proc=1&opn7=0&decm=99 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-06-14 |title=Sistema IBGE de Recuperação Automática - SIDRA |work=ibge.gov.br }}</ref> Some analysts believe that this decrease is evidence that more Brazilians have come to appreciate their mixed ancestry, re-classifying themselves as "Pardos".<ref>{{cite news|last=Duarte|first=Alessandra|title=Censo 2010: população do Brasil deixa de ser predominantemente branca|url=http://oglobo.globo.com/politica/censo-2010-populacao-do-brasil-deixa-de-ser-predominantemente-branca-2789597|access-date=24 January 2014|newspaper=O Globo|agency=Infoglobo Comunicação e Participações S.A.|date=29 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140124143702/http://oglobo.globo.com/politica/censo-2010-populacao-do-brasil-deixa-de-ser-predominantemente-branca-2789597|archive-date=24 January 2014|location=Rio de Janeiro|language=pt|quote=(...) A população branca foi, assim, a única que diminuiu. Paula Miranda-Ribeiro, professora de demografia do Centro de Desenvolvimento e Planejamento Regional da UFMG, sublinha essa mudança cultural. <br/> — «O Brasil está mais preto, algo mais próximo da realidade» — diz Paula, para quem a principal razão é a maior identificação de pretos e pardos com sua cor. — «É a chamada desejabilidade social. Historicamente, pretos e pardos eram desvalorizados socialmente, o que fazia com que pretos desejassem ser pardos, e pardos, brancos. Agora, pretos e pardos quiseram se identificar assim. Isso pode ter a ver, ainda, com a afirmação dessa população como forte consumidor atualmente, que se refletiu em afirmação de identidade.» (...)}}</ref> Furthermore, some demographers estimate that a 9% of the self-declared white Brazilians have a certain degree of African and Amerindian ancestry, which, if the "[[one-drop rule]]" were applied, would classify them as "Pardos".<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1077/is_n4_v46/ai_9329550 Blacks in Brazil: the myth and the reality.] by Charles Whitaker. Ebony Magazine, 1991.</ref> The white Brazilian population is spread throughout the country, but it is concentrated in the four southernmost states, where 79.8% of the population self-identify as white.<ref name="igbe pnad 2006">[http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/trabalhoerendimento/pnad2006/sintese/tab1_2.pdf PNAD 2006] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222015251/http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/trabalhoerendimento/pnad2006/sintese/tab1_2.pdf |date=2012-02-22 }}</ref> The states with the highest percentage of white people are [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]] (86.9%), [[Rio Grande do Sul]] (82.3%), [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]] (77.2%) and [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] (70.4%). Another five states that have significant proportions of whites are [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]] (55.8%), [[Mato Grosso do Sul]] (51.7%), [[Espírito Santo]] (50.4%), [[Minas Gerais]] (47.2%) and [[Goiás]] (43.6%). São Paulo has the largest population in absolute numbers with 30 million whites.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/protabl.asp?c=262&i=P&nome=on&notarodape=on&tab=262&unit=0&pov=1&opc1=1&poc2=1&OpcTipoNivt=1&opn1=0&nivt=0&orc86=3&poc1=1&orp=6&qtu3=27&opv=1&poc86=1&sec1=0&opc2=1&pop=1&opn2=0&orv=2&orc2=5&qtu2=5&sev=1000093&opc86=1&sec2=0&opp=1&opn3=1&sec86=2776&ascendente=on&sep=17795&orn=1&qtu7=9&orc1=4&qtu1=1&cabec=on&pon=1&OpcCara=44&proc=1&opn7=0&decm=99|title=Sistema IBGE de Recuperação Automática - SIDRA|work=ibge.gov.br}}</ref> In the 18th century, an estimated 600,000 Portuguese arrived, including wealthy immigrants, as well as poor peasants, attracted by the [[Brazil Gold Rush]] in [[Minas Gerais]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibge.gov.br/brasil500/portugueses/imigtransicao.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419232548/http://www.ibge.gov.br/brasil500/portugueses/imigtransicao.html|url-status=dead|title=IBGE &#124; Portal do IBGE &#124; IBGE|archive-date=April 19, 2009|website=www.ibge.gov.br}}</ref> By the time of Brazilian independence, declared by emperor [[Pedro I of Brazil|Pedro I]] in 1822, an estimated 600,000 to 800,000 Europeans had come to Brazil, most of them male settlers from Portugal.<ref name="Imigrantes portugueses IBGE">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibge.gov.br/brasil500/portugueses.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071120140009/http://www.ibge.gov.br/brasil500/portugueses.html|url-status=dead|title=IBGE &#124; Portal do IBGE &#124; IBGE|archive-date=November 20, 2007|website=www.ibge.gov.br}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Phylogeography of Brazilian Y-Chromosome Lineages | pmc=1234928 | pmid=11090340 | doi=10.1086/316931 | volume=68 | issue=1 | date=January 2001 | journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. | pages=281–6 |vauthors=Carvalho-Silva DR, Santos FR, Rocha J, Pena SD }}</ref> Rich immigrants who established the first sugarcane plantations in [[Pernambuco]] and [[Bahia]], and [[New Christian]]s and [[Romani people|Gypsies]] fleeing from religious persecution, were among the early settlers. After independence, Brazil saw several campaigns to attract European immigrants, which were prompted by a policy of ''Branqueamento'' (Whitening).<ref name=branqueamento >[http://ler.letras.up.pt/uploads/ficheiros/7079.pdf Ideologia do Branqueamento - Racismo á Brasileira?] por Andreas Haufbauer</ref> During the 19th century, the slave labor force was gradually replaced by European immigrants, especially [[Italians]].<ref name=Levy1974>{{cite journal |last1=Levy |first1=Maria Stella Ferreira |title=O papel da migração internacional na evolução da população brasileira (1872 a 1972) |trans-title=The role of international migration on the evolution of the Brazilian population (1872 to 1972) |language=pt |journal=Revista de Saúde Pública |date=June 1974 |volume=8 |issue=suppl |pages=49–90 |doi=10.1590/S0034-89101974000500003 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This mostly took place after 1850, as a result of the end of the [[Slavery in Brazil|slave trade]] in the Atlantic Ocean and the growth of coffee plantations in the [[São Paulo]] region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vestibular.uol.com.br/ultnot/resumos/ult2770u23.jhtm|title=Fim da escravidão gera medidas de apoio à imigração no Brasil - 16/02/2005 - Resumos - História do Brasil|work=uol.com.br}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://vestibular.uol.com.br/ultnot/resumos/ult2770u39.jhtm|title=Café atrai imigrante europeu para o Brasil - 22/02/2005 - Resumos - História do Brasil|work=uol.com.br}}</ref> European immigration was at its peak between the mid-19th and the mid-20th centuries, when nearly five million Europeans immigrated to Brazil, most of them Italians (58.5%), Portuguese (20%), Germans, Spaniards, Poles, Lithuanians, and Ukrainians. Between 1877 and 1903, 1,927,992 immigrants entered Brazil, an average of 71,000 people per year, with the peak year being 1891, when 215,239 Europeans arrived.<ref name=Levy1974/> After the First World War, the Portuguese once more became the main immigrant group, and Italians fell to third place. Spanish immigrants rose to second place because of the poverty that was affecting millions of rural workers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ibge.gov.br/brasil500/espanhois/emigespanhola.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705084110/http://www.ibge.gov.br/brasil500/espanhois/emigespanhola.html|url-status=dead|title=IBGE &#124; Portal do IBGE &#124; IBGE|archive-date=July 5, 2009|website=www.ibge.gov.br}}</ref> Germans were fourth place on the list; they arrived especially during the [[Weimar Republic]], due to poverty and unemployment caused by the First World War.<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1590/S0104-93131997000100004|title = A assimilação dos imigrantes como questão nacional|journal = Mana|volume = 3|pages = 95–131|year = 1997|last1 = Seyferth|first1 = Giralda|doi-access = free}}</ref> The numbers of Europeans of other ethnicities increased; among them were people from Poland, Russia, and Romania, who emigrated in the 1920s, probably because of politic persecution. Other peoples emigrated from the Middle East, especially from what now are [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]].