Paiche
Paiche
Paiche
zoologa economica
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trabajo final
El paiche
Silvia Sanchez
Patricio Hernandez
2017
20/11/17
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Paiche
Importancias
Importancia ecolgica: se podra decir que si esta especie lograse desaparecer de la amazonia
habra un cambio gigantesco en el comportamiento de los ros que esta habita, ya que al ser
una especie carnvora y ser gigantesca esta con otras la cima de la pirmide, y si esta lograse
desaparecer habra un cambio brusco en la naturaleza del rio amazonas y posiblemente
desapariciones de otras especies o tal vez alterando el ciclo de vida de muchas especies.
Importancia social: muchas comunidades que viven cerca de los ros se abastecen del paiche
como principal fuente de alimento, tambin es de algunas personas su principal actividad
pesquera, y que le da una calidad de vida. Esta al tener una oferta ya en los mercados
nacionales e internacionales se est volviendo importante para la mayora de familias, que si
no tuvieran al paiche su situacin podra estar tal vez muy por debajo de lo que estn
actualmente.
Recopilacin bibliogrfica
El paiche, Arapaima gigas (Cuvier, 1829), se reproduce en cautiverio. Una pareja alcanz su
primera maduracin a los seis aos de edad y luego tuvo reproduccin anual durante dos aos
consecutivos. En promedio se obtuvieron 40 cras por cada perodo anual de reproduccin. La
pareja protegi a su prole desde el momento del desove hasta que las cras alcanzaron una
longitud promedio de 45 cm., en que fueron separadas de los progenitores. La especie
protegi a su prole activamente, embistiendo a quines se aproximaban al estanque de
reproduccin.
Guerra, Humberto. (1980). DESARROLLO SEXUAL DEL PAICHE (Arapaima gigas) EN LAS ZONAS
RESERVADAS DEL ESTADO (RIOS PACAYA Y SAMIRIA) 1971-1975. Instituto Del Mar Del Per,
67,1-22.
Desarrolla los datos registrados en la Reserva Nacional Pacaya - Samiria, de noviembre de 1971
a noviembre de 1975, efectuado con 697 paiches hembras; donde determinaron el ciclo de
desove y la longitud que alcanza el paiche en su primera madurez sexual.
Del Risco et al. (2008). Cadena de valor del pescado en el norte amaznico de Bolivia:
contribucin de especies nativas y de una especie introducida (el paiche-Arapaima gigas).
Instituto de Investigaciones Del Peru, 17,1- 9.
El objetivo del estudio fue determinar el efecto de tres niveles de protena dietaria (T1=35,
T2=40 y T3=45% PB) en el crecimiento de juveniles de paiche, Arapaima gigas, en un ensayo de
84 das de duracin. Cuarenta y cinco alevinos de paiche (86.84 15.73 g) fueron distribuidos
al azar en nueve tanques de cemento recubiertos con maylicas. Los peces fueron alimentados
diariamente con una tasa de alimentacin equivalente al 3% de su biomasa corporal. Se
registr el crecimiento en peso y longitud en muestreos quincenales. Al termino
del experimento los animales alimentados con el T2 y T3 presentaron mayor ganancia en peso
y longitud que los peces del T1 (P<0.05). Al no existir diferencias significativas entre T2 y T3, se
concluye que el T2 (40% PB) es el nivel proteico ms adecuado para la alimentacin de
juveniles de paiche de 85 g de peso promedio.
Sherman, V.; Quan, H.; Yang, W.; Ritchie, R.; Meyers M. . (2017). A comparative study of
piscine defense: The scales of Arapaima gigas, Latimeria chalumnae and Atractosteus spatula.
Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, 73, 1-16.
We compare the characteristics of the armored scales of three large fish, namely the Arapaima
gigas (arapaima), Latimeria chalumnae (coelacanth), and Atractosteus spatula (alligator gar),
with specific focus on their unique structure-mechanical property relationships and their
specialized ability to provide protection from predatory pressures, with the ultimate goal of
providing bio-inspiration for manmade materials. The arapaima has flexible and overlapping
cycloid scales which consist of a tough Bouligand-type arrangement of collagen layers in the
base and a hard external mineralized surface, protecting it from piranha, a predator with
extremely sharp teeth. The coelacanth has overlapping elasmoid scales that consist of
adjacent Bouligand-type pairs, forming a double-twisted Bouligand-type structure. The
collagenous layers are connected by collagen fibril struts which significantly contribute to the
energy dissipation, so that the scales have the capability to defend from predators such as
sharks. The alligator gar has inflexible articulating ganoid scales made of a hard and highly
mineralized enamel-like outer surface and a tough dentine-like bony base, which resist
powerful bite forces of self-predation and attack by alligators. The structural differences
between the three scales correspond with the attack of their predators, and show refined
mechanisms which may be imitated and incorporated into superior bioinspired and
biomimetic designs that are specialized to resist specific modes of predation.
Andrade et al. (2017). Antiparasitic efficacy and blood effects of formalin on Arapaima gigas
(Pisces: Arapaimidae). Aquaculture, 479, 38-44.
