Guia de Estudio Ingles Ii Lectocomprensión - 90504

U N IVE R S ID A D D E MO R Ó N IN GLÉS I I
D E P A R TA ME N TO U N IVE R S ITA R IO
DE L ENGU AS E XTR ANJE RAS
( 90504 )
T P . P AT R IC IA LÓ P E Z
TP. GAB RIELA FERNÁND EZ
TP. MAR ÍA ANA CAP E LLE
T P . MAR C E LA LAC O S T E
T P . MAR ÍA E U G E NIA LAZZARINI
T.P.. S I LV IA ALIC IA O NT IV E R O
T P . MAR G AR IT A RO S A T R O T T A
T P . MAR ÍA P AZ V E LAS C O
PROPUESTA
PEDAGÓGICA
UNIVERSIDAD DE MORÓN
DEPARTAMENTO UNIVERSITARIO DE LENGUAS EXTRANJERAS
NOMBRE DE LA ASIGNATURA: INGLÉS II CÓDIGO: 90504
CICLO LECTIVO: 2023 DURACIÓN: Cuatrimestral
CARGA HORARIA:
4 HORAS RELOJ SEMANALES
DURACIÓN EN SEMANAS SEMANAL TEÓRICAS PRÁCTICAS TOTAL
16 4 hs. 2 hs. 2 hs. 64 hs.
CORRELATIVIDADES
CÓD. 90501
HORARIOS DE CLASES TURNO MAÑANA, TURNO TARDE, TURNO NOCHE
FUNDAMENTOS:
El idioma inglés se ha convertido en una herramienta de creciente utilización en el campo

profesional. La competencia lingüística para la lectura de textos de especialidad en lengua extranjera
es requerida como un elemento de importancia para la formación y autonomía como estudiantes.
El desarrollo de estrategias de lectura en la lengua meta permitirá a los estudiantes acceder y
organizar la información a fin de que el nuevo contenido se acomode con esquemas de conocimiento
previo.
La asignatura apunta al desarrollo de competencias de básica a mediana complejidad en la lengua
extranjera, para facilitar el acceso a la lectura de artículos, trabajos científicos, revistas, libros de la
especialidad, a efectos de contribuir a la comprensión acabada y a la capacitación continua.
OBJETIVOS:
En este sentido se busca que el educando sea capaz de:
• Comprender la relevancia del idioma inglés como valor formativo necesario para la
comunicación y el desarrollo profesional.
• Adquirir una herramienta de trabajo que viabilice el acceso a literatura de la especialidad.
• Desarrollar estrategias de lectocomprensión de textos de especialidad (Skimming, Scanning,
Thorough Reading y Critical Reading), a efectos de lograr la comprensión global, extraer
información específica y analizar el contenido críticamente.
• Distinguir claramente en el discurso la información relevante de la secundaria.
• Reconocer el código lingüístico y gramatical del discurso.
• Identificar léxico específico.
• Interpretar y traducir una variedad de textos de básica a mediana complejidad de la
disciplina, en forma individual y colaborativa.
4
CONTENIDOS MINIMOS SEGÚN PLAN DE ESTUDIOS APROBADO
Área teórica:
Estructura de la oración en inglés. Sustantivos. Pronombres. Adjetivos. Comparaciones. Tiempos

continuos. Pasado continuo versus Pasado Simple. Verbos modales. Tiempos perfectos. Voz
pasiva. Oraciones condicionales Tipo 0 y 1. Gerundio e infinitivo.
Área práctica:
• Manejo del diccionario.
• Palabras conceptuales y estructurales.
• Organización conceptual del texto.
• Práctica intensiva de comprensión lectora.
• Traducción de textos de especialidad de complejidad básica a mediana al español.
PROGRAMA ANALÍTICO DE CONTENIDOS:
UNIDAD I
Estructura de la oración en inglés: comparación con el español. Forma y función semántica de las
siguientes categorías léxicas: Sustantivo; Pronombre (subjetivo y objetivo- casos impersonales del
pronombre ít´); Adjetivo: invariabilidad y características gramaticales, posición. Grados comparativo
y superlativo de los adjetivos.
Área de lectocomprensión: Características de los textos de especialidad. Análisis de la estructura
textual. Uso de diccionario bilingüe.
UNIDAD II
La frase verbal: núcleo y auxiliares. Tiempos continuos: formas y usos. Contraste entre pasado
continuo y pasado simple. Frases verbales. Formación de palabras.
Área de lectocomprensión: Introducción a las técnicas de lectura. Técnica de lectura rápida (scanning)
UNIDAD III
Verbos modales (can, may, must, might, could, should): sus usos y características. Cognados.
Falsos amigos. Modo imperativo. Dar instrucciones.
Área de lectocomprensión: Deducción de significados a través del contexto. Técnica de lectura
global (skimming).
UNIDAD IV
Tiempos perfectos. Contraste entre presente perfecto y pasado simple. Preposiciones “for” y
“since”. Conectores. Voz pasiva.
Área de lectocomprensión: Técnica de lectura detallada (thorough Reading).
UNIDAD V
Usos de “there”. Usos del gerundio. Aplicaciones y traducción de todas las formas terminadas en
íng´. Usos del infinitivo. Oraciones condicionales tipos 0 y 1.
Área de lectocomprensión: Técnica de lectura crítica (Critical Reading)
5
PROGRAMA DE ACTIVIDADES PRÁCTICAS
UNIDAD I
Actividad práctica propuesta:
Tema: Estructura de la oración en inglés. Forma ✓ Identificar categorías léxicas.
y función semántica de Sustantivo, pronombre, ✓ Reconocer las características de un
adjetivo. Grados comparativo y superlativo. texto de especialidad.
Área de lectocomprensión: Características de los ✓ Analizar su organización.
textos de especialidad. Análisis de la estructura ✓ Usar diccionario bilingüe.
textual. Uso de diccionario bilingüe.
UNIDAD II
Tema: La frase verbal: núcleo y auxiliares. ✓ Resolver ejercicios de comprensión
Tiempos continuos: formas y usos. Contraste lectora: localización de información
entre pasado continuo y pasado simple. Frases específica dentro de textos de
verbales. Formación de palabras. especialidad.
Área de lectocomprensión: Introducción a las ✓ Realizar ejercicios para indicar si una
técnicas de lectura. Técnica de lectura rápida afirmación es verdadera o falsa.
(scanning). ✓ Usar diccionario bilingüe
UNIDAD III
Tema: Verbos modales (can, may, must, might, ✓ Resolver ejercicios de comprensión
could, should): sus usos y características. lectora: extracción de idea principal de
Cognados. Falsos amigos. Modo imperativo. textos de especialidad.
Dar instrucciones. ✓ Responder preguntas sobre lo tratado
Área de lectocomprensión: Deducción de en un texto dado.
significados a través del contexto. Técnica de ✓ Usar diccionario bilingüe.
lectura global (skimming).
6
UNIDAD IV
Tema: Tiempos perfectos. Contraste entre ✓ Resolver ejercicios de comprensión
presente perfecto y pasado simple. Preposiciones lectora: distinguir idea principal de
“for” y “since”. Conectores. Voz pasiva. ideas secundarias.
Área de lectocomprensión: Técnica de lectura ✓ Redacción de idea principal del texto
detallada (thorough Reading). utilizando conectores.
✓ Traducir textos de la especialidad.
✓ Usar diccionario bilingüe.
UNIDAD V
Tema: Usos de “there”. Usos del gerundio. ✓ Dar opinión sobre un texto dado.
Aplicaciones y traducción de todas las formas ✓ Traducir textos de la especialidad:
terminadas en íng´. Usos del infinitivo. Correspondencia formal y equivalencia
Oraciones condicionales tipos 0 y 1. dinámica.
Área de lectocomprensión: Técnica de lectura ✓ Usar diccionario bilingüe.
crítica (Critical Reading).
7
BIBLIOGRAFÍA:
Obligatoria:
Guía de estudio ad-hoc elaborada por la cátedra. Año 2023.
Artículos y trabajos de investigación en desarrollo en el ámbito de distintas disciplinas. Fuente:
Journals.
Oxford Spanish Dictionary- Jarman,B y Russell, R. New York. Oxford University Press, 2011
Sugerida:
Oxford Guide to English Grammar- Eastwood, John- Oxford University Press, 1996
Collins Cobuild-English Usage, Harper/Collins Publishers, 1997
Macmillan’s English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. Macmillan Publishing Limited, 2002.
METODOLOGÍA DE ENSEÑANZA:
En la enseñanza de la lectocomprensión en la lengua extranjera se abordará el método cognitivo-

comunicativo sociocultural, con la introducción de material auténtico de diferentes disciplinas.
En una primera etapa se apuntará a lograr la capacitación del alumno para comprender el texto
dado, reconocer marcas textuales y comenzar a desarrollar la competencia lectora, familiarizándose
con procesos básicos de análisis y tomando conocimiento de las técnicas de lectura específica,
global, detallada y crítica. Luego se pondrá en marcha una segunda etapa, proponiéndose el abordaje
de la traducción de textos de especialidad. En ambas etapas la teoría se combinará con la práctica,
siguiendo un enfoque flexible, orientado a una progresión planificada.
Las estrategias didácticas empleadas para la adquisición de conocimientos teóricos, prácticos,

habilidades, destrezas y actitudes en relación con los objetivos y ámbitos en los que se desarrolla
cada una serán:
Exposición dialogada: Presentación de aspectos gramaticales y pragmáticos. Desarrollo de la unidad
didáctica correspondiente.
Estudio dirigido.
Aprendizaje colaborativo: Trabajo de a pares y grupal.
Ejercicios de identificación de las partes del discurso.
Ejercicios de lectocomprensión: Responder preguntas, verdadero/falso, extracción de idea principal.
Traducción de textos de la especialidad.
EVALUACIONES DEL APRENDIZAJE:
Régimen de Promoción por Exámenes Parciales.
1) Las asignaturas sujetas a este régimen tendrán tres instancias de evaluación, a saber: dos (2)
exámenes parciales, más- en caso que resulte necesario- un (1) examen adicional recuperatorio. El
segundo examen parcial se reconoce como evaluación integradora de los conocimientos adquiridos.
(Ambos exámenes serán escritos, al igual que el Recuperatorio si correspondiera).
2) Los exámenes se calificarán de acuerdo con la escala de 0 a 10 puntos. La calificación final obtenida
como promedio de las calificaciones parciales, se expresará en valores enteros, para lo cual se
redondeará al número entero más próximo. Se podrá recuperar sólo uno (1) de los exámenes
parciales.
8
CUERPO DOCENTE
PROFESORA A CARGO DE LA ASIGNATURA: CARGO
Titular interina
PATRICIA ROSA LÓPEZ
INTEGRANTES DE LA CÁTEDRA
Nº APELLIDO Y NOMBRE CARGO