<ref name=Levy1974/> During the period 1821–1932, Brazil received an estimated 4,431,000 European immigrants.<ref name=WhitakerArgentina>''Argentina''. by Arthur P. Whitaker. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc, 1984. Cited in [http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1990/1/90.01.06.x.html Yale immigration study]</ref> After the end of the Second World War, European immigration diminished significantly, although between 1931 and 1963 1.1&nbsp;million immigrants entered Brazil, mostly Portuguese.<ref name=Levy1974/> By the mid-1970s, some Portuguese immigrated to Brazil after the independence of Portugal's African colonies—from [[Angola]], [[Mozambique]] and [[Guinea-Bissau]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://imigrantes.no.sapo.pt/page6portugal.html|title=Memórias da Emigração Portuguesa|work=sapo.pt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516050553/http://imigrantes.no.sapo.pt/page6portugal.html|archive-date=2012-05-16}}</ref><ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12079340 Flight from Angola], ''The Economist'', August 16, 1975</ref> =====Genetic studies===== A 2015 [[Autosome|autosomal]] genetic study, which also analysed data of 25 studies of 38 different Brazilian populations, concluded the following: "European (EUR) ancestry is the major contributor to the genetic background of Brazilians, followed by African (AFR), and Amerindian (AMR) ancestries. The pooled ancestry contributions were 0.62 EUR, 0.21 AFR, and 0.17AMR. The Southern region had a greater EUR contribution (0.77) than other regions. Individuals from the Northeast (NE) region had the highest AFR contribution (0.27) whereas individuals from the North regions had more AMR contribution (0.32)".<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal|title=Meta-analysis of Brazilian genetic admixture and comparison with other Latin America countries | doi=10.1002/ajhb.22714|volume=27|issue = 5|pages=674–680|journal=American Journal of Human Biology|pmid=25820814 | last1 = Moura | first1 = RR | last2 = Coelho | first2 = AV | last3 = Balbino Vde | first3 = Q | last4 = Crovella | first4 = S | last5 = Brandão | first5 = LA | year=2015| hdl=11368/2837176| s2cid=25051722| hdl-access = free }}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !Region<ref name="ReferenceC"/> !European !African !Native American |- | [[North Region, Brazil|North Region]] | 51% | 16% | 32% |- | [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast Region]] | 58% | 27% | 15% |- | [[Central-West Region, Brazil|Central-West Region]] | 64% | 24% | 12% |- | [[Southeast Region, Brazil|Southeast Region]] |67% |23% |10% |- | [[South Region, Brazil|South Region]] | 77% | 12% | 11% |} An autosomal study from 2013, of nearly 1,300 samples from all regions of Brazil, found predominantly European ancestry, combined with African and Native American contributions in varying degrees: <blockquote>Following an increasing North to South gradient, European ancestry was the most prevalent in all urban populations (with values up to 74%). The populations in the North consisted of a significant proportion of Native American ancestry that was about two times higher than the African contribution. Conversely, in the Northeast, Center-West and Southeast, African ancestry was the second most prevalent. At an intrapopulation level, all urban populations were highly admixed, and most of the variation in ancestry proportions was observed between individuals within each population rather than among population.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Revisiting the Genetic Ancestry of Brazilians Using Autosomal AIM-Indels|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=8|issue=9|pages=e75145|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0075145|pmid=24073242|year=2013|last1=Saloum De Neves Manta|first1=Fernanda|last2=Pereira|first2=Rui|last3=Vianna|first3=Romulo|last4=Rodolfo Beuttenmüller De Araújo|first4=Alfredo|last5=Leite Góes Gitaí|first5=Daniel|last6=Aparecida Da Silva|first6=Dayse|last7=De Vargas Wolfgramm|first7=Eldamária|last8=Da Mota Pontes|first8=Isabel|last9=Ivan Aguiar|first9=José|last10=Ozório Moraes|first10=Milton|last11=Fagundes De Carvalho|first11=Elizeu|last12=Gusmão|first12=Leonor|bibcode=2013PLoSO...875145S|pmc=3779230|doi-access=free}}</ref></blockquote>According to a genetic study about Brazilians (based upon about 200 samples), on the [[paternal]] side, 98% of the white Brazilian [[Y Chromosome]] comes from a European male ancestor, only 2% from an African ancestor and there is a complete absence of Amerindian contributions. On the [[maternal]] side, 39% have European [[Mitochondrial DNA]], 33% Amerindian and 28% African female ancestry. This, considering the facts that the slave trade was effectively suppressed in 1850, and that the Amerindian population had been reduced to small numbers even earlier, shows that at least 61% of white Brazilians had at least one ancestor living in Brazil before the beginning of the [[European immigration to Brazil|Great Immigration]]. This analysis, however, only shows a small fraction of a person's ancestry (the Y Chromosome comes from a single male ancestor and the mtDNA from a single female ancestor, while the contributions of the many other ancestors is not specified).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-08-29 |title=Os Genes de Cabral |url=http://web.educom.pt/p-pmndn/genes_cabral.htm |access-date=2023-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070829035149/http://web.educom.pt/p-pmndn/genes_cabral.htm |archive-date=2007-08-29 }}</ref> According to another study, those who identified as whites in Rio de Janeiro turned out to have 86.4% European ancestry on average.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pena |first=Sergio Danilo |title=Do pensamento racial ao pensamento racional |trans-title=From racial thinking to rational thinking |url=http://www.laboratoriogene.com.br/geneImprensa/2009/pensamento.pdf |date=2014-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522233206/http://www.laboratoriogene.com.br/geneImprensa/2009/pensamento.pdf |archive-date=2014-05-22 |website=Instituto Ciência Hoje |language=pt |access-date=2023-06-16}}</ref> ====Chile==== {{Main|Demographics of Chile|Chilean people|Immigration to Chile}} Various autosomal studies have shown the following admixture in Chile: * 67.9% European; 32.1% amerindian; (Valenzuela, 1984): <small>Marco de referencia sociogenético para los estudios de salud pública en Chile</small>, fuente: Revista Chilena de Pediatría.<ref name="Valenzuela, 1984">Valenzuela C. (1984). Marco de Referencia Sociogenético para los Estudios de Salud Pública en Chile. ''Revista Chilena de Pediatría''; 55: 123-7.</ref><ref name="Vanegas et al., 2008">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.4067/S0034-98872008000500014|title = Consideraciones acerca del uso de la variable etnia/Raza en investigación epidemiológica para la Salud Pública: A propósito de investigaciones en inequidades|journal = [[Revista Médica de Chile]]|volume = 136|issue = 5|year = 2008|last1 = Vanegas l|first1 = Jairo|last2 = Villalón c|first2 = Marcelo|last3 = Valenzuela y|first3 = Carlos|doi-access = free}}</ref> * 64.0% European; 35.0% amerindian; (Cruz-Coke, 1994): <small>Genetic epidemiology of single gene defects in Chile</small>, fuente: [[Universidad de Chile]].<ref name="Cruz-Coke">{{cite journal| title= Genetic epidemiology of single gene defects in Chile |last1=Cruz-Coke |first1=Ricardo |last2=Moreno |first2=Rodrigo |name-list-style=amp | language = es | pmc=1050080 | pmid=7815439 | volume=31 | issue= 9 | date=September 1994 | journal=J. Med. Genet. | pages=702–6 | doi=10.1136/jmg.31.9.702}}</ref> * 57.2% European; 38.7% amerindian; 2.5% African; 1.7% Asiatic; (Homburger et al., 2015): <small>Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America</small>, fuente: [[PLOS Genetics]].<ref name="Homburger et al., 2015">{{cite journal |last=Homburguer|display-authors=etal |year=2015 |title=Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America |journal= PLOS Genetics|volume=11 |number=12 |pages= e1005602|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1005602 |pmid=26636962 |pmc=4670080 |doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2015 autosomal DNA study found Chile to be 55.16% European, 42.38% Native American and 2.44% African, using LAMP-LD modeling; and 54.38% European, 43.22% Native American, and 2.40% African, using RFMix.