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The [[Cherokee Nation|Cherokee nation]] is one of the [[List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States|federally recognized tribes within the United States]]. It is now located in Oklahoma, after being forcefully removed in the [[Trail of Tears]] along with other tribes. Indigenous groups in North America were assigned to small reservations, typically on unattractive and economically marginal lands.<ref name=":5" />
The [[Cherokee Nation|Cherokee nation]] is one of the [[List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States|federally recognized tribes within the United States]]. It is now located in Oklahoma, after being forcefully removed in the [[Trail of Tears]] along with other tribes. Indigenous groups in North America were assigned to small reservations, typically on unattractive and economically marginal lands.<ref name=":5" />

According to sociologist [[Aníbal Quijano|Anibal Quijano]], Bolivia and Mexico have undergone limited [[Decolonization|decolonialization]] through a revolutionary process.<ref name="Quijano">{{cite journal |last=Quijano |first=Anibal |year=2000 |title=Coloniality of Power, Eurocentrism, and Latin America |url=http://www.unc.edu/~aescobar/wan/wanquijano.pdf |journal=Nepantla: Views from the South |volume=1 |pages=533–580 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616205408/http://www.unc.edu/~aescobar/wan/wanquijano.pdf |archive-date=2012-06-16 |number=3}}</ref>

== Present strategies ==
== Present strategies ==


Revision as of 10:01, 2 December 2023

Indigenous responses for survival during the age of colonialism vary widely depending on the specific group of people and the colonial state they were interacting with. Indigenous peoples have had agency and some degree of choice in the course of the colonial history. Some employed armed resistance, while others used diplomatic means to negotiate positive outcomes, and some fled to remote inhospitable or remote territories to try to avoid conflict. Nevertheless, some Indigenous peoples were forced to move to reservations or reductions, others were massacred, others were forced to work on European-owned mines and plantations or construction of infrastructure, and others culturally assimilated into European-dominated societies. Indigenous peoples may have formed alliances with one or more Indigenous or non-Indigenous nations. Overall, the responses of Indigenous peoples to colonialism during this period have been diverse and varied in their effectiveness.[1][2] Indigenous resistance has a history that is long, complex, and still under development and being written.[3]

Background

Geronimo, Apache leader

Before the age of colonialism, population estimates of Indigenous peoples throughout the world are above hundreds of millions, with hundreds of languages and cultures spread throughout the world. Indigenous peoples created pre-contact large cities, city-states, chiefdoms, states, kingdoms, republics, confederacies, and empires. These societies had varying degrees of knowledge of arts, agriculture, engineering, architecture, mathematics, astronomy, writing, physics, medicine, irrigation, geology, mining, weather forecasting, navigation and metallurgy.[4] Their population would experience a significant collapse due to the effects of colonization. Most Indigenous groups in the world today have been displaced from some or all of their ancestral lands.[5][6]

In recent decades, scholarship has paid more attention to Indigenous agency in the historiography. Before, Indigenous peoples were studied as passive recipients of colonial policy, but now the growing areas of borderland studies and Indigenous agency have emerged.[7][8]

As European colonialism spread throughout the world, the new arrivals later became dominant through conquest, occupation, settlement or invasion. In this process, there was conflict, and so for hundreds of years of recent history, Indigenous groups have been a target of a number of atrocity crimes including multiple genocides. In spite of this, Indigenous peoples survive and some are thriving. They account for a population of 476 million residing in 90 countries in the world, speaking over 5000 languages. Some examples include the Aymaras, Guaranis and Quechuas in South America, Lakotas in North America, Mayas in Central America, Inuit of the circumpolar region, Sámi of northwest Eurasia, Torres Strait Islanders and Maori of Oceania.[9][10][11]

Indigenous peoples continue to struggle as they suffer discrimination in most countries where they co-exist with non-Indigenous peoples. The majority of the world’s Indigenous peoples are almost always among the poorest groups within the states where they live, and they amount to 19% of the world's poor.[12][2][13]

Contact and conquest

Before the European Age of Discovery, and the subsequent colonization, Indigenous peoples resided in a large proportion of the world's territory. For example, in the Americas, there are estimates of more than 100 million people.[14] The Indigenous response to colonization was varied, and also changed over time, as each group chose to flee, fight, submit, support or seek diplomatic solutions. One example of an Indigenous group that fled is the Beothuk in Newfoundland which is now practically extinct. In contrast, the Nenets have accommodated the Russian state.[12]

While some scholars have blamed new diseases introduced to Indigenous lands by arrivals from overseas, recent scholarship has shifted to explore the nature of difficult conditions of life imposed on Indigenous peoples due to colonization itself that made Indigenous peoples more vulnerable to any disease, including new diseases. In other words, the vectors of death such as forced labor combined with hunger converged during the colonization process made Indigenous peoples weaker and less resistant to disease.[15][16] Other scholars maintain that smallpox probably killed a third of the population in colonial Mexico but admit that there is no evidence to determine the amount with certainty.[17]