Legajo
103534 LAZZARINI, MARIA EUGENIA Asociado Extraordinario

104299 CAPELLE, MARÍA ANA Asociado interino
103140 FERNÁNDEZ, GABRIELA Asociado Interino
9
102724 LACOSTE, MARCELA Asociado Interino
105195 ONTIVERO, SILVIA ALICIA Adjunto Extraordinario
103813 TROTTA, MARGARITA ROSA Adjunto Extraordinario
108220 VELASCO, MARÍA PAZ Adjunto Interino
CRONOGRAMA DE CLASES, PARCIALES Y RECUPERATORIOS
Semanas TEMA OBSERVACIONES
01 Presentación de la asignatura.
Estructura de la oración en inglés: comparación
con el español. Forma y función semántica de las
siguientes categorías léxicas: Sustantivo;
pronombre (subjetivo y objetivo- casos
impersonales del pronombre it)
02 Adjetivo: invariabilidad y características

gramaticales, posición. Grado comparativo y
superlativo de los adjetivos.
03 Reconocimiento de las estrategias a utilizar
según el texto dado. Análisis de la organización
de textos simples. Uso del diccionario bilingüe.
04 La frase verbal: núcleo y auxiliares. Tiempos

Continuos: Formas y usos. Contraste entre
pasado continuo y pasado simple.
Reconocimiento de categorías léxicas.
05 Formación de palabras. Frases verbales. Área de

lecto-comprensión: Técnica de Lectura Rápida
(Scanning).
06 Verbos modales (can, may, must, might, could,

should): sus usos y características. Lectura
global (skimming). Extracción de idea principal.
07 Cognados. Falsos amigos. Expresar sugerencias,
recomendaciones e invitaciones. Modo
imperativo. Dar instrucciones.
Área de lecto-comprensión: Deducción de
significados a través del contexto.
08 Tiempos perfectos. Contraste entre presente

perfecto y pasado simple. Preposiciones “for” y
“since”.
09 Revisión
10 PRIMER EXAMEN PARCIAL Semana del 15 de
10
mayo
11 Conectores. Voz Pasiva.
12 Usos de ´there´. Usos del gerundio. Aplicaciones
y traducción de todas las formas terminadas en
“Ing”. Técnica de Lectura Detallada (Thorough
reading).
13 Infinitivo de propósito. Oraciones condicionales

de tipos 0 y I. Técnica de lectura: Critical
Reading.
14 Revisión
15 SEGUNDO EXAMEN PARCIAL Semana del 19 de
junio
16 EXAMEN RECUPERATORIO Semana del 23 de
junio
11
La comprensión de un texto redactado en inglés requiere de un conocimiento más o
menos detallado de las estructuras básicas en inglés y en español, del análisis del tipo
de texto y de la observación de las claves dadas por el contexto, mediante la aplicación
del sentido común.
Lo esencial es captar el sentido de las ideas expresadas en el idioma extranjero,
ayudándonos con el marco contextual, y reexpresarlas en el propio idioma.
Esto nos lleva al concepto de traducción. En el caso de la traducción de tipo técnico, que
es la que nos ocupará a lo largo del curso, es importante reexpresar lo dicho por el autor
teniendo en mente al lector, por lo que dicha traducción será comunicativa.
Por ejemplo, si la oración en inglés es:
The work on occupational safety was performed successfully.
La traducción podría ser:
Se realizó exitosamente el trabajo sobre seguridad laboral.
O bien:
El trabajo sobre seguridad laboral resultó exitoso.
Ambas versiones comunican perfectamente al lector lo que está expresado en el original,
por ende, la traducción no dependerá del texto original, sino de la forma habitual de
expresarse de la persona que realiza la traducción, ya que en ambos casos se respeta el
sentido y tanto el mensaje como el contenido de lo expresado en inglés coinciden
12
totalmente. Si la traducción del texto no tiene sentido o no expresa la esencia
del texto está mal realizada; no se llega a comprender el texto. Para captar el
concepto fundamental del original, es preciso detenerse a reflexionar y a analizar las
formas corrientes de expresión de ideas en el idioma extranjero.
CONCEPTOS BÁSICOS
Oración: Conjunto de palabras que incluye al menos un verbo principal conjugado e
independiente y que encierra una idea completa
Párrafo: Conjunto de oraciones que tienen una idea central común.
Frase: Conjunto de palabras que no incluye verbo conjugado, dando una idea
incompleta.
Oración Subordinada (Cláusulas): Conjunto de palabras que contiene un verbo
conjugado, pero no independiente, y que por lo tanto no encierra una idea completa. Su
función puede ser sustantiva, adjetiva o adverbial.
USO DEL DICCIONARIO
Aunque puedaresultar una obviedad, el mal uso del diccionario es una de las principales
causas de mala comprensión al intentar abordar un texto en lengua extranjera.
La elección del diccionario adecuado es uno de los puntos fundamentales. Lo importante
no es cuántas palabras contenga, sino el número de acepciones que tengan para cada
palabra.
Al iniciarse en el uso de un diccionario bilingüe es aconsejable:
• Tener en cuenta que la acepción de una palabra varía, según funcione como
sustantivo, adjetivo, verbo, etc.
• Asimismo, es diferente su significado según el área temática o la disciplina.
• Existen también palabras (verbos) que tienen distinto significado si están seguidos
de diferentes preposiciones.
• La palabra debe tener sentido dentro del contexto de que se trate.
• Es imprescindible familiarizarse con las abreviaturas y formas de presentación de los
significados, según el diccionario que utilicemos.
13
GRAMMAR
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
• Subject + Verb:
The physiotherapist agrees.
• Subject + Verb + Object:
We need a rest
• Subject + Verb + Complement:
It is a big problem
• Subject + Verb + Adverbial:
The publishing office is nearby.
• Subject + Verb + Object + Object:
The doctor gives the patient some pills.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Personal pronouns have a subject form, Subject forms
an objective (object) form and one or I, YOU, HE, SHE, IT, WE, THEY
more possessive forms. Objective forms
ME, YOU, HIM, HER, IT, US, THEM
Possessive forms
MY/MINE, YOU/YOURS, HIS,

HER/HERS, ITS, OUR/OURS,
THEIR/THEIRS
Pronouns must match nouns in number. Pasta in all shapes and sizes is a popular
Singular pronouns refer to singular meal. It’s easy, cheap, filling and
nouns (as in the first example) and plural versatile.
pronouns (second example) refer to Once consumers have identified unmet
plural nouns. This matching is true for needs, searched for information and
proper and for common nouns. used that informationto evaluate brands,
they are ready to make a purchase
decision.
13
Pronouns must also match the noun in Lisa Bowes had a wonderful life as a
gender. student at Humboldt State University in
California. Every day she chatted with
her pall Johan from Sweden.
IMPERSONAL USES OF “IT”
We use it for a thing, a situation or an idea:
Its use allows us to put the topic of a sentence at the end, and places more emphasis on
what you want to talk about:
Marking test papers can be very boring.
It is very boring marking test papers
Uses of “it” as a subject

• To focus on an adjective:
It is useful to know how to use the new tool.
• To talk about the weather, the time and distance:
It was really sunny yesterday.
• To introduce an action:
It took about two hours to finish the operation.
• To describe a place:
It was calm inside the patient´s room.
• To comment on a fact:
It was surprising that so few people could understand what I said.
NOUNS
• Meaning of nouns
Nouns have different meanings. Concrete nouns refer to physical things: appliance,
muscle, diseases and Abstract Nouns refer to ideas, non-concrete things: power,
knowledge, creativity. Nouns can also mention actions, and names: expansion,
preparation, New York, France.
14
• Gender of nouns
a) Most nouns do not have gender in English. Many nouns for people can refer to males
or females: physicians, professors, students, analysts. If the sex needs to be
determined, the words 'female' or 'woman' (female equivalent for 'man') can be used:
women dentists, female students, and so on.
However, there exists the ending 'ess' which can be used in some few cases to show
the difference between male and female:
waiter ----- waitress host -------- hostess
b) The words referring to family relationships are different for male and female:
father ------- mother son ------ daughter
• Compound nouns
When two nouns are generally used together, they often form a compound noun.
Sometimes they are separated by a hyphen and sometimes they are written as one
word. There exist no rules about whether to join the two words or not:
weekend / crosswords / businesswoman / phone-card
• Other Noun Patterns
ADJECTIVE + NOUN: blackboard / short circuit
GERUND + NOUN: booking-office / waiting-room / writing-paper.
NOUN + GERUND: (Generally separated by a hyphen) pedestrian-crossing / wind-
surfing
• Plural of nouns
To form the plural of countable nouns, we must add:
a) "s" :
Overview ----- Overviews Source -------- Sources
b) "es" (after a sibilant sound: ss, ch, sh, x, and after a few nouns ending in "o"):
Scratch ------ Scratches Boss ------ Bosses
15
Hero ----- Heroes Echo ------- Echoes
c) "ies" (after a noun ending in a 'consonant + y' ; in this case the 'y' changes to 'ie + s'):
Surgery ------- Surgeries Injury -------Injuries
d) Irregular plurals: Some nouns have an irregular plural:
Man ----- Men Child ----- Children Life ----- Lives Tooth ----- Teeth Criterion -----
Criteria Basis ----- Bases Stimulus ------- Stimuli
Focus ----- Foci Vertebra ----- Vertebrae Appendix ----- Appendices Speculum ----
- Specula Bronchus ----- Bronchi Alveolus ----- Alveoli Membrana ------ Membranae
e) Plural of compound nouns:

Noun + Noun - We normally add "s"/"es" to the end:
motorboats, weekdays
Noun + Preposition // Noun (ending in 'er') + Adverb - In both cases we add "s" or "es"
to the noun:
counselors-at-law, passers-by
THE GENITIVE
Form:
a) 's after a singular noun: My partner's shares

b) ' after a plural noun ending in "s": My partners' equipment
c) 's after a plural noun not ending in "s": The women's progress in free-lance jobs
Use:
By means of the genitive, we usually indicate that somebody has something or that
something belongs to somebody, or to talk about relations between people.
The nurses' tools (The tools belong to the nurses).
The old woman's daughter (The daughter of the old woman).
Genitive or 'Of' Pattern?
a) The Genitive is generally used with people and animals:
Mr. Gibson's lecture / The bird's nest
The Genitive without a following noun can be used when we talk about someone's
home, shop, or in the case of mentioning company names:
16
We have waited at the doctor´s for two hours.
b) The 'Of' pattern is used with things and with people when there exists a long phrase
or clause:
The end of the conference
The documents of all the persons present at the lecture.
c) Both patterns are possible when the nouns do not refer directly to people but involve
human activity (i.e. places, companies, agencies, newspapers):
The institution's commercial possibilities or The commercial possibilities of the
institution.
Birmingham's companies or The companies of Birmingham.
More uses of the Possessive Form
a) To express purpose:
The women's room (It's a room only for women)
b) To express time:
The morning's events / Next week's issue.
ADJECTIVES
Use:
Adjectives modify nouns. They can express physical and other qualities (a friendly
environment, an intelligent scientist), one's opinion or attitude (an important
appointment, a good-looking physician), origin (British journals), frequency (a daily
paper), degree (a complete program), etc.
Form:
An adjective always has the same form. There are no endings for number or gender:
A young man A young woman Young people
Nouns functioning as Adjectives
Words that are generally nouns can act as adjectives:
There are certain principles and rules of motion exercises.
The meeting with members of the rehabilitation team took place in the hospital.
Some material nouns have another form which is distinctly adjectival, e.g.:
17
Wood ----- Wooden Silver ----- Silvery Gold ------ Golden
Sometimes, the ending -en means 'made of'
Before starting the meeting, the journalist put on his woolen sweater because the
air-conditioner was too high.
The formation of Adjectives from nouns

There exist some endings (suffixes) used to form adjectives from nouns:
-y, -ly, -ful, - less, -en, -ous, -able, -some, -ic, -like, -al, -an, -ian, -ical, ish
NOUN ADJECTIVE
Storm Stormy
Harm Harmful
Man Manlike
Trouble Troublesome
Education Educational
Republic Republican
Child Childish
Infection Infectious
Pain Painful
Breath Breathless
The patient was almost breathless when he arrived at the health centre.
He caught an infectious disease when he travelled to Malaysia.
Participles used adjectivally
Many participles, both present and past, can be use adjectivally. Adjectives in -ing
express what something is like, the effect it has on us. Adjectives in -ed express how
we feel aboutsomething:
The course was really interesting.
The attendants were really interested in the course.
Adjectives formed by:
Noun + Past Participle Adjective + Past Participle
Green-eyed = Having green eyes
Curly-haired = Having curly hair

Star-shaped = With the shape of a star
18
Square-shaped = With the shape of a square
Ill-humoured = Having bad humour
Well-behaved = Having good behaviour
The Position of Adjectives
Most adjectives can go before a noun or as complement after a linking verb such as
'seem', 'be', “become”, etc.:
The trained persons who assist the patient with activities related to motion are
called physical therapists.
The possibility of helping people in pain is what makes our job a very exciting,
skillful and rewarding activity.
The order of Adjectives

a) When two or more adjectives come before a noun, there is usually a certain order
which depends on their meaning (The most general or subjective meaning first and the
most specific and objective last). Although there are no absolute rules, adjectives are
generally placed as follows:
Opinion + Size + Quality + Age + Shape + Colour + Participle forms + Origin +
Material + Type + Purpose + NOUN
b) When two adjectives have similar meanings, the shorter one often comes first:
At the end of the meeting the Director of the hospital suggested a good, interesting
proposal.
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS
Comparative Degree
Equality: AS ……… AS NOT SO ……… AS
I had to extend both arms as far as I could.
The feeling of discomfort was not so slight as I expected.
Inferiority: LESS ………THAN
Osteoarthritis is less probable in younger people than in the elderly.
Superiority: ………ER + THAN MORE ………+ THAN
19
Since pain may worsen with increased activity, people with advanced osteoarthritis
may need to take longer rest periods during the day.
Sports such as jogging and tennis are more harmful than others, when the patient
suffers from backbone problems.
Superlative Degree
Inferiority: The least
He´s the least professional specialist in the country, I´m afraid.
Superiority: THE ……… EST THE MOST ………
The most common causes of lower back pain are sprains and strains.
She was obsessively involved with the project from start to finish, that´s why her
research work was the greatest medical achievement.
Although the famous teacher used to be a revolutionary in the field, his last work
was really old-fashioned, in the most comprehensive sense.
* Remember that there are some Irregular Comparisons.

Good Better The best
Bad Worse The worst
Little Less The least
Many More The most
Far Farther/Further The farthest/furthest
There are special ways of standing and moving one´s body to make the best use of
strength and avoid injury.
This new method resulted to be worse than previous one to cope with heart
disease.
SPECIAL PATTERNS
• Comparative + Comparative = It means that something is increasing all the time
Faster and Faster
• The + Comparative …. The + Comparative = It means that a change in one thing
goes with a change in another
The sooner the better
This patient is better and better
The pain is more and more intense.
20
The sooner we make the diagnosis, the sooner he´ll receive the proper
treatment.
CONTINUOUS TENSES
SUBJECT BE BASE FORM OF VERB + -ING
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Use:
a) To describe something that is happening right now or in the extended present time -
nowadays, this month, these days
b) To show that an action is temporary
c) To talk about future plans that have already been arranged
I´m learning English right now.
She is studying Physical Therapy.
Our hospital is holding a press conference next week.
Affirmative Form Interrogative Form Negative Form
I am working Am I working? I am not (I´m not) working
You are working Are you working? You are not (aren´t) working
He is working Is he working? He is not (isn´t) working
She is working Is she working? She is not (isn´t) working
It is working Is it working? Itis not (isn´t) working
We areworking Are we working? We are not (aren´t) working
You are working Are you working? You are not (aren´t) working
They are working Are they working? They are not (aren´t) working
PAST CONTINUOUS
Use:
a) To describe an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past. The action
began before the specific time and may or may not continue after the specific time.
b) To talk about an action that was interrupted by another action.
21
My husband and I were waiting outside when the doctor arrived in his car.
I was watching a documentary about health care when the phone rang.
I was working Was I working? I was not (wasn´t) working
You were working Were you working? Youwere not (weren´t) working
He was working Was he working? He was not (wasn´t) working
She was working Was she working? She was not (wasn´t) working
It was working Was it working? It was not (wasn´t) working
We were working Were we working? We were not (weren´t) working
You were working Were you working? You were not (weren´t) working
They were working Were they working? They were not (weren´t) working
We were going down in the lift when it suddenly stopped.
What was the therapist doing when the patient came into the consulting room?
When the doctor went into the waiting room, the patient was not sitting there.
PAST CONTINUOUS VERSUS PAST SIMPLE
Past continuous is used for an action that we were in the middle of:
We were working hard when you arrived.
Past simple is used for a complete action in the past:
We worked a lot yesterday.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
Use:
a) To describe an action that will be in progress at a specific time in the future
22
I´ll be assisting a patient at 7.00.
What will you be doing this time next week?
I will be working Will I be working? I will not be working
(´ll be working) (won´t be working)
You will be working Will you be working? You will not be working
He will be working Will hebeworking? Hewill not beworking
She will be working Will she be working? She will not be working
It will be working Will it be working? It will not be working
We will be working Will we be working? We will not be working
You will be working Will you be working? You will not be working
They will be working Willthey be working? They will not be working
Will the specialists be analyzing the different methods at the conference next
month?
In ten minutes the patient will be keeping his body properly aligned.
Don´t worry. I will be examining you later on to see if everything is fine.
WORD FORMATION
Suffixes and Prefixes
Many terms are composed of several smaller, simpler words or word elements. There
are three primary word elements: the prefix, the root, and the suffix.
• The root is the body or main part of the word. It denotes the primary meaning of the
word as a whole: normal; usual
• The prefix is a word element added to the beginning of a root. It changes or adds to
the meaning of the word: abnormal; unusual
• The suffix is also a word element used to change the parts of speech. It is always
added to the end: abnormality; unusually
23
Suffixes
a) Noun Suffixes
an/ian technician
ant/ent assistant; student
ee trainee
er/or computer; operator
ist scientist
ment employment; agreement
ion/tion/sion discussion; production; permission
ation/ition invitation; opposition
ence/ ance preference; distance
ty/ity certainty; security
ness illness
ing understanding
b) Verb Suffixes
ize standardize
en tighten
c) Adjective Suffixes
al professional
ic scientific
ive informative
ful painful
less harmless
ous infectious
y colicky
able/ible acceptable/ comprehensible
itis appendicitis
Prefixes
Word element Example Meaning
24
Ante antefebrile before onset of fever
Anti antifebrile used against fever
Cysto cystogram x-ray record of the bladder
Cyto cytogenesis production(origin) ofthecell
Hyper hypertension high blood pressure
Hypo hypotension low blood pressure
Inter interstitial lying between spacesintissue
Intra intracranial within the skull
Macro macroscopy seen large, as with the naked eye
Micro microscopy seen small, as by microscope
Per percussion striking through the body; use of fingertips to lightly tap the body
Pre preclinical before the onset of disease
MULTI-WORD VERBS
A verb can combine with an adverb or preposition:
Verb + Adverb (Phrasal verb):
The patient sat down because he felt very tired.
Verb + Preposition (Prepositional verb):
We looked at the professional to find out what happened.
Researchers have carried out enough work regarding metabolic changes in
teenagers.
They found out evidence that turned out to be really important to know more about
the causes and symptoms of such a serious disease.
You should try to cut down the number of cigarettes you smoke.
If the patient doesn´t give up smoking right away, the consequences will be
absolutely irreversible.
25
MODAL VERBS
A modal verb is always the first word in the verb phrase. It always has the same form
and never has an ending such as ´s´, íng´ or éd´. After a modal verb we use an infinitive
without ´to´.
Expressing ability: can, could and be able to
Expressing permission: can, may, could, might and be allowed to
Expressing necessity: must, have to, needn´t and mustn´t
Expressing advice: should, ought to