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eyheramendy |first1=Susana |last2=Martinez |first2=Felipe I. |last3=Manevy |first3=Federico |last4=Vial |first4=Cecilia |last5=Repetto |first5=Gabriela M. |title=Genetic structure characterization of Chileans reflects historical immigration patterns |journal=Nature Communications |date=May 2015 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=6472 |doi=10.1038/ncomms7472 |pmid=25778948 |pmc=4382693 |bibcode=2015NatCo...6.6472E }}</ref> An autosomal DNA study from 2014 found the results to be 51.85% (± 5.44%) European, 44.34% (± 3.9%) Native American, and 3.81% (± 0.45%) African.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal |last1=Fuentes |first1=Macarena |last2=Pulgar |first2=Iván |last3=Gallo |first3=Carla |last4=Bortolini |first4=María-Cátira |last5=Canizales-Quinteros |first5=Samuel |last6=Bedoya |first6=Gabriel |last7=González-José |first7=Rolando |last8=Ruiz-Linares |first8=Andrés |last9=Rothhammer |first9=Francisco |title=Geografía génica de Chile: Distribución regional de los aportes genéticos americanos, europeos y africanos |trans-title=Gene geography of Chile: regional distribution of American, European and African genetic contributions |language=es |journal=Revista médica de Chile |date=March 2014 |volume=142 |issue=3 |pages=281–289 |doi=10.4067/S0034-98872014000300001 |pmid=25052264 |doi-access=free |hdl=10183/118734 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fuentes |first1=Macarena |last2=Pulgar |first2=Iván |last3=Gallo |first3=Carla |last4=Bortolini |first4=María-Cátira |last5=Canizales-Quinteros |first5=Samuel |last6=Bedoya |first6=Gabriel |last7=González-José |first7=Rolando |last8=Ruiz-Linares |first8=Andrés |last9=Rothhammer |first9=Francisco |title=Geografía génica de Chile: Distribución regional de los aportes genéticos americanos, europeos y africanos |trans-title=Gene geography of Chile. Regional distribution of American, European and African genetic contributions |language=es |journal=Revista médica de Chile |date=March 2014 |volume=142 |issue=3 |pages=281–289 |doi=10.4067/S0034-98872014000300001 |pmid=25052264 |doi-access=free |hdl=10183/118734 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A Chilean researcher in 2015 stated that "there are no Chileans without Amerindian or European ancestry".<ref>{{Cite web |title="No hay ningún chileno que no tenga ancestría amerindia o europea. Todos somos mestizos" |url=https://www.uchile.cl/noticias/116237/no-hay-ningun-chileno-que-no-tenga-ancestria-amerindia-o-europea |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=www.uchile.cl}}</ref> She also added that the average ancestry was 51% European, 44% Amerindian and 3% African, and that in the upper classes the average Amerindian ancestry was 35.2%. Studies estimates the white population at 20%,<ref name="BritannicaCL">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Chile | url = http://kids.britannica.com/comptons/article-198552/Chile | encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date = 2012-09-15 | quote = "Chile's ethnic makeup is largely a product of Spanish colonization. About three fourths of Chileans are mestizo, a mixture of European and Amerindian ancestries. One-fifth of Chileans are of white European (mainly Spanish) descent.}}</ref> to 52.7% of the Chilean population.<ref name="Lizcano"/> According to [[genetic research]] by the [[University of Brasília]], Chilean genetic admixture consists of 51.6% European, 42.1% Amerindian, and 6.3% African ancestry.<ref name=Godinho2008/> According to an autosomal genetic study of 2014 carried out among soldiers in the city of Arica, Northern Chile, the European admixture goes from 56.8% in soldiers born in [[Magallanes Region|Magallanes]] to 41.2% for the ones who were born in [[Tarapacá Region|Tarapacá]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20041222075049/http://www.medwave.cl/ciencia/11.act El Gradiente Sociogenético Chileno y sus Implicaciones Etico-Sociales] (2014)</ref> According to a study from 2013, conducted by the ''Candela Project'' in Northern Chile as well, the genetic admixture of Chile is 52% European, 44% Native American, and 4% African.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lun.com/LunMobileIphone//Pages/NewsDetailMobile.aspx?dt=2013-11-23&BodyId=0&PaginaID=18&NewsID=246141&Name=I2&PagNum=0&Return=R&SupplementId=0&Anchor=20131123_18_0_I246141|title=LUN.COM Mobile|work=lun.com}}</ref> According to a study performed in 2014,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Ruiz-Linares|first1=Andrés|last2=Adhikari|first2=Kaustubh|last3=Acuña-Alonzo|first3=Victor|last4=Quinto-Sanchez|first4=Mirsha|last5=Jaramillo|first5=Claudia|last6=Arias|first6=William|last7=Fuentes|first7=Macarena|last8=Pizarro|first8=María|last9=Everardo|first9=Paola|date=2014-09-25|title=Admixture in Latin America: Geographic Structure, Phenotypic Diversity and Self-Perception of Ancestry Based on 7,342 Individuals|url=https://figshare.com/articles/_Admixture_in_Latin_America_Geographic_Structure_Phenotypic_Diversity_and_Self_Perception_of_Ancestry_Based_on_7_342_Individuals_/1183040|journal=PLOS Genetics|language=en-US|volume=10|issue=9|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004572|pmc=4177621|pmid=25254375|page=e1004572 |doi-access=free }}</ref> 37.9% of Chileans self-identified as white, a subsequent DNA tests showed that the average self identifying white was genetically 54% European. [[Genotype]] and [[phenotype]] in Chileans vary according to social class. 13% of lower-class Chileans have at least one non-Spanish surname, compared to 72% of those who belong to the upper-middle-class.<ref name="Revista médica de Chile">{{cite journal| title= Sexual dimorphism in skin, eye and hair color and the presence of freckles in Chilean teenagers from two socioeconomic strata|volume = 130|issue = 8|pages = 879–884| journal = Viviana Zemelman, Petra von Beck, Orlando Alvarado and Carlos y Valenzuela | language = es|doi = 10.4067/S0034-98872002000800006|last1 = Valenzuela|first1 = Carlos Y.|last2 = Alvarado|first2 = Orlando|last3 = von Beck|first3 = Petra|last4 = Zemelman|first4 = Viviana | year=2002| pmid = 12360796|doi-access = free}}</ref> Phenotypically, only 9.6% of lower-class girls have light-colored eyes—either green or blue—where 31.6% of upper-middle-class girls have such eyes.<ref name="Revista médica de Chile" /> Blonde hair is present in 2.2% and 21.3%, of lower-class and upper-middle girls respectively,<ref name="Revista médica de Chile" /> whilst black hair is more common among lower-class girls (24.5%) than upper-middle class ones (9.0%).<ref name="Revista médica de Chile" /> Chile was initially an unattractive place for migrants, because it was far from Europe and relatively difficult to reach. However, during the 18th century an influx of emigrants from Spain moved to Chile. They were mostly Basques, who rose rapidly up the social ladder, becoming part of the political elite that still dominates the country.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Chile| url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111326/Chile/24684/The-people | encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date = 2012-09-15 | quote = "...Basque families who migrated to Chile in the 18th century vitalized the economy and joined the old Castilian aristocracy to become the political elite that still dominates the country.}}</ref><ref name=Euzko2/> An estimated 1.6 million (10%) to 3.2 million (20%) Chileans have a surname (one or both) of Basque origin.<ref name="Diariovasco">{{cite web|url=http://www.diariovasco.com/pg060724/prensa/noticias/AlDia/200607/24/DVA-ALD-003.html|title=Diariovasco.com - EDICIÓN IMPRESA - "Los jóvenes vasco-chilenos están al día de todo lo que está pasando en Euskadi"|last=Vasco|first=Diario|work=diariovasco.com|author-link=Diario Vasco|date=2006-07-24}}</ref><ref name="deia.com">{{Cite web|url=http://www.deia.com/es/impresa/2008/05/22/bizkaia/ekonomia/469496.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090511001812/http://www.deia.com/es/impresa/2008/05/22/bizkaia/ekonomia/469496.php|url-status=dead|title=entrevista al Presidente de la Cámara vasca.|archive-date=May 11, 2009}}</ref><ref>[http://www.osasun.ejgv.euskadi.net/r52-20726/es/contenidos/noticia/albis12_257_txile_08_11/es_txile/albis12_257_txile_08_11.html vascos] Ainara Madariaga: Autora del estudio ''"Imaginarios vascos desde Chile La construcción de imaginarios vascos en Chile durante el siglo XX"''.