On rare occasions, Indigenous peoples would be successful in battle against European armies. One such example is the Battle of Big Horn. The Mapuche in Chile[18] and the Māori in New Zealand resisted for many years.[19] However, in many parts of the world Indigenous peoples moved away from fertile resource-rich lands to inaccessible and inhospitable territories to avoid contact. They were displaced from fertile places in Argentina, Brazil, Philippines and temperate Africa. Some examples include small Indigenous groups moving to parts of the Amazon basin, Australia, Central America, the Arctic and Siberia. Others came in conflict with other Indigenous groups as they were forcefully displaced and occupied land that was inhabited by other Indigenous groups.[12]

During the colonization of New Spain, the focus of the colonizers was to practice agriculture and mining, and build infrastructure while exploiting Indigenous labor from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century.[20] Slavery was of one of the main factors that decimated the Indigenous population of North America. Indigenous slavery predated and outlasted the African slave trade until the 20th century. The Spanish crown allowed slavery of Indigenous peoples captured in "just wars" which meant in practice any Indigenous resistance to colonialism. Indigenous forced labor took place in repartimientos, encomiendas, Spanish missions and haciendas. Indigenous women and children were forced to do household work and sexual work. Even after slavery was outlawed by the Spanish and then the Mexican and United States governments, those that benefitted from slavery used legal frameworks to avoid enforcement such as vagrancy laws, convict leasing, and debt peonage.[21]

Indigenous nations sought diplomacy or military alliances to survive, seeking allies in other nations, including other Indigenous nations and other colonizing powers, as in the French and Indian War and the War of 1812. In other words, sometimes they sought alliances if the alliance was estimated to bring improve their chances of survival or work in their advantage. Some Indigenous nations attempted to show their allegiance to the colonizing power by becoming a military ally in the attacks of other Indigenous nations, as in the case of the central valley in Mexico.[22]

The reaction of Indigenous peoples to attacks resulted in their transformation into warrior horse cultures that used European fire guns to resist further invasion of their lands. Even today, the stereotypical Native American depicted in Indian Wars is riding on a horse. Indigenous peoples also adopted newly introduced domestic animals in their diet as Europeans introduced chicken, cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, etc. Indigenous peoples has hunted their land for centuries, and many times killed the animals belonging to European invaders, and this was the cause of much conflict between settlers and Indigenous peoples.[23][24]

Colonization

Modern colonialism that started in 1492 with European transatlantic navigation, resulted in the expansion of European empires and the associated settler colonialism that occurred in the American Continent, Oceania, South Africa and beyond.

According to historian Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, the fact that Indigenous peoples survive today against genocidal attacks is a proof of resistance:[25]

Native nations and communities, while struggling to maintain fundamental values and collectivity, have from the beginning resisted modern colonialism using both defensive and offensive techniques, including the mod­ern forms of armed resistance of national liberation movements and what now is called terrorism. In every instance they have fought for survival as peoples.

She sets examples of resistance in North America in the cases of Pueblo Revolt, Pequot War, King Philip´s War, Seminole Wars.[26] Notable Indigenous leadership includes Tecumseh, Tenskwatawa, Mangas Coloradas, Manco Inca and Geronimo.

Indigenous peoples organized and implemented various rebellions, some which were temporarily successful, and some that involved diverse Indigenous nations. Examples include the Pueblo Revolt, Mixton rebellion, Zapatista uprising, Caste War of Yucatan, Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II, Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712, Pontiac's War and North-West Rebellion.[1][27]

Academic Benjamin Madley said that throughout the world, groups targeted for annihilation resist, often violently. He details the case of the Modoc War comparing the casualties of the conflict. Furthermore, he says that "The Modoc genocide is hardly the only genocide against indigenous people that has been sanitized as war.”[28]

According to Ken Coates, sexual relations between Indigenous women and non-Indigenous men took place in to some extent in New Zealand, New Spain, the Metis in Canada, whereas it generally did not took place in other places such as Australia and British North America. Peoples of mixed settler-Indigenous ancestry were generally discriminated. The mixing blurred the lines between Indigenous and newcomer populations, and some learned the language of colonizers.[12][29]

In North America, the United States and Canada established residential schools, removing Indigenous children from their family for years while prohibiting the use of their mother language and cultural practices. Australia focused on children with mixed ethnicity, and removed children to be placed in residential schools or to be adopted by non-Indigenous families.[12]