Expressing possibility: may, might, can and could
Expressing requests and offers: can, could
Can I ask you a question?
You needn´t hurry. Relax
We can´t move this piece of furniture. It´s too heavy
They should build more schools in the area.
Nobody can join the group.
The books may be in the purse.
It´s wonderful to be able to play the piano for the audience.
Could you open the door for me, please?
COGNATES
There are thousands of words that are common to both Spanish and English--they are
called cognates. Many cognates are spelt exactly alike in both languages--these are
called exact cognates. Many others are so similar in spelling that their meaning can easily
be identified--they are called close cognates.
EXACT COGNATES
Words with the same spelling and meaning. Let’s look at the list of some of the exact
cognates:
METAL NARCOSIS PEON POSTURAL

MACHETE NASAL PENDULAR PRENATAL
26
MACRAME NASION PENETRABLE PREMOLAR
MACULA NAVICULAR PERCEPTIBLE PROCTITIS
MAGISTRAL NECROSIS PERDURABLE PROGERIA
MAGNATE NEON PERMEABLE PROSTATITIS
MANIA NEONATAL PERPENDICULAR PROTEINURIA
MANTILLA NEURAL PERTURBABLE PROTON
MANUAL NEURALGIA PERVERSION PROXIMAL
MUSCULAR NEUROBLASTOMA PIMIENTO PSEUDOMONAS
MARGINAL NEURITIS PISCINA PSOAS
MARITAL NEUROMUSCULAR PLAZA PTOSIS
MARSUPIAL NEUTRAL PORTICO PUERPERAL
MASCARA NEVUS PORTAL PUBIS
MATADOR NEUTRON PLUVIAL PULPITIS
MATERNAL NODULAR PONCHO PURPURA
MATINAL NODAL PONDERABLE PSORIASIS
MATRIMONIAL NOCTURNAL POTABLE QUORUM
MATRONAL NUCLEAR PRACTICABLE RECORD
MATUTINAL OPERA PRECEPTOR REGULAR
MEDIAL OPINION PRECURSOR RELIGION
MEDICABLE ORAL PREDICABLE REGIMEN
MEDIEVAL OASIS PRESCRIPTIBLE RENAL
MEDIOCRE OBSERVABLE PRESENTABLE REALIZABLE
MEGALOMANIA OPERABLE PRESERVABLE RECEPTOR
MELODRAMA OLLA PRETENSION RECITAL
MELON ORBITAL PREVISION RECTANGULAR
MANSION OREGANO PRIMORDIAL REDACTOR
MEMORABLE ORIGINAL PRINCIPAL RECTOR
MENTOR ORNAMENTAL PROBABLE REGION
MENU OXIDABLE PROBOSCIS REGIONAL
MICA OCCIPITAL PRAXIS REDUCIBLE
MESTIZO OCULAR PROCURABLE REFERENDUM
27
MINERAL ODONTITIS PRODUCIBLE REHEDIABLE
MINISTERIAL OLECRANON RENEGADO
CLOSE COGNATES
Words with a slightly different spelling but the same meaning:
Let's look at a list of close cognates.
Elegant, solution, figure, human, university, communication, justice, movement, nation,
form, important, energy, move, international, activity, model, opportunity, intelligent,
literature, exclusive, vacations, centre, objective, human, admire, recommend, map,
vitamins, education, art, bilingual, silence, dialogue, tradition, explore, modern, music,
invasion, bank, television, community, products, etc.

FALSE COGNATES
And now we must warn you about false cognates, words that look alike but have
different meanings in English than suggested by the Spanish spelling.
Spanish English
Correct Incorrect
actual present Actual
asistir to be present to assist
campo field Camp
cólera wrath Cholera
contestar to answer to contest
éxito success Exit
librería bookshop Library
largo long Large
lectura reading Lecture
oficio trade Office
oración prayer or Oration
sentence
pariente relative Parent
28
realizar to make real to realize
to recall or to record
recordar
remember
sano healthy Sane
suceso event Success
THE IMPERATIVE
We can use the imperative form to tell someone what to do (to give orders, instructions):
Remove your sock and shoe.
Turn your head this way.
The negative is formed with Don´t

Don´t tilt your head back.
Don´t move your left arm.
As an imperative can sound abrupt, there other ways of expressing orders. Note how
the doctor gives instructions to the patient:
Stretch your right arm as far as you can.
I want to see you take your right heel and run it down the front of your left leg.
Could you just move your head slowly?
I´d just like to examine you before making the final diagnosis.
PERFECT TENSES
SIMPLE
SUBJECT HAVE PAST PARTICIPLE OF VERB

(Regular Verbs: ...ed)
(Irregular Verbs: 3rd Column)
Present Perfect Simple
29
Use:
a) To talk about something that began in the past and continue to the present;
b) When the result of a past action is connected to the present;
c) To talk about an action which happened at some time in the past and we are
interested in the experience.
I have worked in London for six months.
She has been a physiotherapist since 1987.

She has interviewed the celebrity.
Have you ever read the abstract of his paper?
I have worked Have I worked? I have not (haven´t) worked
You have worked Have you worked You have not (haven´t) worked
He has worked Has he worked? He has not (hasn´t) worked
She has worked Has she worked? She has not (hasn´t) worked
It has worked Has it worked? It has not (hasn´t) worked
Wehave worked Have we worked? We have not (haven´t) worked
You have worked Have you worked? You have not (haven´t) worked
They have worked Have they worked? They have not (haven´t) worked
PRESENT PERFECT VERSUS PAST SIMPLE
Present perfect is used for actions in a period of time up to the present or with a result
in the present:
The information manager has made a big progress so far
Past simple is used for asituation inthe past, already finished.
The journalist wrote a remarkable report.
Prepositions FOR and SINCE, used with the present perfect tense:
• FOR indicates how long a period is: She has had a rewarding activity for ten years
• SINCE indicates when a period started: She has had a rewarding activity since 2009.
Past Perfect Simple
Use:
30
To talk about an action in the past that happened before another action in the past. The
second action is often in the past simple.
I had studied English before I began my university career.
I had worked Had I worked? I had not (hadn´t) worked