This study evaluated the in vitro and in vivo antiparasitic efficacy of formalin
against Dawestrema cycloancistrium, the effects on the physiological response of Arapaima
gigas and the residual action on fish muscle after 96 h of exposure. As regards the in
vitro assay, 0, 22, 44, 66, 88, 110, 330, 660 and 880 mg L 1 formalin were tested. After 1 h of
exposure to 660 and 880 mg L 1 formalin, there was a 100% mortality of D. cycloancistrium as
well as after 2 h of exposure at 330 and 110 mg L 1 and 3 h of exposure at 44, 66 and 88 mg
L 1. Concerning the in vivo test, when fish were exposed to formalin at 0, 220, 330, 440 and
550 mg L 1, there was 100% survival at all concentrations and exposure times evaluated.
Baths of 1 h with 440 and 550 mg L 1 formalin showed 93.3% and 99.3% efficacy respectively.
However, the baths of 12 h with 55 and 66 mg L 1 formalin had the efficacy of 44.5% and
55.5% respectively. In 1 h baths with 220, 330, 440 and 550 mg L 1 formalin, hematocrit,
hemoglobin, number of total erythrocytes, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular
hemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, plasma glucose levels, cortisol,
total proteins, chloride, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium of the fish presented no
differences in relation to the control values. However, in baths of 12 h with 33, 44, 55 and 66
mg L 1 formalin, there was a decrease in hematocrit, plasma levels of calcium and chloride,
and increased levels of glucose and cortisol, depending on the concentration of formalin used.
In the fish muscle, the formalin residue decreased after 96 h in all concentrations and periods
evaluated, returning to values close to the control ones. The results indicate that formalin had
its efficacy successfully proved in the treatment against D. cycloancistrium at higher
concentrations such as 440 and 550 mg L 1 formalin and shorter exposure time (1 h) without
compromising fish homeostasis and consumer food safety.
The Brazilian teleost Arapaima gigas is an iconic species of the Amazon. In recent years a
significant effort has been put into the farming of arapaima to mitigate overfishing threats.
However, little is known regarding the nutritional requirements of A. gigas in particular those
for essential fatty acids including the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA)
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The ability to biosynthesize LC-
PUFA is dependent upon the gene repertoire of fatty acyl desaturases (Fads) and elongases
(Elovl), as well as their fatty acid specificities. In the present study we characterized both
molecularly and functionally an orthologue of the desaturase fatty acid desaturase 2 (fads2)
from A. gigas. The isolated sequence displayed the typical desaturase features, a
cytochrome b5-domain with the heme-binding motif, two transmembrane domains and three
histidine-rich regions. Functional characterization of A. gigas fads2showed that, similar to
other teleosts, the A. gigas fads2 exhibited a predominant 6 activity complemented with
some capacity for 8 desaturation. Given that A. gigasbelongs to one of the oldest teleostei
lineages, the Osteoglossomorpha, these findings offer a significant insight into the evolution
LC-PUFA biosynthesis in teleosts.
Dias et al. (2016). Lethal dose and clinical signs of Aeromonas hydrophila in Arapaima gigas
(Arapaimidae), the giant fish from Amazon. Veterinary Microbiology, 188, 12-15.
Aeromonas hydrophila is causing substantial economic losses in world aquaculture. This study
determined the tolerance limit (LD50-96h) of A. hydrophila in Arapaima gigas, and also
investigated the clinical signs after intradermal inoculation. Arapaimagigas fingerlings were
inoculated intraperitoneally with 0 (control), 1.0 105, 1.0 106, 1.0 107, 1.0 109 and
1.0 1010 CFU/mL of A. hydrophila for the determination of LD50-96h, which was
1.8 108 CFU/mL. In another trial with intradermal inoculation of 1.8 108 CFU/mL A.
hydrophila, there was a 91.6% of mortality between 8 and 23 h, and several clinical signs were
found. As follows: depigmentation in the tegument, lesions in the tail and fins, loss of balance,
reduction of respiratory movements, hemorrhagic foci, necrotic hemorrhages in the kidney,
liver and swim bladder, splenomegaly, ascites in the abdominal cavity and hyperemia,
enlargement of the gall bladder, among other clinical signs observed. The results showed
that A. gigas has a relative tolerance to A. hydrophila when compared to other Neotropical fish
species.
Malheiros, D.; Oliveira, P.; Nunes, M.; Tavares-Dias, M.. (2016). Toxicity of the essential oil of
Mentha piperita in Arapaima gigas (pirarucu) and antiparasitic effects on Dawestrema spp.
(Monogenea). Aquaculture, 455, 81-86.
This study evaluated the in vitro and in vivo effects of the essential oil of Mentha piperita on
monogeneans and its toxicity for Arapaima gigas. For the in vitro assay, gills of A.
gigas naturally infected by Dawestrema cycloancistrium and Dawestrema
cycloancistrioides were exposed to 0, 80, 160 and 320 mg L 1 of M. piperita, which
demonstrated anti-helminthic activity. In the toxicity test, A. gigas fingerlings were exposed to
0, 20, 40, 80, 100, 130 and 160 mg L 1 of M. piperita to determine the lethal concentration
(LC50-4 h), which was found to be 38 mg/L. Fish that had been exposed to 80, 100, 130 and
160 mg L 1 presented epithelial elevations, fusion of the secondary lamellae, hypertrophy and
aneurism. Necrosis was only observed at a concentration of 160 mg L 1 of M. piperita. The in
vitro results demonstrated that the anti-helminthic activity of M.
piperita against Dawestrema spp. was dose dependent. However, baths with 40 mg L 1 of
essential oil of M. piperita were not effective against monogeneans in the gills of A. gigas.