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euskonews.com/0072zbk/gaia7204es.html|title=De los vascos en Chile y sus instituciones|work=euskonews.com}}</ref><ref>Contacto Interlingüístico e intercultural en el mundo hispano.instituto valenciano de lenguas y culturas. Universitat de València Cita: ''"Un 20% de la población chilena tiene su origen en el País Vasco"''.</ref><ref>{{in lang|es}} [http://www.empresariosvascos.cl/boletines/2008-11-03-BOLETIN-EMPREBASK.pdf La población chilena con ascendencia vasca bordea entre el 15% y el 20% del total, por lo que es uno de los países con mayor presencia de emigrantes venidos de Euskadi.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100202064123/http://www.empresariosvascos.cl/boletines/2008-11-03-BOLETIN-EMPREBASK.pdf |date=February 2, 2010 }}</ref><ref name=Euzko3>[http://www.euzkoetxeachile.cl/libros/04-De%20los%20Vascos%20Onati%20y%20los%20Elorza-2.pdf De los Vascos, Oñati y los Elorza] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819165814/http://www.euzkoetxeachile.cl/libros/04-De%20los%20Vascos%20Onati%20y%20los%20Elorza-2.pdf |date=2013-08-19 }} DE LOS VASCOS, OÑATI Y LOS ELORZA ''Waldo Ayarza Elorza''.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.euskalkultura.eus/espanol/noticias/jon-erdozia-nuevo-delegado-en-chile-iniciativas-vasco-chilenas-como-emprebask-son-exportables-a-otros-paises|title=Jon Erdozia, nuevo Delegado en Chile: 'Iniciativas vasco chilenas como Emprebask son exportables a otros países'|website=Euskal kultura}}</ref> The Basques liked Chile because of its similarity to their native land: cool climate, with similar geography, fruits, seafood, and wine.<ref name=Euzko2>[http://www.euzkoetxeachile.cl/libros/04-De%20los%20Vascos%20Onati%20y%20los%20Elorza-2.pdf De los Vascos, Oñati y los Elorza] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819165814/http://www.euzkoetxeachile.cl/libros/04-De%20los%20Vascos%20Onati%20y%20los%20Elorza-2.pdf |date=2013-08-19 }} DE LOS VASCOS, OÑATI Y LOS ELORZA ''Waldo Ayarza Elorza''. Page 68</ref> The Spanish was the most significant European immigration to Chile,<ref name=Euzko>[http://www.euzkoetxeachile.cl/libros/04-De%20los%20Vascos%20Onati%20y%20los%20Elorza-2.pdf De los Vascos, Oñati y los Elorza] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819165814/http://www.euzkoetxeachile.cl/libros/04-De%20los%20Vascos%20Onati%20y%20los%20Elorza-2.pdf |date=2013-08-19 }} DE LOS VASCOS, OÑATI Y LOS ELORZA ''Waldo Ayarza Elorza''. Page 59, 65, 66</ref> although there was never a massive immigration, such as happened in neighboring Argentina and Uruguay,<ref name="HistoriaContemporaneaDeChile"/> and, therefore, the Chilean population wasn't "whitened" to the same extent.<ref name="HistoriaContemporaneaDeChile"/> However, it is undeniable that immigrants have played a role in Chilean society.<ref name="HistoriaContemporaneaDeChile"/> Between 1851 and 1924, Chile received only 0.5% of the total European immigration to Latin America, compared to 46% for Argentina, 33% for Brazil, 14% for Cuba, and 4% for Uruguay.<ref name=Euzko/> This was because such migrants came across the Atlantic, not the Pacific, and before the construction of the Panama Canal,<ref name=Euzko/> Europeans preferring to settle in countries close to their homelands, instead of taking the long route through the Straits of Magellan or across the Andes.<ref name=Euzko/> In 1907, the European-born reached a peak of 2.4% of the Chilean population,<ref>{{cite report |title=Memoria Presentada al Supremo Gobierno por la Comision Central del Censeo |trans-title=Report Presented to the Supreme Government by the Central Commission of the Census |url=http://www.ine.cl/canales/usuarios/cedoc_online/censos/pdf/censo_1907.pdf |date=1907 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200341/http://www.ine.cl/canales/usuarios/cedoc_online/censos/pdf/censo_1907.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |website=[[National Statistics Institute (Chile)|National Statistics Institute]] of Chile |language=es |access-date=6 April 2022}}</ref> decreasing to 1.8% in 1920,<ref>{{cite report |title=Censeo de Población de la República de Chile |trans-title=Population Census of the Republic of Chile |url=http://www.ine.cl/canales/usuarios/cedoc_online/censos/pdf/censo_1920.pdf |date=1920 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052320/http://www.ine.cl/canales/usuarios/cedoc_online/censos/pdf/censo_1920.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |website=[[National Statistics Institute (Chile)|National Statistics Institute]] of Chile |language=es |access-date=6 April 2022}}</ref> and 1.5% in 1930.<ref>{{cite report |title=Censo de Población de la República de Chile: Effectuado del 27 Noviembre 1930 |trans-title=Results of the X Population Census of the Republic of Chile: Dated November 27, 1930 |url=http://www.ine.cl/canales/usuarios/cedoc_online/censos/pdf/censo_1930.pdf |date=1930 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234924/http://www.ine.cl/canales/usuarios/cedoc_online/censos/pdf/censo_1930.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |website=[[National Statistics Institute (Chile)|National Statistics Institute]] of Chile |language=es |access-date=6 April 2022}}</ref> About 5% of the [[Demographics of Chile|Chilean population]] has some French ancestry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.karnobooks.com/cgi-bin/karno/5814.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412230551/http://www.karnobooks.com/cgi-bin/karno/5814.html|url-status=dead|title=5% de los chilenos tiene origen frances|archive-date=April 12, 2008}}</ref> Over 700,000 (4.5%) Chileans may be of British ([[English people|English]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]] and [[Welsh people|Welsh]]) or Irish origin.<ref name=british>{{Cite web|url=http://www.biografiadechile.cl/detalle.php?IdContenido=1673&IdCategoria=91&IdArea=488&TituloPagina=Historia%20de%20Chile |title=Historia de Chile, Británicos y Anglosajones en Chile durante el siglo XIX |access-date=2009-04-26}}</ref> Another significant immigrant group is [[Croatia]]n. The number of their descendants today is estimated to be 380,000, or 2.4% of the population.<ref>{{in lang|es}} [http://hrvatskimigracije.es.tl/Diaspora-Croata.htm Diaspora Croata.].</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://matis.hr/vijesti.php?id=2265 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604233703/http://www.matis.hr/vijesti.php?id=2265 |url-status=dead |date = 25 March 2009 | language = hr | title = Splitski osnovnoškolci rođeni u Čileu | first = Merien | last = Ilić |archive-date=4 June 2012 |publisher = [[Hrvatska matica iseljenika]] }}</ref> Other authors claim that close to 4.6% of the Chilean population must have some [[Croatian diaspora|Croatian ancestry]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrvatski.cl/html/croatas.htm |title=Hrvatski Dom - Inmigrantes Croatas |work=hrvatski.cl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195315/http://www.hrvatski.cl/html/croatas.htm |archive-date=2016-03-03 }}</ref> After the failed [[Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|liberal revolution of 1848]] in the German states,<ref name="HistoriaContemporaneaDeChile">{{cite book |title= Historia Contemporánea de Chile |last1=Salazar Vergara |first1=Gabriel |last2=Pinto |first2=Julio |author-link1=Gabriel Salazar|author-link2=Julio Pinto |year= 1999 |publisher= [[LOM Ediciones]] |location= Santiago de Chile |isbn= 956-282-174-9 |chapter= La Presencia Inmigrante |pages= 76–81 |access-date= September 16, 2012 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Vyx8JQtvU78C&q=Chile+migracion+europea&pg=PA78 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title= Superpoblación |last= Durán |first= Hipólito |author-link= Hipólito Durán |year= 1997 |publisher= Real Academia Nacional de Medicina |location= Madrid |isbn= 84-923901-0-7 |chapter= El crecimiento de la población latinoamericana y en especial de Chile • Academia Chilena de Medicina |page= 217 |access-date=September 16, 2012 |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IXFVHAXxNw0C&q=Chile+migracion+europea&pg=PA217 }}</ref> a significant German immigration took place, laying the foundation for the [[German-Chilean]] community. Sponsored by the Chilean government, to "unbarbarize" and [[German colonization of Valdivia, Osorno and Llanquihue|colonize the southern region]],<ref name="HistoriaContemporaneaDeChile"/> these Germans (including German-speaking Swiss, [[Silesians]], [[Alsace|Alsatians]] and Austrians) settled mainly in [[Valdivia]], [[Llanquihue, Chile|Llanquihue]], [[Chiloé]], and [[Los Angeles, Chile|Los Ángeles]].