You had worked Had you worked? You had not (hadn´t) worked
He had worked Had he worked? He had not (hadn´t) worked
She had worked Had she worked? She had not (hadn´t) worked
It had worked Had it worked? It had not (hadn´t) worked
Wehad worked Had we worked? We had not (hadn´t) worked
You had worked Had you worked? You had not (hadn´t) worked
They had worked Had they worked? They had not (hadn´t) worked
Future Perfect Simple
Use:
To talk about something that will be completed by a certain time in the future.
I´ll have finished dinner by 8.00 p.m.
I´ll have worked here for a year next December.
I will have worked Will I have worked? I will not (won´t) have worked
You will have worked (´ll have) Will you have worked? You will not (won´t) have worked
He will have worked Will he have worked? He will not (won´t) have worked
She will have worked Will she have worked? She will not (won´t) have worked
It will have worked Will it have worked? It will not (won´t) have worked
We will have worked Will we have worked? We will not (won´t) have worked
You will have worked Will you have worked? You will not (won´t) have worked
They will have worked Will they have worked? They will not (won´t) have worked
PREPOSITIONS
Word or groups of words used before a noun or pronoun to show place, position,
movement, time, method, etc.
31
at, in, inside, into, on, from, of, out of, outside, on top of, off, to, by, beside, next to,
near, from, towards, over, under, above, below, in front of, behind, up, down,
across, through, along, past, among, between, opposite, around, for, with, about
CONNECTORS
Connectors are devices used to state the relationship between units of discourse and
they include conjunctions, some adverbs (e.g. firstly, namely, alternatively), and some
prepositional phrases (e.g. in brief, in fact, of course). Connectors are an important part
in the sentence structure and provide coherence in the total structure of the text.
Adding a connector would clearly show a relationship between the two sentences and
ideas. Connectors may indicate Addition, Cause/Effect, Comparison,
Contrast/Opposition.
Connectors indicating ADDITION: Although the words have different grammatical
names, they share one thing in common: they all continue or add to ideas that were
written in the preceding sentence.
Connector(s) Examples
and High level positions are stressful at times and can be
harmful to your health.
in addition, additionally, High level positions are stressful at times; furthermore,
furthermore, moreover, also they can be harmful to your health
not only...but also Not only are high level positions stressful at times, but
they also can be harmful to your health.
in addition to, along with, as Along with being stressful, high level positions can
well as also be harmful to your health
Connectors indicating CAUSE/EFFECT:
32
for (cause), so (effect) Professionals can sometimes be extremely impatient, for
their positions are at times rather stressful.
because, since Since high level positions are at times rather stressful,
professionals can sometimes be extremely impatient.
therefore, as a result, High level positions are attimes rather stressful;
consequently therefore, professionals can sometimes be extremely
impatient.
because of, due to, as a Due to the stressful nature of high-level positions,
result of professionals can sometimes be extremely impatient.
Connectors indicating COMPARISON:
and...too High level positions are stressful and can be harmful to your
health too.
just as Just as high-level positions are stressful, they can be
harmful to your health.
similarly, in High-level positions are stressful at times; similarly, they can
comparison be harmful to your health.
like, similar to Similar to other important professions, high level business
positions are stressful at times.
Connectors indicating CONTRAST/OPPOSITION:
but Highlevel positions are stressful at times, but the financial
rewards make these positions very desirable indeed.
whereas, while While high level positions are stressful at times, the
financial rewards make these positions very desirable
indeed.
33
although, despite the
fact that Despite the fact that high level positions are stressful at
times, professionals can learn to manage their stress levels
in contrast, on the High level positions are stressful at times; on the other
other hand hand, the financial rewards make these positions very
desirable indeed.
however, High level positions are stressful at times; nevertheless,

nevertheless professionals can learn to manage their stress levels.
unlike Unliketheundesirable stressof high-level positions, the
financial rewards make these positions very desirable
indeed.
despite, in spite of In spite of the stressful nature of high-level positions,
professionals can learn to manage their stress levels
PASSIVE VOICE
The patient experienced pain relief. (Active)
Pain relief was experienced by the patient. (Passive)
When the person doing the action is the subject of a sentence, we use an active verb.
When the subject is what the action is directed at, then we use a passive verb.
If we use a passive sentence and are interested in mentioning the agent, we generally
use “by” when we state who or what was responsible for the action, and “with” when
we mention the instrument used:
The case history has been read by every doctor at the hospital.
The old man was hurt with a knife.
Form:
A passive verb has a form of BE + PAST PARTICIPLE
Use:
Passive voice is used in the following situations:
• When it is obvious or not important to say who, what, etc. is the subject
34
• Avoiding using I, we, they, one, etc.
• Reports
• Describing a process
• Official announcements
• Scientific texts.
TENSE PASSIVE FORM EXAMPLE: PASSIVE EXAMPLE: ACTIVE
Present Simple AM/IS/ARE + PAST Important subjects are They discuss important
PARTICIPLE discussed everylunchtime. subjects every
lunchtime.
Past Simple WAS/WERE + PAST The date for the talks was They announcedthe
PARTICIPLE announced. date for the talks.
The school was built by the The local government
local government. built theschool.
Future Simple WILL BE + PAST You will be examined by a A top consultant will
PARTICIPLE top consultant. examine you.
Modal Passive MODAL VERB + BE + The house must be cleaned. You must clean the
PAST PARTICIPLE house.
Present Continuous AM/IS/ARE BEING + This matter is still being They are still
PAST PARTICIPLE considered. considering this matter.
Past Continuous WAS/WERE BEING + Every effort was being made They were making every
PAST PARTICIPLE to end thestrike. effort to end the strike.
Present Perfect HAS/HAVE BEEN + The new stadium has been They have built the new
PAST PARTICIPLE built in London. stadium in London.
35
Past Perfect HAD BEEN + PAST The work had been finished They had finished the
PARTICIPLE by the end of 2000. work by the end of
2000.
Future Perfect WILL HAVE BEEN+ In the next ten years, full In the next ten years,
PAST PARTICIPLE equality will havebeen women will have
achieved. achieved full equality.
USES OF "THERE"
THERE + BE expresses the idea that something exists.
After 'there' the verb agrees with its complement.
There have been many changes in the medical field in the latest time.
There is a really good health care institution in our city.
There are several methods, but only two are recommended.
Were there any problems to discuss?
There will be enough specialists in the conference.
Please, pay attention to some of the different verbal tenses you can find:
There is/ There are
There was/ There were
There will be
There have been
There has been
• THERE + OTHER VERB + TO BE
The following verbs can be used between 'there' and 'to be': Seem, prove, happen,
appear, tend, etc.
There seems to be a good reason for surprise.
There proved to be no truth in the rumour which was heard in the news
yesterday morning.
• THERE + OTHER VERBS
Verbs in this pattern are: arrive, come, enter, exist, follow, occur, remain, result, etc. In
this case, 'there' is never translated.
36
There will follow a summary explaining the complex surgery
There exist some critical issues the physical therapist is trying to analyze.
-ING FORMS
“-Ing forms” are also called present participles. Most of them are formed by adding “-
ing” to the base form of a verb. Example: Asking, aligning, eating. Sometimes there is a
change in spelling, as in making, putting, dying.
As part of continuous tenses:
He was talking to the patient in the waiting-room.
As a noun: In this case “ing forms” are called gerunds. They can be the subject, object
or complement of aclause:
Arguing is not the best way to solve problems.
As an adjective:
If untreated, an individual may suffer from annoying disorders.
After prepositions (other than “By”):
You should apologize for being late.
After “by”:
Too much inactivity can worsen his illness by causing increasing stiffness.
After a noun:
She is now an Italian citizen working for an international company.
After certain verbs:
He wisely avoided mentioning the incident to the journalist.
THE INFINITIVE
Infinitives as Subjects
• in quotes
• in dictionary definitions
37
To be or not to be. That is the question.
To assist: To help somebody
Infinitives as Objects
Using infinitives as the object of a sentence: expressing "intent" or "possibility of an
event occurring”: hope, need, plan, etc.
Edward plans to do his homework.
Infinitives with indirect objects
Getting someone else to do something
Verbs followed by infinitives: want, expect, etc.
Exceptions: let, make, have, help (omit to)
Edward expected me to help him.
We helped him [to] do the work. (optional to)
We made him do the work. (omit to)
Adjective + Infinitive
To express emotions or reactions: use of infinitives after adjectives or participles:
amazed, afraid, anxious, ashamed, delighted, determined, eager, glad, happy, pleased,
sad, surprised, etc.
We were happy to hear the good news.
Infinitive expressing purpose: To/ In order to
The obstetrician treated the pregnant woman (in order) to save her life.
CONDITIONALS
Conditional Sentences are formed by two clauses: the conditional clause and the main
clause. Conditional Clauses begin with if (or a word such as when for things we are sure
will happen) and follow basic patterns. The conditional clause can come before or after
the main clause. A comma is used at the end of the conditional clause when it comes
first.
If you don´t try harder, you will fail.
You will fail if you don´t try harder.
ZERO CONDITIONAL
38
It is used to show that one action, result and so on, always follows another:
Conditional Clause: Simple Present Main Clause: Simple Present
If water freezes, it turns to ice.
FIRST CONDITIONAL
It is used to talk about events with are possible. The conditional clause can refer to the
present or the future:
Conditional Clause: Simple Present Main Clause: Simple Future