Therefore, since this anti-parasitic substance was in vitro effective and the concentrations used
in the baths were not efficient and caused tissue alterations in the gills of the fish, other
therapeutic strategies should be tested in order to increase the efficacy of this
phytotherapeutic substance and reduce its toxicity for A. gigas. Finally, this study investigated
the efficacy of M. piperita essential oil against parasites of A. gigas, for the first time.
Lin, C.; Wei, C.; Olevsky, E.; Meyers, M.. (2011). Mechanical properties and the laminate
structure of Arapaima gigas scales. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical
Materials, 4, 1145-1156.
The Arapaima gigas scales play an important role in protecting this large Amazon basin fish
against predators such as the piranha. They have a laminate composite structure composed of
an external mineralized layer and internal lamellae with thickness of 5060 m each and
composed of collagen fibers with 1 m diameter. The alignment of collagen fibers is
consistent in each individual layer but varies from layer to layer, forming a non-orthogonal
plywood structure, known as Bouligand stacking. X-ray diffraction revealed that the external
surface of the scale contains calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite. EDS results confirm that the
percentage of calcium is higher in the external layer. The micro-indentation hardness of the
external layer (550 MPa) is considerably higher than that of the internal layer (200 MPa),
consistent with its higher degree of mineralization. Tensile testing of the scales carried out in
the dry and wet conditions shows that the strength and stiffness are hydration dependent. As
is the case of most biological materials, the elastic modulus of the scale is strain-rate
dependent. The strain-rate dependence of the elastic modulus, as expressed by the Ramberg
Osgood equation, is equal to 0.26, approximately ten times higher than that of bone. This is
attributed to the higher fraction of collagen in the scales and to the high degree of hydration
(30% H2O). Deproteinization of the scale reveals the structure of the mineral component
consisting of an interconnected network of platelets with a thickness of 50 nm and diameter
of 500 nm.
Sato et al. (2016). Novel, major 2- and 2-hydroxy bile alcohols and bile acids in the bile of
Arapaima gigas, a large South American river fish. Steroids, 107, 112-120.
Bile alcohols and bile acids from gallbladder bile of the Arapaima gigas, a large South American
freshwater fish, were isolated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
The structures of the major isolated compounds were determined by electrospray-tandem
mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance using 1H- and 13C-NMR spectra. The
novel bile salts identified were six variants of 2-hydroxy bile acids and bile alcohols in the 5-
and 5-series, with 29% of all compounds having hydroxylation at C-2. Three C27 bile alcohols
were present (as ester sulfates): (24,25)-5-cholestan-2,3,7,12,24,26-hexol; (25)-5-
cholestan-2,3,7,12,26,27-hexol, and (25)-5-cholestan-2,3,7,12,26,27-hexol. A
single C27 bile acid was identified: (25)-2,3,7,12-tetrahydroxy-5-cholestan-26-oic acid,
present as its taurine conjugate. Two novel C24 bile acids were identified: the 2-hydroxy
derivative of allochenodeoxycholic acid and the 2-hydroxy derivative of cholic acid, both
occurring as taurine conjugates. These studies extend previous work in establishing the natural
occurrence of novel 2- and 2-hydroxy-C24 and C27 bile acids as well as C27 bile alcohols in
both the normal (5) as well as the (5) allo A/B-ring juncture. The bile salt profile of A.
gigas appears to be unique among vertebrates.
Arapaima gigas, a fish with a high market value, has been farmed in different localities within
Brazil. Among its parasites, adults of Goezia spinulosa are reported to cause ulcers in the
stomach and to result in the death of farmed fingerlings. Due to the veterinary importance of
this nematode in cultured arapaimas, an integrative taxonomic study is proposed, combining
morphological, ultrastructural and genetic profiles of this parasite. The fish were obtained
from semi-intensive fish farming in Acre State, Brazil. The fish measured 742 cm in total
length and the intensity of infection was 160 parasites per fish. The site of infection was
mainly the stomach. Morphological and ultrastructural analyses of G. spinulosa showed the
importance of its spiny body in firmly attaching the worm to the gastric mucosa, resulting in
lesions, ulcers and deep gastric perforations of the stomach wall. New sequences for partial
18S rDNA, ITS1, 5.8S and ITS2 rDNA, partial 28S rDNA, cox1 mtDNA and for cox2mtDNA are
presented. Phylogenetic reconstructions based on the partial 18S and 28S rDNA shows species
of Goezia occur in a clade well separated from other genera in both analyses. Both the partial
18S and 28S rDNA genes represented good genetic markers for distinguishing genera of the
Raphidascarididae, with exception of Hysterothylacium. This integrated taxonomic study
produced a robust profile for G. spinulosa that will aid the diagnosis of both adults and larval
stages from arapaimas and possible intermediate hosts.
Yang et al. (2014). Protective role of Arapaima gigas fish scales: Structure and mechanical
behavior. Acta Biomaterialia, 10, 3599-3614.