<ref>{{cite book |title= Recuerdos del Pasado |last1= Pérez Rosales |first1= Vicente |author-link= Vicente Pérez Rosales |orig-date=1860 |year=1975 |publisher= Editorial Andrés Bello |location= Santiago de Chile |access-date= September 16, 2012 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=cISuC7tC5hsC&q=Recuerdos+del+Pasado }}</ref> The Chilean Embassy in Germany estimated that 150,000 to 200,000 Chileans are [[German diaspora|of German origin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.embajadaconsuladoschile.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=50&Itemid=60&lang=de|title=Reisen Sie nach Chile? Reiseziele zu den wichtigsten touristischen Sehenswürdigkeiten|trans-title=Are you travelling to Chile? Major tourist destinations and attractions|language=de|work=German Embassy in Chile|date=2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805064812/http://www.embajadaconsuladoschile.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=50&Itemid=60&lang=de|archive-date=5 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last=Rosenberg |first=Peter |title=Deutsche Minderheiten in Lateinamerika |trans-title=German minorities in Latin America |url=http://www.kuwi.europa-uni.de/de/lehrstuhl/sw/sw1/mitarbeiter/rosenberg/lateinam.pdf |date=7 September 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102170531/http://www.kuwi.europa-uni.de/de/lehrstuhl/sw/sw1/mitarbeiter/rosenberg/lateinam.pdf |website=[[European University Viadrina]] |archive-date=2 November 2012 |language=de |access-date=6 April 2022}}</ref> ====Colombia==== {{Main|White Colombian|Colombian people|Immigration to Colombia}} {{See also|Arab diaspora in Colombia}} According to the 2005 Census 86% of Colombians are considered either White or Mestizo, which are not categorized separately. Though the census does not identify the number of white Colombians, Lizcano and the CIA World Factbook estimates 20% of White population,<ref name=Lizcano/> while Hudson estimates 37%, a figure that also coincides with the research done by Schwartzman,<ref name= schwartzman>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzman |first1=Simon |chapter=Etnia, condiciones de vida y discriminacion |chapter-url=http://www.schwartzman.org.br/simon/coesion_etnia.pdf |editor1-first=Eduardo |editor1-last=Valenzuela |editor2-first=Simón |editor2-last=Schwartzman |editor3-first=Andrés |editor3-last=Biehl |editor4-first=J. Samuel |editor4-last=Valenzuela |year=2008 |title=Vínculos, Creencias e Ilusiones: La cohesión social de los Latinoamericanos |publisher=Uqbar Editores |isbn=978-956-8601-17-1 }}</ref> forming the second largest racial group after [[Mestizo Colombians]] (at 49%).<ref name="Bushnell & Hudson 2010 pp86-87">{{cite book |last1=Bushnell |first1=David |last2=Hudson |first2=Rex A. |lccn=2010009203 |title=Colombia: a country study |editor1-first=Rex A. |editor1-last=Hudson |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |location=Washington, D.C. |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8444-9502-6 |chapter=The Society and Its Environment|pages=86–87 }}</ref> [[Genetic studies]] estimate that the ethnic composition of Colombia varies between 45.9% European, 33.8% Amerindian, and 20.3% African ancestry;<ref name=Godinho2008/> and 62.5% European, 27.4% Amerindian, and 9.2% African ancestry.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Homburger |first1=Julian R. |last2=Moreno-Estrada |first2=Andrés |last3=Gignoux |first3=Christopher R. |last4=Nelson |first4=Dominic |last5=Sanchez |first5=Elena |last6=Ortiz-Tello |first6=Patricia |last7=Pons-Estel |first7=Bernardo A. |last8=Acevedo-Vasquez |first8=Eduardo |last9=Miranda |first9=Pedro |last10=Langefeld |first10=Carl D. |last11=Gravel |first11=Simon |last12=Alarcón-Riquelme |first12=Marta E. |last13=Bustamante |first13=Carlos D. |title=Genomic Insights into the Ancestry and Demographic History of South America |journal=PLOS Genetics |date=4 December 2015 |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=e1005602 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1005602 |pmid=26636962 |pmc=4670080 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Between 1540 and 1559, 8.9 percent of the residents of Colombia were of Basque origin. It has been suggested that the present day incidence of business entrepreneurship in the region of [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]] is attributable to the Basque immigration and character traits. Today many Colombians of the Department of [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]] region preserve their Basque ethnic heritage. In Bogota, there is a small district/colonies of Basque families who emigrated as a consequence of Spain's Civil War or because of better opportunities.<ref name="Amerikanuak">{{cite book |last1=Douglass |first1=William A. |last2=Bilbao |first2=Jon |title=Amerikanuak: Basques In The New World |date=2005 |publisher=University of Nevada Press |isbn=978-0-87417-675-9 |page=167 }}</ref> Basque priests were the ones that introduced handball into Colombia. Basque immigrants in Colombia were devoted to teaching and public administration. In the first years of the Andean Multinational Company, Basque sailors navigated as captains and pilots on the majority of the ships until the country was able to train its own crews.<ref name=Pastor>{{cite book |last1=Pastor |first1=José Manuel Azcona |title=Possible Paradises: Basque Emigration to Latin America |date=2004 |publisher=University of Nevada Press |isbn=978-0-87417-444-1 |page=203 }}</ref> The first and largest wave of immigration from the Middle East began around 1880, and continued during the first two decades of the twentieth century. The immigrants were mainly Maronite Christians from Greater Syria (Syria and Lebanon) and Palestine, fleeing those then Ottoman territories.<ref name="webislam.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.webislam.com/?idn=4103 |title=La comunidad musulmana de Maicao (Colombia) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929091822/http://www.webislam.com/?idn=4103 |archive-date=29 September 2007 |date=15 December 2005 |first1=Diego Andrés Rosselli |last1=Cock |trans-title=The Muslim community of Maicao (Colombia) |language=es }}</ref> Syrians, Palestinians, and Lebanese have continued to settle in Colombia. Due to a lack of information, it is impossible to know the exact number of Lebanese and Syrians that immigrated to Colombia; but for 1880 to 1930, 5,000–10,000 is estimated. Syrians and Lebanese are perhaps the biggest immigrant group next to the Spanish since independence. Those who left their homeland in the Middle East to settle in Colombia left for different religious, economic, and political reasons. In 1945, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Cali, and Bogota are the cities with the largest numbers of Arabic-speakers in Colombia.<ref name=LABLAA>{{cite journal |last1=Fawcett |first1=Louise |last2=Carbó |first2=Eduardo Posada |title=En la tierra de las oportunidades : los sirios-libaneses en Colombia |trans-title=In the land of opportunity: Syrian-Lebanese in Colombia |language=es |journal=Boletín Cultural y Bibliográfico |date=1992 |volume=29 |issue=9 |pages=3–21 |url=https://publicaciones.banrepcultural.org/index.php/boletin_cultural/article/view/2252 }}</ref> The Arabs that went to [[Maicao]] were mostly [[Sunni Muslim]], with some [[Druze]] and [[Shiites]], as well as Orthodox and Maronite Christians. The mosque of [[Maicao]] is the second largest mosque in Latin America. Middle Easterns are generally called ''Turcos'' (Turkish).<ref name="webislam.com"/> In December 1941 the United States government estimated that there were 4,000 Germans living in Colombia. There were some Nazi agitators in Colombia, such as Barranquilla businessman Emil Prufurt. Colombia invited Germans who were on the U.S. blacklist to leave.<ref name=LB>{{cite book |editor1-last=Leonard |editor1-first=Thomas M. |editor2-last=Bratzel |editor2-first=John F. |title=Latin America During World War II |date=2006 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4616-3862-9 |page=117 }}</ref> [[SCADTA]], a Colombian-German air transport corporation, which was established by German expatriates in 1919, was the first commercial airline in the western hemisphere.