If we read the present study, we will know the relationship between
signs and symptoms of the disorders in
124 patients.
Other structures are possible, depending on what you want to say:
If + Simple Present Modal verb
If you read the article beforehand, you can come.
If + Simple Present Be going to
If you don´t read the paper beforehand, you are going to fail the test.
If + Simple Present Imperative
If you need anything, ask.
If + Present Continuous Simple Future
If you are expecting new patients, the heater will be kept on.
If + Present Perfect Simple Future
If you have finished with the tool, The other surgeon will be able to use it.
Imperative And/or + will
Have a periodical check-up, and you will avoid medical problems.
39
LIST OF
IRREGULAR
VERBS
40
41
42
43
READING AND
TRANSLATION
PRACTICE
#1
Binge drinkers are defined as males who drink five or more standard alcohol drinks, and
females who drink four or more, on one occasion and within a two-hour interval. A recent
study of binge drinking's impact on attention and visual working memory processes in
young Spanish university students has found that binge drinkers expend more attentional
effort to complete a given task, and also have a deficiency in differentiating between
relevant and irrelevant information.
1. "Currently, about 40 percent of university students in the U.S. are considered binge
drinkers, while 12.2 percent of Spanish university students may be," explained Alberto
Crego, a doctoral student at the University of Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, Spain
and corresponding author for the study. "One of the reasons for this is because in Anglo-
Saxon countries there is a longer tradition of drinking linked to weekend diversions and
characterized by sporadic consumption of large quantities of alcohol in short periods.
While in Mediterranean countries such as Spain, alcohol consumption is traditionally
more regular and linked to gastronomy."
However, the traditional pattern of drinking that is characterized by low intake of wine
and beer may be changing, noted Francisco Caamaño-Isorna, a professor in the
department of public health at the University of Santiago de Compostela. "Recent reports
from the Spanish Drug Observatory suggest that the prevalence of binge drinking is
increasing."
"One of the most relevant and worrying aspects of the high prevalence of intense
consumption of alcohol in young people is the effect this drinking pattern probably has
on the structure and function of the still developing brain, and that these consequences
may persist in the long term," said Crego. "Some neuromaturation processes continue
until approximately 25 years of age; this means that late developing regions are
probably even more vulnerable targets."
Furthermore, he added, a binge-drinking pattern of abusive, intermittent consumption
45
causes greater damage than consuming similar amounts of alcohol in a more continual,
less intense pattern of drinking. "This cyclical pattern of alcohol consumption usually
leading to drunkenness, and then abstinence - which includes the 'morning after'
hangover - is similar to the pattern observed in chronic alcoholics, and their cycles of
abuse/dependence and detoxification. Given that neurocognitive alterations tend to
increase with the number of detoxification episodes, investigating possible
neurocognitive consequences of binge drinking takes on even more importance."
Researchers used the event-related potential (ERP) technique to examine 95 first-year
university students (48 men, 47 women), 42 of them binge drinkers (BD) and 53 "control"
students (who did not drink enough to raise concerns); all of them 18 to 20 years of age.
An ERP is the electrophysiological brain response to internal or external stimuli. Study
authors paid particular attention to the N2 (negative waveform) and P3 (positive
waveform) components of ERPs, known to be particularly sensitive to alcohol, that were
elicited in response to a visual working memory task.
"We found that healthy young university students - meaning those with no alcohol-use
disorder, alcohol dependence or associated psychiatric disorders - who engaged in
bingedrinkingshowedanomaliesduring the execution of a task involving visual working
memory, despite correct execution of the task, in comparison with young non binge
drinkers. They required greater attentional processing during the task in order to carry
it out correctly."
These same students also had difficulties differentiating between relevant and irrelevant
stimuli. "They displayed less efficiency in distributing attentional and working memory
resources between the different information presented in a working memory task," said
Crego. "These results collectively suggest that impaired brain function may occur at an
early age in binge drinkers during attentional and working memory processing, even in
young university students without alcohol-use disorders."
Crego cautioned that the attentional and working memory deficits exhibited by chronic
46
alcoholics are indicative of the problems that may develop with binge drinking. "Healthy
adolescents and young people who partake in intermittent consumption of large amounts
of alcohol - otherwise known as binge drinking - even only once or twice a week, and
who do not display chronic alcohol consumption or alcohol dependence may nonetheless
suffer alterations at the electrophysiological level in attentional and working memory
processing."
#2
People diagnosed with type 2 diabetes often resist taking insulin because they fear
gaining weight, developing low blood sugar and seeing their quality of life decline.
A study recently completed at UT Southwestern Medical Center suggests that those
fears are largely unfounded and that patients andphysicians should consider insulin as
a front-line defense, as opposed to a treatment of last resort for non-insulin-dependent
diabetes.
"We found that those patients who received insulin initially did just as well, if not better,
than those who didn't receive insulin," said Dr. Ildiko Lingvay, assistant professor of
internal medicine at UT Southwestern and leadauthor of the study appearingonlineand
in a future issue of Diabetes Care. "This reinforces the idea that insulin treatment is a
viable and safe option for patients, even in the very initial stages of their diagnoses.
"There is a myth out in the community, especially among certain ethnicities, that insulin
is the last resort, and that somebody started on insulin is going to die," Dr. Lingvay added.
"We as physicians are responsible for teaching the patient that that's not the case."
More than 20 million Americans have type 2 diabetes. Obesity, ageandlack of exercise
all increase the risk for the disease, which is characterized by a progressive loss of
insulin-producing beta cells. Diabetes is the single greatest independent risk factor for
47
heart disease, as well as a contributor to a number of other medical problems, including
blindness and kidney disease.
The standard initial treatment for type 2 diabetes is a single drug, followed by the addition
of more oral hypoglycemic agents as needed.
For this study, researchers evaluatedthe effectiveness of offering insulin-basedtherapy
as an initial treatment option to newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes patients. They
compared rates of compliance, satisfaction, effectiveness, safety and quality of life
among the patients, who were randomized to receive either the standard triple oral
therapy or insulin plus metformin, an oral drug that helps regulate blood sugar levels.
The patients, ranging in age from 21 to 70 years old, had been diagnosed with type 2
diabetes within the past two months.
After enrollment, every participant followed an insulin regimen for three months. The
patients were then randomized to continue taking insulin or begin the triple oral therapy
regimen. All participants were checked monthly for the first four months, at six months
after randomization, and every three months thereafter for three years. Of the 58
patients randomized, 24 of the insulin-treated group and 21 of the triple oral therapy
group completed the study.
The researchers found that the patients taking insulin plus metformin had fewer low-
blood-sugar, or hypoglycemic, events, gainedlessweightandreported highsatisfaction
with the insulin.
Dr. Lingvay said she hopes physicians use these findings as the rationale to offer insulin-
metformin as the first, rather than last, line of defense. "Modern medicine uses insulin as
a very effective and safe treatment tool," she said. "With the new devices that we're using,
giving yourself an insulin shot is not much harder than taking pills."
48
The data represent the first three years of a six-year study still under way at UT
Southwestern. The next step, Dr. Lingvay said, is tobeginanalyzing how the insulin plus
metformin and oral triple therapy regimens affect insulin production in beta cells.
#3
B12 deficiency can potentially cause severe and irreversible damage, especially to
the brain and nervous system.
The first deficiency symptom that was discovered was anemia characterized by enlarged
blood corpuscles, so-called megaloblastic anemia.
The anemia is thought to be due to problems in DNA synthesis, specifically in the
synthesis of thymine, which is dependent on products of the MTR reaction. Other cell
lines such as white blood cells and platelets are often also low. The anemia has been
considered to be easy to cure with vitamin B12.
The damage to the nervous system that may occur due to deficiency is known to be far
more serious.
Early and even fairly pronounced deficiency does not always cause distinct or specific
symptoms. Common early symptoms are tiredness or a decreased mental work capacity,
decreased concentration and decreased memory, irritability and depression.
Sleep disturbances may occur, because B12 may be involved in the regulation of the
sleep wake cycle by the pineal gland (through melatonin).
Neurological signs of B12 deficiency, which can occur without anemia, include sensory
disturbances due to damage to peripheral nerves caused by demyelination and
irreversible nerve cell death. Symptoms include numbness, tingling of the extremities,
disturbed coordination and, if not treated in time, a syndrome known as subacute
combined degeneration of spinal cord.
Recent studies have devalued a possible connection between B12 deficiency and
Alzheimer's dementia, and such a correlation is unlikely as of June 2007.
Studies showing a relationship between clinical depression levels and deficient B12 blood
levels in elderly people are documented in the clinical literature.
49
Bipolardisease appearstogenetically co-segregate with the hereditary B12-deficiency
disorder pernicious anemia.