The scales of the arapaima (Arapaima gigas), one of the largest freshwater fish in the world,
can serve as inspiration for the design of flexible dermal armor. Each scale is composed of two
layers: a laminate composite of parallel collagen fibrils and a hard, highly mineralized surface
layer. We review the structure of the arapaima scales and examine the functions of the
different layers, focusing on the mechanical behavior, including tension and penetration of the
scales, with and without the highly mineralized outer layer. We show that the fracture of the
mineral and the stretching, rotation and delamination of collagen fibrils dissipate a significant
amount of energy prior to catastrophic failure, providing high toughness and resistance to
penetration by predator teeth. We show that the arapaimas scale has evolved to minimize
damage from penetration by predator teeth through a Bouligand-like arrangement of
successive layers, each consisting of parallel collagen fibrils with different orientations. This
inhibits crack propagation and restricts damage to an area adjoining the penetration. The
flexibility of the lamellae is instrumental to the redistribution of the compressive stresses in
the underlying tissue, decreasing the severity of the concentrated load produced by the action
of a tooth. The experimental results, combined with small-angle X-ray scattering
characterization and molecular dynamics simulations, provide a complete picture of the
mechanisms of deformation, delamination and rotation of the lamellae during tensile
extension of the scale.
Galvao, M.; Galvao, D.; Da silva, R.. (2015). Drying kinetics and hygroscopic behavior of
pirarucu (Arapaima gigas) fillet with different salt contents. LWT - Food Science and
Technology, 62, 144-151.
The convective drying kinetics and hygroscopic behavior of pirarucu (Arapaima gigas) fillet with
different NaCl contents (up to 40 g/100 g dry basis d.b.) were studied. Pieces of fillet
(5 3 1 cm3) were subjected to salting and drying in a fixed-bed with an airflow velocity of
1.5 m/s at 50 C, and kinetic models were fitted to the drying data. Adsorption and desorption
isotherms at 25 C were built for the dry products and mathematical models were fitted to the
sorption data. The effective diffusivity values showed that increased NaCl content in the
product favored the drying process. Midilli, diffusion approximation and Page models were
effective in predicting the drying kinetics of the products. In natura fillet showed type II
isotherms while the addition of NaCl caused a change in behavior for type III isotherms. The
adsorption indicated that a moisture level up to 15 g/100 g d.b. ensures the microbiological
stability of all products. The Halsey model showed good fit to the sorption data of products
with up to 20 g NaCl/100 g d.b., while the GAB model was efficient in predicting the isotherms
for fresh fillet and for products with 30 and 40 g NaCl/100 g d.b.
Olivetti, B.; Teixeira, B.; Anjos, A.; Sanchez, F.; Fortes, R. . (2016). Daily self-feeding activity
rhythms and dietary self-selection of pirarucu (Arapaima gigas). Aquaculture, 465, 152-157.
Daily feeding rhythms and the ability of pirarucu (Arapaima gigas) to compose a balanced diet
through macronutrient self-selection were evaluated. Twelve fish (1573.3 74.4 g) were
distributed in six tanks of 250 l, two fish per tank. First, three experimental diets were
prepared using an incomplete mixture of macronutrients (75%protein/25%carbohydrate-PC,
75%protein/25%fat-PF and 10% protein/45%fat/45%carbohydrate-PFC). These diets were
provided to fish through a self-feeding system connected to a computer to record feeding
activity. After this procedure, fish were challenged with a 50% protein dilution (diets: PC50 and
PF50). The results showed that pirarucu exhibited a strict diurnal feeding pattern with 95.4% of
daily feeding activity observed in the daytime. Fish selected 56.3% P, 24.2% C, 19.5% F, and
consumed 150151 kJ/kg BW/day of energy. After protein dilution, fish sustained energy
intake by increasing the consumption of PC50 and PF50 to maintain the target protein intake
of the previous stage. When fish were protein-restricted, they failed to sustain previous energy
intake. These findings can be used to design feeding regimes and for formulating aquafeed for
pirarucu.
Torres, F.; Troncoso, O.; Amaya, E.. (2012). The effect of water on the thermal transitions of
fish scales from Arapaima Gigas. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 32, 2212-2214.
Fish scales are collagen based structures that display interesting mechanical properties,
particularly in the wet state. In this paper we study the effect of water content on the thermal
transitions of scales from the Amazonian fish Arapaima Gigasby means of Differential Scanning
Calorimeter (DSC) tests. The endothermic peaks found are discussed and the results are
compared with previous studies of other collagen based structures. The peaks observed were
found to depend on the water content of the samples. The role of water on the thermal
stability of fish scales is discussed. The peak temperature related to the denaturation of
collagen was found to increase with increasing water content. Hence, samples with higher
water content were more thermally stable than samples with lower water content. This
tendency is contradictory with regard to that observed on other collagen based structures
such as bones and tendons.
Olivetti, B.; Teixeira, B.; Anjos, A.; Sanchez, F.; Fortes, R. . (2016). Self-feeder systems and
infrared sensors to evaluate the daily feeding and locomotor rhythms of Pirarucu (Arapaima
gigas) cultivated in outdoor tanks. Aquaculture, 457, 118-123.
This study evaluated the ability of Pirarucu (Arapaima gigas) to feed through self-demand
feeders, and also determined daily feeding rhythm and locomotor activity. Twenty-four fish
(312.58 9.55 g, mean SEM) were distributed in six 250-liter outdoor tanks. Each tank was
equipped with a feeder adapted to allow fish to self-feed. Self-feeders and occupancy sensors
were connected to a computer to allow measurement of feeding and locomotor activity. First,
the ability of Pirarucu to use the self-feeding system was assessed. The daily rhythm of feeding
activity and locomotion of Pirarucu was then evaluated. The fish learned to trigger the feeders
and feeding demand stabilized at 158.79 activations per day. Predominant daytime feeding
activity was observed, with 110.86 0.27 counts/day (70% of the total actions) seen during the
day, versus 47.93 0.11 counts/day (30%) at night. However, no rhythm in this daily
locomotor activity was observed. These study results were based on food being freely
available and should be taken into account to improve the supply schedule of the species.