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stampnotes.com/Notes_from_the_Past/pastnote248.htm|title=SCADTA Joins the Fight|work=stampnotes.com|access-date=2014-08-07|archive-date=2015-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924105620/http://www.stampnotes.com/Notes_from_the_Past/pastnote248.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> In recent years, the celebration of Colombian-German heritage has grown increasingly popular in Bogota, Cartagena, and Bucaramanga. There are many annual festivals that focus German cuisine, specially pastry arts and beer. Since 2009, there has been a considerable increase in collaborative research through advanced business and educational exchanges, such as those promoted by [[COLCIENCIAS]] and [[AIESEC]]. There are many Colombian-German companies focused on finance, science, education, technology and innovation, and engineering.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/EN/Aussenpolitik/Laender/Laenderinfos/01-Nodes/Kolumbien_node.html|title=Auswärtiges Amt - Colombia|work=Auswärtiges Amt}}</ref> ====Ecuador==== {{Main|Demographics of Ecuador}} According to the most recent 2022 National Population census, 2.2% of the population identified as white, down from 2010, where <!--Per the census source. Please do NOT change the number.-->6.1%<!--NOT 12%.--> of the population self-identified as such, and down from 10.5% in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.primicias.ec/noticias/sociedad/censo-ecuador/resultados-poblacion-mestizos-afro-indigena/|title= Más mestizos, menos afros y pocos blancos: así se ven los ecuatorianos|website=Primicias|date=22 September 2023|accessdate=14 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eluniverso.com/2011/09/02/1/1356/poblacion-pais-joven-mestiza-dice-censo-inec.html|title=Población del país es joven y mestiza, dice censo del INEC|work=El Universo|date=2011-09-02}}</ref> In Ecuador, being white is more an indication of social class than of ethnicity. Classifying oneself as white is often done to claim membership to the middle class and to distance oneself from the lower class, which is associated being "Indian". For this reason the status of ''blanco'' is claimed by people who are not primarily of European heritage.<ref>Levinson, David. 1998. Ethnic groups worldwide: a ready reference handbook. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 346. "Blanco or White is more a social-class designation than an ethnic one, as identification as a Blanco is based on a combination of white skin color, European features, speaking Spanish, residence in the western part of the nation (especially in a city), and enough wealth or education to be classified as middle or upper class. However, in some rural regions, Mestizos refer to themselves as Blancos, to distinguish themselves from Native Americans and Quechua speakers. Blancos form the ruling elite in Ecuador, and categorization as a Blanco is considered desirable by people of full or partial European descent.</ref> According to [[genetic research]] done in 2008 by the [[University of Brasília]], the average Ecuadorian genetic admixture is <!--Results can be found on pg. 17 of the study. Do NOT change these numbers-->64.6% Amerindian, 31.0% European, and 4.4% African.<ref name=Godinho2008/> In 2015, another study showed the average Ecuadorian is estimated to be 52.96% Amerindian, 41.77% European, and 5.26% Sub-Saharan African overall.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Unravelling the hidden ancestry of American admixed populations|journal=Nature Communications|volume=6|pmc=4374169|doi=10.1038/ncomms7596|pmid=25803618|date=March 24, 2015|at=See [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4374169/bin/ncomms7596-s2.xlsx Supplementary Data]|last1=Montinaro|first1=F.|last2=Busby|first2=G. B.|last3=Pascali|first3=V. L.|last4=Myers|first4=S.|last5=Hellenthal|first5=G.|last6=Capelli|first6=C.|bibcode=2015NatCo...6.6596M}}</ref> White Ecuadorians, mostly ''criollos'', are descendants of Spanish colonists and also Spanish refugees fleeing the 1936–1939 Spanish Civil War. Most still hold large amounts of lands, mainly in the northern ''Sierra'', and live in [[Quito]] or [[Guayaquil]]. There is also a large number of white people in [[Cuenca, Ecuador|Cuenca]], a city in the southern [[Andes]] of Ecuador, due to the arrival of Frenchmen in the area, who came to measure the arc of the Earth. Cuenca, [[Loja, Ecuador|Loja]], and the [[Galápagos Islands|Galápagos]] attracted German immigration during the early 20th century. The Galápagos also had a small Norwegian fishing community until they were asked to leave. There are large populations of Italian, French, German, Basque, Portuguese, and Greek descent, as well as a small Ecuadorian Jewish population. [[History of the Jews in Ecuador|Ecuador's Jews]] consists of [[Sephardic Jews]] arriving in the South of the country in the 16th and 17th centuries and [[Ashkenazi Jews]] during the 1930s in the main cities of Quito and Cuenca.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Ecuador.html |title=Jews in Ecuador |publisher=[[Jewish Virtual Library]]}}</ref> ====Paraguay==== {{Main|White Paraguayans}} Ethnically, culturally, and socially, Paraguay has one of the most [[Monoculturalism|homogeneous]] populations in South America. Because of [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]]'s 1814 policy that no Spaniards and other Europeans could intermarry among themselves (they could only marry blacks, [[mulatto]]es, [[mestizo]]s or the native [[Guaraní people|Guaraní]]), a measure taken to avoid a white majority occurring in Paraguay (De Francia believed that all men were equal as well), it was within little more than one generation that most of the population were of mixed racial origin.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} The exact percentage of the white Paraguayan population is not known because the Paraguayan census does not include racial or ethnic identification, save for the indigenous population,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dgeec.gov.py/Censos/Imagenes/Cuestionario%20Censal.pdf?PHPSESSID=296abb7abfa015f8241d208aeaed71f4|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20051109214313/http://www.dgeec.gov.py/Censos/Imagenes/Cuestionario%20Censal.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 November 2005|title=Paraguayan Census form|website=Dgeec.gov.py|access-date=8 October 2017}}</ref> which was 1.7% of the country's total in the 2002 census.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dgeec.gov.py/Publicaciones/Biblioteca/censo_indigena/Capitulo%201.pdf|title=II CENSO NACIONAL INDÍGENA DE POBLACIÓN Y VIVIENDAS 2002. Pueblos Indígenas del Paraguay. Resultados Finales|website=Dgeec.gov.py|access-date=8 October 2017}}</ref> Other sources estimate the sizes of other groups, the mestizo population being estimated at 95% by the CIA World Factbook, with all other groups totaling 5%.<ref name="PRA">{{cite web | title=Paraguay: People; Ethnic groups| url =https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/paraguay/ | work =CIA World Factbook | access-date = 2007-11-26}}</ref><ref name=CIA-Paraguay>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/paraguay/ Paraguay]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].</ref> Thus, whites and the remaining groups (such as those of African descent) make up approximately 3.3% of the total population. According to Carlos Pastore, 30% are white and 70% approximately is mestizo.<ref name="Pastore 1972 526"/> Such a reading is complicated, because, as elsewhere in Latin America, "white" and "mestizo" are not mutually exclusive (people may identify as both). Due to the European migration in the 19th and 20th centuries, the majority of Paraguay's white population are of German descent (including Mennonites), with others being of French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese descent.<ref name=EuroParaguay/> Many are southern and southeastern Brazilians (''[[brasiguayos]]''), as well as Argentines and Uruguayans, and their descendants.<ref name=EuroParaguay/> People from such regions are generally descendants of colonial settlers and/or more recent immigrants.<ref name=EuroParaguay>{{cite web|last=Benítez Martínez|first=María Victoria|title=Inmigrantes Europeos en Paraguay 1818 1930|url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/53/06/44/PDF/AT9_Benitez.pdf|work=XIV Encuentro de Latinoamericanistas Españoles|publisher=Université de Paris|access-date=24 January 2014|location=Paris, France|language=es}}</ref> In 2005, 600 families of [[Volga Germans]] who migrated to Germany after the [[fall of the Soviet Union]], re-migrated and established a new colony, ''Neufeld'', near [[Yuty]] ([[Caazapá Department]]), in southeastern Paraguay.