In North America, where the British made treaties with Indigenous peoples, they learned that these treaties could be broken and would not protect their land or themselves from attack.[12][30] Faced with the risk that their people would be destroyed, leaders of Indian resistance agreed to treaties requiring land cessions, and redefinition of borders in the hope that the settlers would not encroach further on Indigenous territory.[3] One of such examples is the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians, a federally recognized Indian Nation, who was led by Potawatomi leader Leopold Pokagon. Other times, treaties were signed under after Indigenous groups suffered massacres, such as in the case of the Treaty of Hartford of 1638.[31]

The Cherokee nation is one of the federally recognized tribes within the United States. It is now located in Oklahoma, after being forcefully removed in the Trail of Tears along with other tribes. Indigenous groups in North America were assigned to small reservations, typically on unattractive and economically marginal lands.[12]

According to sociologist Anibal Quijano, Bolivia and Mexico have undergone limited decolonialization through a revolutionary process.[32]

Present strategies

Ongoing Indigenous strategies to continue pursuing their happiness and freedom, including seeking to recover their lost cultures and develop new Indigenous cultures in line with their agency to be a national group with a distinct valuable identity. Contemporary Indigenous strategies have included negotiations, political statements, blockades, demonstrations, and attacks on symbols of colonial society such as monuments to Christopher Columbus. Most resistance has been to bring Indigenous issues to the public.[33][34][35] According to Ken Coates, liberal democracies do not like being called up on internal human rights abuses "when these same governments are often prominent in criticizing other nations for abuses of human and civil rights". Furthermore, post independence countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia and Mexico have ignored Indigenous rights as much as colonial empires while they practice internal colonialism.[12][36][37]

Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz who is part Indigenous ancestry has said that when Howard Zinn wrote his award winning book, he did not include the history of the Indigenous peoples, so he said that she could write An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States.[38][39] Rigoberta Menchu published an autobiography centered around the Guatemalan genocide and went on to win a Nobel Peace Prize.[6]

There is a number of Truth Commissions that have addressed Indigenous atrocities. Some of them include the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, and Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Norway. [40][41][42][43]

In the world there is a number of museums whose central theme is that of Indigenous topics. Notable examples are that of the National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico), Museo Nacional de Antropología (Madrid), American Indian Genocide Museum (USA) and National Museum of the American Indian (USA). It is notable that in some settler colonial societies such as Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, New Zealand and Australia, there is a relative absence of Indigenous museums.

There is a number of Indigenous broadcasting organizations from countries serving Indigenous populations including APTN, First Nations Experience, NITV, NRK Sami and Whakaata Māori.[44]

Indigenous peoples commemorate historical events and processes on an annual or periodical basis. Examples include Unthanksgiving Day and Indigenous Peoples Day.[45][46][47][48] They have also protested what they consider to be colonial holidays such as Columbus Day.[49][50]

Indigenous groups have demanded apologies from a number of states and Christian churches for their role against Indigenous peoples.[51][52][53]

Some movements such as the Hawaiian sovereignty movement have sought to promote the use of Indigenous language in educational programs.[54] In recent years, there has been a revival in the use of Maori language in New Zealand where it is an official language and taught in 350 schools.[55][6] New technologies are making access to educational language programs accessible to the general public.[56]

The case of Ejercito Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN) denotes resistance in many areas including education, territorial, epistemological, political and economic terms. EZLN is viewed as a continuation of the struggle against more than 500 years of oppression against Indigenous peoples.[57]

Further reading

  • Coates, Kenneth. 2004. A Global History of Indigenous Peoples : Struggle and Survival. Houndmills Basingstoke Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Fenelon, James V.; Trafzer, Clifford E. (January 2014). "From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americas". American Behavioral Scientist. 58 (1): 3–29.
  • Gustafson, Bret (2009). Manipulating Cartographies: Plurinationalism, Autonomy, and Indigenous Resurgence in Bolivia. Anthropological Quarterly, 82(4), 985–1016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20638677
  • Menchaca Martha. 2021. Recovering History Constructing Race : The Indian Black and White Roots of Mexican Americans. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • Rausch, Jane M., A Tropical Plains Frontier: The Llanos of Colombia, 1531-1831 (Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1984).
  • Silver, Peter. Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2008).
  • Weber, David J., The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, I992).
  • Weber, David J.; Rausch, Jane M., Where Cultures Meet: Frontiers in Latin American History (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, I994).

References

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  2. ^ a b Ortega-Villaseñor, Humberto (2022). "Indigenous Peoples, Memory and Envisioning the Future: A Brief Multidimensional Study". Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies. 9 (1): 39–55. ISSN 2149-1291.
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  7. ^ Hixson, W. (2013-12-05). American Settler Colonialism: A History. Springer. pp. 13–15. ISBN 978-1-137-37426-4. Indigenous people thus not only confronted the European expansion, but also participated in a complex and contested colonial encounter... Rather than simply bloody rivals from the outset, Indians and Euro-Americans frequently were trade and alliance partners, neigh-bors, wives, employers, and co-religionists.
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See also

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