Freitas et al. (2012). Giant Amazonian fish pirarucu (Arapaima gigas): Its viscera as a source of
thermostable trypsin. Food Chemistry, 133, 1596-1602.
A trypsin was purified from pyloric caeca of pirarucu (Arapaima gigas). The effect of metal ions
and protease inhibitors on its activity and its physicochemical and kinetic properties, as well its
N-terminal sequence, were determined. A single band (28.0 kDa) was observed by SDSPAGE.
Optimum pH and temperature were 9.0 and 65 C, respectively. The enzyme was stable after
incubation for 30 min in a wide pH range (6.011.5) and at 55 C. The kinetic
parameters Km, kcat and kcat/Km were 0.47 0.042 mM, 1.33 s1 and 2.82 s1 mM1,
respectively, using BApNA as substrate. This activity was shown to be very sensitive to some
metal ions, such as Fe2+, Hg2+, Zn2+, Al3+, Pb2+, and was highly inhibited by trypsin inhibitors.
The trypsin N-terminal sequence IVGGYECPRNSVPYQ was found. The features of this alkaline
peptidase suggest that it may have potential for industrial applications (e.g. food and
detergent industries).
Torres, F.; Troncoso, O.; Nakamatsu, J.; Grande, C.; Gomez C.. (2008). Characterization of the
nanocomposite laminate structure occurring in fish scales from Arapaima Gigas. Materials
Science and Engineering: CCharacterization of the nanocomposite laminate structure occurring
in fish scales from Arapaima Gigas, 28, 1276-1283.
In the present paper, the nanocomposite laminate structure of scales from the Amazonian
fish Arapaima Gigas is investigated. The structure and composition of the scales were assessed
by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The
theory of Fickian diffusion is used and discussed in order to rationalize the water absorption
and desorption behavior of the scales. Morphology studies and fracture analysis of the native
scales were carried out using Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Light Optical
Microscopy (LOM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). A fibrous layer of collagen and a
plywood-like structure were observed. In order to study the mineral phase, the native scales
were burned at 600 C until all the organic components were degraded. The remaining ashes
were then observed under the microscope and weighed to determine ratio of organic and
inorganic components. The mechanical behavior of dry and wet scales was assessed by tensile
tests and the effect of water in mechanical properties is also discussed.
Fernandes, M.; Da Cruz, A,; Ferreira, O.; Perry, S.. (2012). Morphometric partitioning of the
respiratory surface area and diffusion capacity of the gills and swim bladder in juvenile
Amazonian air-breathing fish, Arapaima gigas. Micron, 43, 961-970.
The gills and the respiratory swim bladders of juvenile specimens (mean body mass 100 g) of
the basal teleost Arapaima gigas (Cuvier 1829) were evaluated using stereological methods in
vertical sections. The surface areas, harmonic mean barrier thicknesses and morphometric
diffusing capacities for oxygen and carbon dioxide were estimated. The average respiratory
surface area of the swim bladder (2173 cm2 kg1) exceeded that of the gills (780 cm2 kg1) by
a factor of 2.79. Due to the extremely thin airblood barrier in the swim bladder (harmonic
mean 0.22 m) and the much thicker waterblood barrier of the gills (9.61 m), the
morphometric diffusing capacity for oxygen and carbon dioxide was 88 times greater in the
swim bladder than in the gills. These data clearly indicate the importance of the swim bladder,
even in juvenile A. gigas that still engage in aquatic respiration. Because of the much greater
diffusion constant of CO2 than O2 in water, the gills also remain important for CO2release.
Pino, E.; Carvahlo R.; Sarkis, M.; Da Silva, C.; Henriquez, C.. (2017). Effects of modified
atmosphere packing over the shelf life of sous vide from captive pirarucu (Arapaima gigas).
Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 39, 94-100.
The goal of this study was to evaluate the effects of modified atmosphere in packing sous
vide of pirarucu in tucupi and shrimp sauce under refrigeration. Three treatments were carried
out vacuum at 98%, 60%CO2/40%N2, and 70%CO2/30%N2. The composition of CO2 and
N2 was monitored along with evaluation of pH, aw, water retention capacity, acidity, texture,
N-TVB and TBARS, color, mesophilic and psychotropic anaerobes, presence of Salmonella spp,
sulphite-reducing Clostridia, counts of coagulase-positive Staphylococci, coliforms at 45 C and
sensorial analysis. All results were compared through ANOVA, Tukey's test, Principal
Component Analysis and Multiple Factor Analysis. We observed a trend towards the reduction
of CO2 in packages while O2 has increased by the end of storage. The microbiological results
were within the established limits by law during the entire period. The shelf life of sous
vide stored could be defined by N-TVB, TBARS, b* and C*, general acceptance, texture and
flavor in 49 days of storage.
Ultraviolet radiation is known to cause adverse effects to aquatic species and aquatic
environments. The fish Colossoma macropomum (tambaqui) and Arapaima gigas(pirarucu) live
in the Amazon basin, near the Equator, and thus receive high intensity of ultraviolet radiation.