<ref name=ABCpy>{{cite web|title=Establecerán nueva colonia de alemanes en Paraguay|url=http://www.abc.com.py/edicion-impresa/economia/estableceran-nueva-colonia-de-alemanes-en-paraguay-852314.html|access-date=24 January 2014|website=Abc.com|date=26 August 2005|language=es}}</ref> ====Peru==== {{Main|Peruvians of European descent|Peruvians|Immigration to Peru}} [[File:Bridge of Lima, Ladies of Lima 1842 Boilly and Eyriès (cropped1).jpg|thumb|[[Tapada limeña]], typical dress of white upper-class women from Lima during colonial times]] According to the [[2017 Peru Census|2017]] census 5.9% or 1.3 million people self-identified as white of the population. This was the first time the census had asked an ancestral identity question. The highest proportion was in the [[La Libertad Region]] with 10% identifying as white.<ref name="census2017"/> They are descendants primarily of Spanish colonists, and also of Spanish refugees fleeing the Spanish Civil War. After World War II, many German refugees fled to Peru and settled in large cities, while others descend from Italian, French (mainly [[Basque people|Basques]]), Austrian or German, Portuguese, British, Russians and Croatian immigrant families. The regions with the highest proportion of self-identified whites were in [[La Libertad Region]] (10.5%), [[Tumbes Region]] and [[Lambayeque Region]] (9.0% each), [[Piura Region]] (8.1%), [[Callao]] (7.7%), [[Cajamarca Region]] (7.5%), [[Lima Province]] (7.2%) and [[Lima Region]] (6.0%).<ref name="census2017" /><ref>{{cite web|author1=Carlos Miranda Loayza|author2=Daniel Abuhadba Rodrigues|title=Inmigración Europea al Perú|trans-title=European immigration to Peru|language=es|url=http://www.espejodelperu.com.pe/Poblacion-del-Peru/Inmigracion-Europea-al-Peru.htm|work=espejodelperu.com.pe|date=2007|access-date=18 January 2016}}</ref> According to a [[genetic research]] by the [[University of Brasília]], Peruvian genetic admixture indicates 73.0% Amerindian, 15.1% European, and 11.9% African ancestry.<ref name=Godinho2008/> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:left" ! colspan="6" |White population by region, 2017<ref name="census2017" /> |- ! colspan="2" | [[Regions of Peru|Region]] ! Population ! Percent |- | [[File:La Libertad Flag(PER).png|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[La Libertad Region|La Libertad]] | 144,606 | 10.5% |- | [[File:Bandera de Tumbes.svg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Tumbes Region|Tumbes]] |15,383 | 9.0% |- | [[File:Flag of Lambayeque Department.svg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Lambayeque Region|Lambayeque]] | 83,908 | 9.0% |- | [[File:Bandera Región Piura.png|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Piura Region|Piura]] | 114,682 |8.1% |- | [[File:Bandera del Callao.png|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" | [[Callao]] | 61,576 |7.7% |- | [[File:Bandera de Cajamarca.svg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Cajamarca Region|Cajamarca]] | 76,953 |7.5% |- | {{flagicon|Lima}} | style="text-align: left;" |[[Lima Province|Lima]] Province | 507,039 |7.2% |- | [[File:Bandera Región Lima.png|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Lima Region|Lima]] | 43,074 |6.0% |- | [[File:Bandera Región Ica.png|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Ica Region|Ica]] | 38,119 |5.8% |- | [[File:Bandera Ancash.png|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Áncash Region|Ancash]] | 49,175 |5.8% |- | {{flagicon|Arequipa}} | style="text-align: left;" |[[Arequipa Region|Arequipa]] | 55,093 |4.9% |- | [[File:Amazonas bandera.png|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Amazonas (Peruvian department)|Amazonas]] | 12,470 |4.4% |- | [[File:Flag of Huánuco.svg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Huánuco Region|Huánuco]] | 24,130 |4.4% |- | [[File:Bandera San Martín.png|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[San Martín Region|San Martín]] | 24,516 |4.0% |- | [[File:Bandera Moquegua Perú.png|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Moquegua Region|Moquegua]] | 5,703 |4.0% |- | [[File:Flag of Pasco Department.svg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Pasco Region|Pasco]] | 7,448 |3.8% |- | [[File:Flag of Junin.svg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Junín Region|Junín]] | 34,700 |3.6% |- | [[File:Flag of Madre de Dios Department.svg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Madre de Dios Region|Madre de Dios]] | 3,444 |3.3% |- | [[File:Flag of Tacna.svg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Department of Tacna|Tacna]] | 8,678 |3.2% |- | [[File:Bandera de Ucayali en Atlas de la Región Ucayali (2009).svg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Ucayali Region|Ucayali]] | 8,283 |2.3% |- | [[File:Flag of Ayacucho.svg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Ayacucho Region|Ayacucho]] | 9,516 |2.0% |- | [[File:..Huancavelica Flag(PERU).png|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Huancavelica Region|Huancavelica]] | 5,222 |2.0% |- | [[File:Bandera Región Loreto.png|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Loreto Region|Loreto]] | 11,884 |1.9% |- | [[File:Flag of Cusco (2021).svg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Cusco Region|Cusco]] | 12,458 |1.3% |- | [[File:Apurimacbandera.jpg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Apurímac Region|Apurímac]] | 3,034 |1.0% |- | [[File:Primer-lugar-de-la-bandera-regional-Puno1.jpg|23px|border]] | style="text-align: left;" |[[Puno Region|Puno]] | 5,837 |0.6% |- ! {{flagicon|Peru}} ! style="text-align: left;" |Republic of Peru ! 1,336,931 ! 5.9% |} ====Uruguay==== {{Main|Uruguayan people}} A 2009 DNA study in the ''[[American Journal of Human Biology]]'' showed the genetic composition of Uruguay as primarily European, with Native American ancestry ranging from one to 20 percent and sub-Saharan African from seven to 15 percent, depending on the region.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonilla |first1=Carolina |last2=Bertoni |first2=Bernardo |last3=González |first3=Susana |last4=Cardoso |first4=Horacio |last5=Brum-Zorrilla |first5=Nadir |last6=Sans |first6=Mónica |title=Substantial native American female contribution to the population of Tacuarembó, Uruguay, reveals past episodes of sex-biased gene flow: Native American Admixture in Uruguay |journal=American Journal of Human Biology |date=May 2004 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=289–297 |doi=10.1002/ajhb.20025 |pmid=15101054 |s2cid=34341356 }}</ref> Between the mid-19th and the early 20th centuries, [[Uruguay]] received part of the same migratory influx as Argentina, although the process started a bit earlier. During 1850–1900, the country welcomed four waves of European immigrants, mainly Spaniards, Italians and Frenchmen. In smaller numbers came British, Germans, Swiss, Russians, Portuguese, Poles, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Estonians, Dutch, Belgians, Croatians, Lebanese, Armenians, Greeks, Scandinavians, and Irish. The demographic impact of these migratory waves was greater than in Argentina, Uruguay going from having 70,000 inhabitants in 1830, to 450,000 in 1875, and a million inhabitants by 1900, its population thus increasing fourteen-fold in only 70 years. Between 1840 and 1890, 50%–60% of [[Montevideo]]'s population was born abroad, almost all in Europe. The Census conducted in 1860 showed that 35% of the country's population was made up by foreigners, although by the time of the 1908 Census this figure had dropped to 17%.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barrán |first1=José Pedro |title=El nacimiento del Uruguay Moderno en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX |trans-title=The birth of Modern Uruguay in the second half of the 19th century |language=es |url=https://www.rau.edu.uy/uruguay/historia/Uy.hist3.htm |date=September 1995}}{{self-published inline|date=November 2020}}</ref> From 1996 to 1997, the National Institute of Statistics (INE) of Uruguay conducted a Continuous Household Survey, of 40,000 homes, that included the topic of race in the country. Its results were based on "the explicit statements of the interviewee about the race they consider they belong themselves". These results were extrapolated, and the INE estimated that out of 2,790,600 inhabitants, some 2,602,200 were white (93.2%), some 164,200 (5.9%) were totally or partially black, some 12,100 were totally or partially Amerindian (0.4%), and the remaining 12,000 considered themselves Yellow.