Deforestation further aggravates the situation by reducing shade at ground level. The aim of
this study was to evaluate the genotoxic effects of UVA and UVB radiation on erythrocytes of
tambaqui and pirarucu fish using Micronuclei test and Comet assay. Our study showed that UV
radiation caused DNA damage in both species as detected by Comet assay. In addition, there
were differences in response to genotoxicity between both species, which are possibly related
to their evolutionary history. Tambaqui fish exposed to ultraviolet radiation for different
periods presented clear doseresponse in DNA damage profile. Significant damage repair was
observed 24 h after cessation of ultraviolet radiation exposure. At the test conditions used, no
significant increase in micronucleated cells was observed in tambaqui and pirarucu fish.
Tambaqui proved to be more sensitive to ultraviolet radiation than Pirarucu, as detected by
Comet assay, showing statistically higher baseline DNA damage. The present results
demonstrated that alkaline Comet assay was very sensitive for detecting the UV-induced
genotoxicity during the short exposure period in our study. In addition, the present study also
suggests that tambaqui and pirarucu fish are useful sentinel organisms, as their UV sensitivity
allows them to be effective monitors of biological hazards in the Amazon region.
Cruz at al. (2006). The influence of dietary vitamin C and E supplementation on the
physiological response of pirarucu, Arapaima gigas, in net culture. Comparative Biochemistry
and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 145, 274-279.
This study evaluated the efficacy of dietary vitamin C (ascorbic acid or AA), vitamin E (-
tocopherol or -T), and C + E supplementation on the blood parameters of Arapaima
gigas grown in net cages for 45 days. Four treatments were tested: control (commercial feed);
C800; E500 and C + E (800 + 500) with supplementation of 800 mg AA kg 1, 500 mg -T
kg 1 and 800 + 500 mg AA + -T kg 1, respectively. Hematocrit (Ht), red blood cells (RBC),
and hemoglobin concentration (Hb) (oxidative status indicators), thrombocytes and leukocytes
(immunological indicators), plasma protein and glucose were evaluated. Fish fed vitamin C and
C + E supplemented diets showed greater weight gain and survival. Dietary vitamin C and C + E
diet supplementation resulted in increased Ht, Hb, RBC, MCHC, total leukocytes, total proteins,
thrombocytes and eosinophils compared to the control and -T. The -tocopherol-
supplemented diet reduced the number of total thrombocytes, lymphocytes and neutrophils
and increased glucose and eosinophils relatively to the control. In general, leukocytes and
thrombocytes were good indicators of the efficiency of vitamin on the defense mechanism of
the A. gigas reared in cages. Results indicate that high -T diet supplementation provides no
benefit for the maintenance of the oxidative or the immunological status of A. gigas. However,
it was demonstrated that high dietary AA improves A. gigas immunological status. Red blood
cell indices and immune system indicators showed no synergistic effect between the vitamins
after supplementing the A. gigas diet with -T + AA.
Gomez at al. (2006). Use of salt during transportation of air breathing pirarucu juveniles
(Arapaima gigas) in plastic bags. Aquaculture, 256, 521-528.
The farming of the Amazonian air breathing fish, Arapaima gigas, has been growing
substantially over the last decade in Brazil and other South American countries. Previous study
demonstrated that transportation of pirarucu juvenile in plastic bags is a suitable procedure,
although it stimulated some stress responses. Therefore the objective of this study was to
investigate the addition of salt as a stress mitigator in pirarucu juveniles during transportation
in plastic bags. Fish were reared for a month in earthen pond and held in 3 indoor 2000-L
depuration tanks for 24 h to allow complete gastrointestinal evacuation, then placed in 30-L
polyethylene bags with 10 L of water at a density of 12 fish/bag (40 g/L) with different table
salt (NaCl, 97%) concentrations in the water: 0, 1, 3, 5 g/L (3 replicates each concentration).
Transportation took 3 h and afterwards fish were transferred to 1-m3 floating cages installed
inside an earth pond for recovery. Fish stress responses were evaluated before, during and
after transportation procedure, and the analyses performed were: cortisol, glucose, lactate,
haematrocrit and waterborne net Na+, Cl, K+, and Ca2+fluxes. No mortality was recorded in
any treatment during transportation and recovery periods. Cortisol exhibited an increase after
transport with 1 g salt/L and at 24 h after transportation for all treatments showing a latency
period in their response. Glucose exhibited a similar pattern for all treatments with a
significant increase before and after transportation, returning to basal levels in 24 h. Lactate
concentrations increased before transportation and after transportation, presenting a
significant decrease in all treatments. Addition of salt in the transport water increased Na+,
Cl and Ca2+ net fluxes in pirarucu. Using salt during pirarucu juvenile transportation should
be avoided since there is no reduction on stress responses and causes osmoregulatory
disturbances.
Issacks, R.; Kim, H.; Harkness, D.. (1977). Inositol pentaphosphate in erythrocytes of a
freshwater fish, pirarac (arapaima gigas). Life Sciences, 20, 987-990.
Principal servicio
Para mi el principal servicio que brinda el paiche seria cultural y econmica, ya que muchas
comunidades y familias dependen de este animal, por su valor nutricionla y econmico.
Aunque peru no es uno de los principales exportadores de este, para el nivel nacional tiene
una fuerte demanda. Actualmente al haber abusado de la caceria el paiche ha disminuido por
eso en algunas regiones ya hay criaderos o piscigranjas.
Actualmente en mercado internacional peru no tiene ni un gran mercado como otros pases ya
que su produccin es muy pobre, aunque la produccin ha aumentado aun no se compara con
la de chile o Brasil, los principales compradores son estados unidos, china, hong Kong y
emiratos arabes unidos, el 2016 la exportacin de este producto ascendi a un valor de US$
597.255. No obstante, la cifra del 2016 refleja un descenso de 26% respecto a un ao anterior.
Esto es debido a que no hay inversin por parte del estado. El kilo de paiche en Tarapoto logra
costar hasta 45 soles el kilo. El paiche en cuanto a exportacin tiene un 0.13%
Taxonoma
reino animalia
Filo Chordata
Clase Actinopterygii
Orden Osteoglossiformesa
Familia Arapaimidae
Genero Arapaima
Especie Arapaima gigas
Caractersticas generales
Tanto los machos como las hembras presentan una sola gnada desarrollada, en el lado
izquierdo. El testculo es alargado y casi cilndrico. El ovario en desarrollo tiene aspecto foliar y
cuando est en proceso de maduracin tiene un aspecto voluminoso, con vulos visibles a
simple vista, de color rojo, blanco y verdoso. El ovario presenta numerosos pliegues
transversales, entre los que se desarrollan los vulos. La maduracin de los vulos del paiche
es de tipo asincrnico, es decir, la maduracin ocurre en grupos y en consecuencia, el desove
es de tipo parcelado. Los vulos con mayor desarrollo presentan un color verde azulado. El
paiche se reproduce durante todo el ao, con un perodo de mxima intensidad entre
setiembre y diciembre, que coincide con el inicio del perodo de lluvias. El paiche se reproduce
en estanques a los cinco aos, pero el nmero de cras por desove es variable y sujeto a causas
de mortalidad diversas. En estado juvenil no es posible la diferenciacin del sexo, por su
morfologa externa. Solo cuando es adulto y sobre todo cuando ya est formada la pareja se
aprecian diferencias en la coloracin y el tamao. El macho presenta un color rojo intenso a los
lados del cuerpo y la regin de la cola, mientras que la hembra presenta una coloracin menos
intensa. En cuanto al tamao, las hembras son ligeramente ms robustas que los machos.
Antes de la formacin de la pareja dominante se producen peleas y es frecuente observar
agresin entre individuos que, en ocasiones, termina con la muerte de los peces de menor
porte. La pareja dominante establece su territorio y lo defiende activamente de otros
individuos de su especie o de otras especies, incluyendo el hombre. Este comportamiento se
mantiene durante la construccin del nido, el desove, la fase larval y el perodo de alevinaje. La
pareja elige su zona de nidificacin en la zona litoral, con una profundidad menor a un metro,
de preferencia en reas de suelo firme, sin vegetacin y sin fango. El nido tiene una
profundidad de 20 cm y un dimetro de 60 cm, aproximadamente. Una vez que se realiza la
puesta y fecundacin en el nido, la pareja cuida los huevos, mientras se cumple el desarrollo
del embrin. Al trmino de este perodo se produce la salida de las cras, con una longitud
aproximada de un centmetro. Tanto la hembra como el macho proporcionan proteccin a su
prole desde el momento de la puesta. El macho es directamente responsable de la proteccin
del cardumen de larvas y pequeos alevinos, mientras que la hembra permanece cuidando el
territorio, en crculos y siempre en torno al paiche macho y sus cras. En condiciones de cultivo
se pueden dar intentos de ataque a los humanos por parte de la hembra, que llega a elevarse
sobre la superficie del agua produciendo un sonido intenso. Las pequeas cras poseen en sus
agallas numerosas, largas y tupidas branquiespinas, en forma de diminutos peines, que les
permite la filtracin de pequeos organismos presentes entre la vegetacin acutica flotante
de la zona de orilla de los ambientes acuticos. Las cras de paiche tienen como enemigos
potenciales a varias especies de aves acuticas, como la sharara (Anhinga anhinga), el martn
pescador (Megaceryle torcuata), el cushuri (Phalacrocorax brasilianus) y ocasionalmente
algunas especies de garzas. Entre los peces predadores se sealan, en primer lugar, a las
piraas que son muy abundantes en el hbitat del paiche; en segundo lugar, al shuyo
(Erythrinus erythrynus), y ocasionalmente al tucunar (Cichla monoculus) y al acarahuaz
(Astronotus ocellatus). Dos gusanos parasitan con mucha frecuencia al paiche: Goezia
spinulosa, que se aloja en el estmago y Philometra senticosa, que se aloja en la vejiga
gaseosa. Como parsitos externos son frecuentes las sanguijuelas y el crustceo Argulus sp.
Distribucin
Vive en las cochas y ros de poca corriente, particularmente de aguas negras, pero los
lagos de tercer orden de tipo eutrfico, conocidos por los lugareos como cochas, son sus
lugares preferidos. No tiene especiales exigencias en lo referente a la qumica y la intensidad
de sedimentacin del agua, pero exige como lugar para vivir las orillas densas de hierbas, que
se extienden al agua sin estar arraigadas en el suelo, como por ejemplo las gramneas
conocidas como gramalote (Echinochloa polystachia y Paspalum repens). En la zona del ro
Pacaya las especies Pistia stratiotes, Neptunia oleracea y Eichornia azurea son las plantas ms
comunes que se encuentran en las zonas que prefiere el paiche para habitar.