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ine.gub.uy/documents/10181/35456/MODULO_RAZA.pdf/a5ff8903-19a9-45a2-be66-0c1ae98d4fcf |title=Encuesta Continua de Hogares Módulo de Raza Principales Resultadosde |language=es |date=24 January 2003 |website=El Instituto Nacional de Estadística |access-date=22 November 2020 |archive-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125232116/https://www.ine.gub.uy/documents/10181/35456/MODULO_RAZA.pdf/a5ff8903-19a9-45a2-be66-0c1ae98d4fcf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2006, a new Enhanced National Household Survey touched on the topic again, but this time emphasizing ancestry, not race; the results revealed 5.8% more Uruguayans self-reported stated having total or partial black and/or Amerindian ancestry. This reduction in the percentage of self-declared "pure whites" between surveys could be caused by the phenomenon of the interviewee giving new value to their African heritage, similar to what has happened in Brazil in the last three censuses. Anyway, it is worth noting that 2,897,525 interviewées declared having only white ancestry (87.4%), 302,460 declared having total or partial black ancestry (9.1%), 106,368 total or partial Amerindian ancestry (2.9%) and 6,549 total or partial Yellow ancestry (0.2%).<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.ine.gub.uy/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=0d5d2e5d-898c-49f6-8465-c3a5b606a284&groupId=10181 |title=El perfil demográfico y socioeconómico de la población uruguaya según su ascendencia racial |trans-title=The demographic and socioeconomic profile of the Uruguayan population according to their racial ancestry |language=es |first1=Marisa |last1=Bucheli |first2=Wanda |last2=Cabela |conference=Encuesta Nacional de Hogares Ampliada |year=2006 }}</ref> This figure matches external estimates for white population in Uruguay of 87.4%,<ref name="wsm uru">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Uruguay.html|title=Uruguay|work=worldstatesmen.org}}</ref> 88%,<ref name=Lizcano/><ref name="cia uru">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ur.html#People|title=Uruguay: People: Ethnic Groups|website=Cia.gov|access-date=8 October 2017}}{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> or 90%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dev.prenhall.com/divisions/hss/worldreference/UY/people.html|title=Higher Education - Pearson|website=Prenhall.com|access-date=8 October 2017}}</ref> In 1997, the Uruguayan government granted residence rights to only 200 European/American citizens; in 2008 the number of residence rights granted increased to 927.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.antipro.com.uy/foro/index.php?topic=13491.0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425062458/http://www.antipro.com.uy/foro/index.php?topic=13491.0 |archive-date=25 April 2012 |title=Inmigracion norteamericana y europea en Uruguay |trans-title=North American and European immigration in Uruguay |date=27 February 2011 |author=triloko }}{{unreliable source?|date=November 2020}}{{self-published inline|date=November 2020}}</ref> ====Venezuela==== {{Main|Venezuelans of European descent|Venezuelan people|Immigration to Venezuela}} According to the official Venezuelan census, although "white" literally involves external issues such as light skin, shape and color of hair and eyes, among others, the term "white" has been used in different ways in different historical periods and places, so its precise definition is somewhat confusing.<ref name="Census2011"/> Though the 2011 Venezuelan Census states that "White" in Venezuela is used to describe the Venezuelans of [[European ethnic groups|European]] origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.gob.ve/documentos/Demografia/CensodePoblacionyVivienda/pdf/nacional.pdf|title=Resultado Básico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011 (Mayo 2014)|page=65|publisher=Ine.gov.ve|access-date=19 June 2022}}</ref> According to the 2011 National Population and Housing Census, 43.6% of the population identified themselves as [[white people]].<ref name="Census2011"/> A [[genome|genomic]] study shows that about 60.6% of the Venezuelan [[gene pool]] has European origin. Among the countries in the study (Argentina, Bahamas, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Colombia, El Salvador, Ecuador, Jamaica, Mexico, Peru, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela), Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina exhibit the highest European contribution.<ref name=Godinho2008/> The Venezuelan [[gene pool]] indicates a 60.6% European, 23.0% Amerindian, and 16.3% African ancestry.<ref name=Godinho2008/> Spaniards were introduced into [[Venezuela]] during the colonial period. Most of them were from [[Andalusia]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] and from the [[Canary Islands]]. Until the last years of World War II, a large part of European immigrants to Venezuela came from the Canary Islands, and their cultural impact was significant, influencing its gastronomy, customs and the development of Castilian in the country. With the beginning of oil production during the first decades of the 20th century, employees of oil companies from the United States, United Kingdom, and the Netherlands established themselves in Venezuela. Later, in the middle of the century, there was a new wave of immigrants originating from Spain (mainly from Galicia, Andalucia, and Basque country, some being refugees from the [[Spanish Civil War]]), Italy (mainly from southern Italy and the Veneto region), and Portugal (from Madeira), as well as from Germany, France, England, [[Croatia]], the Netherlands, and other European countries encouraged by a welcoming immigration policy to a prosperous, rapidly developing country where educated and skilled immigrants were needed.{{Citation needed|date=December 2013}} ==Representation in the media== Some media outlets in the United States have criticized Latin American media for allegedly featuring a disproportionate number of [[blond]] and [[eye color#Blue|blue-eyed]] actors and actresses in [[telenovela]]s, relative to the overall population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/58525?tid=relatedcl |title=Y Tu Black Mama Tambien |access-date=2008-05-02 |last=Quinonez |first=Ernesto |website=[[Newsweek]] |date=2003-06-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art40221.asp|title=What are Telenovelas?|work=bellaonline.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2000-08-06/news/0008060066_1_spanish-latino-leaders-caste|title=Racial Bias Charged On Spanish-language Tv|work=tribunedigital-sunsentinel|access-date=2011-09-06|archive-date=2012-09-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915015308/http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2000-08-06/news/0008060066_1_spanish-latino-leaders-caste|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/pov/corpus/film_description.php|title=Film Description - Corpus - POV - PBS|work=pbs.org|access-date=2017-09-18|archive-date=2015-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924151037/http://www.pbs.org/pov/corpus/film_description.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> == See also == {{Portal|Latin America}} {{columns-list |colwidth=15em| * [[Afro-Latin Americans]] * [[Asian Latin Americans]] * [[Blanqueamiento]] * [[Carcamano]] * [[Castizo]] * [[European diaspora]] * [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] * [[Latin Americans]] * [[Mestizo]] * [[Mulatto]] * [[Peninsulares]] * [[Race and ethnicity in Latin America]] }} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== *Twinam, Ann. 2015. ''Purchasing whiteness: Pardos, mulattos, and the quest for social mobility in the Spanish Indies''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. {{White people}} {{Latin America topics}} [[Category:White Latin Americans| ]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Latin America]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in North America]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Central America]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in the Caribbean]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in South America]]'