El paiche se encuentra en toda la cuenca del Amazonas y tambin otros ros comprendidos
desde Guyana hasta Baha en el Brasil. En el Per se encuentra en las cuencas bajas de los ros
Napo, Putumayo, Maran, Pastaza y Ucayali, con abundancia en la Reserva Nacional Pacaya-
Samiria.
Ecorregin
La selva baja es la nica ecorregin que habita el paiche en el Per, esto se debe a que es
relativamente llana, su temperatura promedio es de 24 a 26 C, las altas temperaturas y
humedad ambiental permiten tener la mayor diversidad de especies, habiendo gran cantidad
de lagunas, riachuelos y pantanos. Y tiene una gran diversidad de peces en los ros.
Alimentacin
Preferentemente los peces que se alimenta son: boquichico, carachama, mojarra, liza, sardinas
y yuhlia. Y plantas como algas, huama, gramalote y algunos frutos
Depredadores
Sus depredadores, especialmente cuando es joven, son las aves (sharara, martn pescador,
cushuri, garzas), algunos peces (piraa, shuyo), en algunos casos el jaguar u otorongo, y los
parsitos, especialmente el canero (Vandellia sp.), un pez que se aloja en sus branquias y
chupa la sangre.
Estado actual
Propuestas de conservacin
El bilogo Luciano Alfredo Rodrguez, investigador del IIAP, explica que para conocer en detalle
el comportamiento de los paiches que cran en sus pozas, as como su crecimiento y evolucin
se les ha colocado un chip que permite identificarlos y hacer un seguimiento individualizado.
Para obtener cras de paiche se selecciona a los reproductores ms fuertes y se los coloca en
pareja. Felizmente la naturaleza ha hecho que esta especie se reproduzca en cautiverio y
conserve alguna de sus costumbres, como por ejemplo que sea la pareja la que se encargue
del cuidado de las cras.
Gracias a las investigaciones y el trabajo de campo hemos podido resembrar esta especie y
otras, entre ellas el paco y la gamitana, en varias zonas de la selva, como el valle de los ros
Apurmac y Ene, as como en Amazonas, Ucayali, San Martn y Hunuco. Hay experiencias,
como en Amazonas, en donde ya no existan especies nativas, pero que ahora producen de
manera sostenida para el consumo de las comunidades.
Sin embargo, hay trabas para dar impulso a este negocio, como la falta de vas de
comunicacin, as como una planta de fro que permita la conservacin de la carne.
PUCALLA - UCAYALI
Las autoridades en Brasil estn tratando de regular su pesca en todas las zonas puesto que es
la nica manera de protegerla de la extincin. Hay pescadores que estn utilizando redes de
enmalle para capturar a los peces ms pequeos, lo cual termina agotando an ms su
poblacin.
Programa de proteccin iniciado en 1997 tiene entre sus protagonistas al arapaima o paiche,
uno de los mayores peces de agua dulce del mundo que est amenazado desde 1975, segn la
lista Cites.
El gobierno chileno iniciar en los prximos meses el cultivo de paiche en la ciudad fronteriza
de Arica, segn reporta soychile.cl.
Acciones actuales
La pesca del paiche tambin ha disminuido por las pocas de veda, tambin se estn probando
proyectos con las comunidades shipibo como por ejemplo el proyecto piloto de crianza de
paiche en jaulas flotantes
Los proyectos de cultivo paiche en estanques con dietas extrusadas y en jaulas flotantes con
dietas extrusadas, son los que se estn llevando a cabo actualmente con mayor frecuencia en
la amazonia.
Conclusiones
La vieja frase el Per es un mendigo sentado en un banco de oro, sigue vigente en este caso.
Se puede observar que una gran especie y con un gran potencial econmico no sabemos cmo
aprovecharlo hasta hace unos aos y aun as no podemos aprovecharlo totalmente por la falta
de industria y tecnologa que hay en el pas, tambin como la sobreexplotacin de esta la llevo
a estar en peligro de extincin a una especie que antes haba en una gran abundancia en la
amazonia peruana.
Recomendaciones
Tener un control ms riguroso en la amazonia y que se respeten los tiempos de vedas, tambin
seguir haciendo una capacitacin a las etnias cercanas a los ros que abunda esta especie para
que cacen con moderacin y capacitarlos en la crianza de esta especie como a las ciudades
cercas a estas para que la especie se siga sosteniendo. Tambin aplicar de manera ms
expansiva los cultivos de paiche en jaulas y estanques para poder tener una produccin cada
vez mayor y poder exportarlo aunque para esto se necesitara tambin grandes frigorficos
para que la carne no se malogre.
Bibliografa
Alcntara, Wust, Tello, Rebaza, Del Castillo. (2006). Paiche El gigante del Amazonas. amazonas:
Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazona Peruana.
Ruz Pezo, J. D. (2015). Manejo pesquero del "paiche" Arapaima gigas (Cuvier, 1829) en la
cocha Caro Wiur - ro Samiria de la RNPS: Periodo 2009 - 2013. Universidad Nacional de la
Amazona Peruana.
http://elpaichebiocomercio.blogspot.pe/
http://bibliotecavirtual.minam.gob.pe/biam/bitstream/handle/minam/301/BIV00685.pdf?seq
uence=1&isAllowed=y
http://crianzadepaiches.blogspot.pe/2009/09/habitat.html
http://proyectosperuanos.com/crianza_de_paiches_pirarucu/
anexos
figura 1
Figura 2