Causes of deficiency
• Inadequate dietary intake of vitamin B12. As the vitamin B12 occurs naturally only
in animal products (eggs, meat, milk) a vegan diet can produce a deficiency
unless using supplements or eating enriched food.[7] Some vegans dispute this,
claiming that vitamin B12 is only manufactured by prokaryotic microorganisms, not
in food livestock.
• Selective impaired absorption of vitamin B12 due to intrinsic factor deficiency. This
may depend on loss of gastric parietal cells in chronic atrophic gastritis (in which
case, the resulting megaloblastic anaemia takes the name of "pernicious
anaemia"), or on wide surgical resection of stomach (such as in bariatric surgery),
or on rare hereditary causes of impaired synthesis of intrinsic factor.
• Impaired absorption of vitamin B12 in the setting of a more generalised
malabsorption or maldigestion syndrome. This includes any form of structural
damage or wide surgical resection of the terminal ileum (the principal site of
vitamin B12 absorption), forms of achlorhydria (including that artificially induced
by drugs
• The diabetes medication, which is known to interfere with B12 dietary
absorption.
#4
The history of psychiatry and psychiatric nursing, although disjointed, can be traced
back to ancient philosophical thinkers. Marcus Tullius Cicero, in particular, was the first
known person to create a questionnaire for the mentally ill-using biographical
information to determine the best course of psychological treatment and care.
Some of the first known psychiatric care centers were constructed in the Middle East
during the 8th century. The medieval Muslim physicians and their attendants relied on
clinical observations for diagnosis and treatment.
In 13th century medieval Europe, psychiatric hospitals were built to house the mentally
ill; however, there were not any nurses to care for them and treatment was rarely
50
provided. These facilities functioned more as a housing unit for the insane. Throughout
the highpoint of Christianity in Europe, hospitals for the mentally ill believed in using
religious intervention. The insane were partnered with “soul friends” to help them
reconnect with society. Today, these soul friends are seen as the first modern psychiatric
nurses.
In the colonial era of the United States, some settlers adapted community health nursing
practices. Individuals with mental defects that were deemed as dangerous were
incarcerated. Wealthier colonists kept their insane relatives either in their attics or cellars
and hired attendants, or nurses, to care for them. Others were forced to leave town.
Because of the expansion of the population in the colonies, informal care for the
community failed and small institutions were established. In 1752 the first “lunatics
ward” was opened at the Pennsylvania Hospital which attempted to treat the mentally
ill. Overall, the attendants caring for the patients believed in treating the institutionalized
with respect. They believed if the patients were treated as reasonable people, then they
would act as such; if they gave them confidence, then patients would rarely abuse it.
The formal recognition of psychiatry as a modern and legitimate profession occurred in
1808. In Europe, one of the major advocates for mental health nursing to help
psychiatristswas Dr.William Ellis. Heproposedgivingthe“keepers oftheinsane” better
pay and training, consequently more respectable, intelligent people would be attracted
to the profession. In his 1836 publication of Treatise on Insanity, he openly stated that
an established nursing practice calmed depressed patients and gave hope to the
hopeless. Nevertheless, psychiatric nursing was not formalized in the United States until
1882 when Linda Richards opened Boston City College. This was the first school
specifically designed to train nurses in psychiatric care. The discrepancy between the
founding of psychiatry and the recognition of trained nurses in the field is largely
attributed to the attitudes in the 19th century which opposed training women to work
in the medical field.
In 1913 Johns Hopkins University was the first college of nursing in the United States
to offer psychiatric nursing as part of its general curriculum. The first psychiatric nursing
textbook, Nursing Mental Diseases by Harriet Bailey, was not published until 1920. It
51
was not until 1950 when the National League for Nursing required all nursing schools
to include a clinical experience in psychiatry to receive national accreditation.
The first psychiatric nurses faced difficult working conditions. Overcrowding, under-
staffing and poor resources required the continuance of custodial care. They were
pressured by an increasing patient population that rose dramatically by the end of the
19th century. As a result, labor organizations formed to fight for better pay and fewer
hours. Additionally, large asylums were founded to hold the large number of mentally ill.
In 1963, President John F. Kennedy accelerated the trend towards deinstitutionalization
with the Community Mental Health Act. Moreover, since psychiatric drugs were
becoming more available allowing patients to live on their own and the asylums were
too expensive, institutions began shutting down. Nursing care thus became more
intimate and holistic in nature. The first developed standard of care was created by the
psychiatric division of the American Nurses Association (ANA) in 1973. This standard
outlined the responsibilities and expected quality of care of nurses.
The current challenge facing mental health nurses in the new millennia are the
psychiatric illnesses corresponding with the social problems of the time.
#5
History of Critical Care Nursing
Although there have always been very ill and severely injured patients, the concept of
critical care is relatively modern. As advances have been made in medicine and
technology, patient care has become more complex. To provide appropriate care, nurses
needed specialized knowledge and skills, and the care delivery mechanisms needed to
evolve to support the patients' needs for continuous monitoring and treatment. The first
intensive care units emerged inthe 1950s to provide care to very ill patients who needed
one-to-one care from a nurse. From this environment the specialty of critical care
nursing emerged.
Future of Critical Care Nursing
Rapid advances in healthcare and technology have contributed to keeping more people
out of the hospital. However, patients in critical care units are more ill than ever. Many
patients are now being cared for on medical floors or at home. It has been proposed that
52
hospitals of the future will be large critical care units, and other types of care will be
provided in alternative locations or at home. Critical care nurses will need to keep pace
with the latest information and develop skills to manage new treatment methods and
technologies. As issues relating to patient care become increasingly complex and new
technologies and treatments are introduced, critical care nurses will need to become
ever more knowledgeable.
#6
A dislocation is an injury in which the ends of your bones are forced from their normal
positions. The cause is usually trauma, such as a blow or fall, but dislocation can be
caused by an underlying disease, which may be rheumatoid arthritis.
Dislocations are common injuries in contact sports, such as football and hockey, and in
sports that may involve falls, such as downhill skiing and volleyball. Dislocations may
occur in major joints, such asyour shoulder, hip, knee, elbow or ankle or in smaller joints,
such as your finger, thumb or toe.
The injury will temporarily deform and immobilize your joint and may result in sudden
and severe pain and swelling. A dislocation requires medical attention on the part of a
professional who will return your bones to their proper positions.
If you believe you have dislocated a joint:
1. Don't delay medical care. Medical help offered when you have this problem is
essential.
2. Don't move the joint. Until you receive help, splint the affected joint into its fixed
position. Don't try to move a dislocated joint or force it back into place. This can
damage the joint and its surrounding muscles, ligaments, nerves or blood
vessels.
3. Put ice on the injured joint. This can help reduce swelling by controlling internal
bleeding and the buildup of fluids in and around the injured joint.
53
#7
While many journalists are unaware of the exact wording of the codes and may struggle
to recite the precise elements of their national, international or even enterprise code, the
cardinal principles which underpin ethical journalism work are well understood. They are
instantly recognizable to media staff around the world as a shared and common basis
for editorial work. These fundamental values are:

• Accuracy and fact-based communications Journalists cannot always guarantee
‘truth’, but getting the facts right is the cardinal principle of journalism. Journalists
should alwaysstrivefor accuracy, givealltherelevantfactsand ensurethatthey
have been checked.

• Independence Journalists must be independent voices; they should not act,
formally or informally, on behalf of special interests whether political, corporate
or cultural. They should declare to their editors – or directly to the audience – any
relevant information about political affiliations, financial arrangements or other
personal connections that might constitute a conflict of interest.

• Fairness and Impartiality Most stories have at least two sides. While there is no
obligation to present every side in every piece, the stories produced by journalists
should strivefor balance and provide context. Objectivity is not always possible,
and may not always be desirable (in the face, for example, of clear and
undeniable brutality or inhumanity), but impartial reporting builds trust and
confidence.
• Humanity Journalists should do no harm. They should show sensitivity and care
in their work recognising that what they publish or broadcast may be hurtful. It
is not possible to report freely and in the public interest without occasionally
causing hurt and offence, but journalists should always be aware of the impact
of words and images on the lives of others. This is particularly important when
reporting onminorities, children, the victims ofviolence, and vulnerable people.

• Accountability and Transparency A key principle of responsible journalism is
the ability to be accountable. Journalists should always be open and transparent
in their work except in the most extraordinary of circumstances. When they make
54
mistakes they must correct them and expressions of regret must be sincere. They
listen to their audience and provide remedies to those dealt with unfairly.
Although these ethics are generally well understood inside journalism, to be
useful they have to be applied in the real world of reporting. Most news media
provide detailed advice to their editors, reporters and production staff to illustrate
how they work in practice. This advice comes in the form of “style guides,” or
occasional instructions, or through detailed editorial and production guidelines.
#8
Our world is changing, and in order to prepare our children for this new world we need
to change the way we educate them. In the 21st century educators must create a
curriculum that will help students connect with the world and understand the issues that
our world faces.
Schoolsinthe21st centurywillbecomenervecenters,aplaceforteachers andstudents
to connect with those around them and their community. Teachers in this new
environment will become less instructors and more orchestrators of information, giving
children the ability to turn knowledge into wisdom.
In order to educate in the 21st century, teachers and administrators need to cultivate
and maintain the student's interest in the material by showing how this knowledge
applies in the real world. They must also try to increase their student's curiosity, which
will help them become lifelong learners. Next they should be flexible with how they
teach and give learners the resources to continue learning outside of school.
Therearemanyskillsthatchildren will needin orderto besuccessful inthe21st century.
Here are a few of the most important 21st century skills:
• Ability to collaborate, work in teams
• Critical thinking skills
• Oral presentation skills
• Written communication skills
• Ability to use technology
• Willingness to examine civic and global issues
• Ability to conduct research to learn about issues and concepts
55
• Chance to learn about new career opportunities
In the ideal 21st century classroom, kids are actually excited about going to school, and
there are little or no discipline problems because everyone is eager to learn. In this type
of classroom activities and lessons are related to the community, whether local or global.
Students collaborate with people from different schools and different countries to learn
about issues that affect us all, as well as how we can solve them today and in the future.
The curriculum in the classroom is designed to incorporate many skills and intelligence
levels, and makes use of technology and multimedia. The lessons are not based on
textbooks, instead they are project based. Skills and content are learned through their
research and projects, and textbooks are provided as one of many possible resources.
A new addition to 21st century curriculum is the study of green education and
environmentalissues.Kidsaretaught awareness oftheir world andreal expertssuch as
scientist and politicians are brought in to answer student's questions.
New schools in the 21st century will be bright and spacious, and kids will have room for
group projects and individual assignments. Walls will be hung with student work, and
there will be places for students to put on performances for their parents and members
of the community. Students have full access to technology and, if possible, every student
will have a laptop.
Withintheschool therewillbelabs andlearningcenters, aswell asstudiosfor art,music,
theatre, and so on. Each classroom will be equipped with atelevision so that all students
can watch school productions and other school presentations.
While it may take some time before schools and teachers are equipped to properly
educate in the 21st century once they are the results will be dramatic. Children will be
engaged and eager tolearn. Infact, theywill carry onlearning at home and over holidays,
and they will have the resources they need to keep learning no matter where they are.
This ability to foster a love of learning is truly the role of education in the 21st century.
56
#9
The new century introduced significant changes in didactics and teaching methods.
Pedagogy of the twentieth century differs from the pedagogy of the twenty-first
century. Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, there have been many changes
in the development of national and world education. The most observable phenomenon
is now the Internetization of society and the penetration of digital technologies into
learning. The modern generation of schoolboys is known by the name digital, socially
digital and generation Z. Knowledge is the transition from acquiring knowledge through
reading, from the teacher’s monolog to visual perception, or discussion in the classroom.
Digital technologies change our way of life, ways of communication, way of thinking,
feelings, channels of influence on other people, social skills, and social behavior. As
Myamesheva states, “the high-tech environment - computers, smart phones, video
games, Internet search engines - reshape the human brain”.
The theoretical changes in didactics and pedagogy lie behind the most obvious
tendency. Pedagogy in the domestic science was redefined from the “science of
upbringing, teaching and learning” to the “science of upbringing and education.” The
subject of the twentieth century pedagogy was “upbringing”. Tagunova et al. write:
“Upbringing in the broad pedagogical sense is a purposeful influence of the society to
prepare the younger generation for life. Upbringing in the narrow pedagogical sense is
a purposeful influence on the development of specific personal qualities…”. The subject
of the twenty-first century pedagogy—the category “education”—has expanded the
scope of meaning and understanding. Competence and personal-oriented approaches
have been introduced.
#10
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ON GRAPHIC DESIGN:
REFLECTIONS ON PEDAGOGY
Information and communication technologies (ICT) have influenced the teaching and
learning of graphic design. The introduction of ICT has also brought in some challenges
as far as the pedagogy is concerned, as it requires relearning, training and upgrading.
57
Ironically, the pedagogy of graphic design education being championed in a university
in a developing country, and seen as an adaptation of the Bauhaus theory, seems to be
at variance with current practices in both the profession and in its education. This article
analyses the trend of graphic design practices and how design students are using ICT,
as a way of considering the paradigm shift resulting from the introduction of ICT. This is
done as a way of considering the paradigm shift resulting from the introduction of ICT
in the curriculum. It examines the contribution and the adaptation of Innovation
Education (IE) to educational theories in the context of ICT and graphic design education.
It also analyses how students undertake idea development in graphic design with ICT.
The study agrees that current ICT practices call for a review of pedagogy that allows
students to develop ideas digitally. It concludes by calling for an exploration of current
ICT practices in graphic design education, especially in issues of ideation and pedagogy.
ICT is encouraging graphic design students to be more innovative in their approach to
design development. The argument of ICT as a tool or subject in graphic design will be
settled when educators adopt the IE approach in design education. According to Page
et al., creativity and problem solving are not only intrinsic to design education but also
to technology education. Pedagogically, ICT in graphic design should not be an
exception especially when it comes to ideation process in design. Technological
developments are also taking place in the developing countries and there is the need to
also look at what is happening in the educational world of the developing economies.
#11
Graphic designers plan, develop and produce material in printed or electronic format for
clients. They may specialize in design for marketing communications, digital media,
corporate identity, publishing or packaging. Designers use a range of communication,
creative, project management and teamworking skills. They also need good computer
skills and knowledge of graphic design software.
Designers meet clients to discuss their requirements. They ask questions to establish
the client’s communication needs, the budget and time frame for the project and make
recommendations on the scope of the project. In larger design firms, or in advertising
58
agencies, designers may not deal directly with clients. Instead, they take the brief from
an account manager responsible for contact with clients.
Using the information in the brief, designers prepare initial concepts to show the client
howtheyplantoapproachtheproject.Theconceptscantaketheformofvisuals, written
proposals or a combination of visual and written proposals. The proposals include a
preliminary estimate of costs and a schedule for taking the project forward.
When the client has approved the initial proposals, the designer prepares detailed
designs and specifications for the project. For brochures, for example, designers prepare
layouts for each page, indicating the amount of text and the size and type of
photographs, illustrations or diagrams. They also prepare a specification for the
brochure so that printers, photographers and copywriters can provide detailed
estimates for their parts of the job.
Progress Meetings
Designers arrange meetings with clients or account managers to discuss progress on
projects and obtain approval before moving to the next stage. They hold meetings when
they have completed detailed design, made any major changes to the design, finished
the artwork, and received proofs before printing. They must also advise clients of any
increase or reduction in costs resulting from changes to the design or specification.
Project Management
A number of other professionals may be involved in a design project, including
photographers, copywriters, printers, exhibition contractors and web developers.
Designers coordinate the work of the professionals to ensure they meet the
requirements of the brief and deliver their work on time and on budget. They provide
the professionals with a brief, a schedule and a purchase order relating to their specific
roles.
Production
Designers complete projects by producing digital artwork or briefing a specialist in the
studio, such as a finished artist or web developer. If the project is to be printed, they
prepare any prepress material and check proofs before the final print run. They then
collate all project costs to prepare a final invoice for the client.
59
#12
While TV commercial spending continues to decline, connected TV ad spending will
increase. That increase is largely driven by a significant consumer trend away from
traditional cable with cord-cutting and embracing a combination of the many streaming
content providers on the market these days.
Connected TV (CTV) is the provision of streaming television-type content to consumers
by these providers over an internet connection, as opposed to the traditional
satellite/cable providers that have dominated the market for the last few decades.
Advertising on CTV content will continue to be a competitive and effective way to reach
a broad variety of demographics.
The next challenge for advertisers will be understanding how CTV advertising works
and implementing it strategically into the brand’s overall strategy.
Native Advertising
Consumers continue to become more knowledgeable and sophisticated purchasers.
They also continue to become more resistant to hard-hitting “salesy” advertisements, in
all formats and media. That makes the advertising brand’s job even harder. How do you
break through those walls and reach your prospects with the information they need to
make a purchase from your brand?
Nativeadvertising helps softentheresistanceby providingtruly helpful content inaway
that is useful and engaging to the user. For most brands selling physical products, this
is especially useful, especially with video formats. Video is the most engaging form for
content that allows for compelling storytelling, which boosts conversion rates and helps
speed up the customer’s buying process/journey and gets them to a sale more
efficiently.
According to eMarketer, ad spending on video will increase up to fifty percent. While
the top choices will be mobile and social media video ads, you can integrate video and
native advertising with some strategic planning.
That’s the challenge: Figure out creative ways to tie your products into useful “how-to”
video and written content. Don’t skimp on the creative aspects, however.
60
Artificial intelligence and Machine Learning
Artificial intelligence, or AI, is considered transformative tech, in pretty much any context
youcanimagine. However, indigital advertising, we’rejust beginning toseethepromise
and broader adoption of AI as we head into 2019. New uses will include detecting and
cutting down on CPC ad fraud as well as bleeding-edge targeting solutions.
AI also powers chatbots, which (when implemented correctly) help keep customer
service levels high while keeping costs down. Today’s chatbots offer a higher degree of
relatability through enhanced data capabilities, programmable personalities, and even a
sense of humor. Human beings generally don’t mind interacting with a bot, but for the
best results, the ‘bot needs to be personable. You can integrate a chatbot with your
company’s website or app, or with a social media network (such as Facebook through
the Messenger app).
AItechnology alsohelpsimproveadtargetingtodeliverthebestmessagetothespecific
audience you want to reach, in just the right “place.” AI helps customize your message,
as well, meaning you reach them at the right time, too, as part of a responsive ad
campaign. Major retail companies can combine a deep dive into consumer data with AI-
based services that produce truly precise information about their customers.
Your challenge will be understanding the ways you can use new or evolving AI and
machine learning-based solutions to help improve your current marketing and
advertising mix.
#13
Ergonomics is defined as the study of the design of a workplace, equipment, machine,
tool, product, environment, and system which takes into consideration human being's
physical, physiological, biomechanical, and psychological capabilities and optimizes the
effectiveness and productivity of work systems while assuring the safety, health, and
wellbeing of the workers (Fernandez and Marley, 1998). In general, the goal of
ergonomics is to fit the task to the individual, not the individual to the task. An
ergonomist evaluates the demands of a specific task with reference to the capacity of
workers to perform ill the task over a certain time period. When developing a particular
job design, the demands of the task would ideally be held within the capacity of a fixed
61
percentage of the working population (so that 75 to 95 per cent of the population is
accommodated). When the task demands of an existing job are such that it is beyond
the capacity of this predetellllined percentage of the population, then the work,
procedures, and/or work tools should be redesigned in order to accommodate the
predetermined percentage of the working population. If the accommodated percentage
is unacceptable (e.g., below 75 per cent) and redesign is not possible, then the final
alternative is to place workers so that only those whose capacity exceeds the task
demands are allowed to perform the task (Fernandez and Marley, 1998). The application
of ergonomic principles in the workplace can result in the following: • Increased
productivity, • Improved health and safety of workers; • Lower workers' compensation
claims; • Compliance with government regulations such as Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) standards; • Improved job satisfaction; • Increased work
quality; • Lower worker turnover; • Lower lost time at work; • Improved morale of
workers; • Decreased absenteeism rate Since the focus of ergonomics is on people, it is
often convenient to think of ergonomic-related problems by the type of body system,
which is affected. The musculoskeletal system is one example. The physical demands of
many jobs make the musculoskeletal system highly vulnerable to a variety of
occupational injuries and illnesses. There are two main types of musculoskeletal 229
injury: disorders associated with manual materials handling (MMH) and cumulative
trauma disorders (CTDs). This article discusses key ergonomic issues such as
anthropometry, seat design, workplace principles, manual materials handling, and
cumulative trauma disorders. These important issues need to be understood and applied
if the objective is to reduce work-related injuries, improve productivity, and improve the
quality of life of the workers.
#14
Neonatal Jaundice is the most common problem that can occur in over half of full term
and most premature infants.All infants and especially preterm infants have higher rates
of bilirubin production than adults because they have red cells with a higher turnover,
shorter life span, and a larger early labeled bilirubin peak. Moreover, in newborn infants,
unconjugated bilirubin is not readily excreted, and the ability to conjugate bilirubin is also
62
limited. The risk for toxicity and acute encephalopathy progressively increases with a
rise in serum bilirubin.
Recently due to the upcoming trend of early discharges it is seen that these newborns
are at increased risk for hospital readmission for jaundice. Many neonates return with
values as high as requiring exchange transfusions because they are not followed up
adequately. Hence, this study was designed to study the association between 1st day
transcutaneous bilirubin (TcB) and subsequent significant neonatal hyperbilirubinemia
(NNH) and to use it as a predictor for the same.
Jaundice is observed during the 1st week of life in approximately 60% of term infants
and 80% of preterm infants. NNH is one of the most common causes for readmission of
the newborns.
Infants discharged in the first 2 days after birth are more likely to be readmitted to the
hospital for jaundice compared with infants who have a longer postnatal hospital stay,
particularly infants born “early term” at 37 and 38 weeks' gestation. In addition to
hyperbilirubinemia, other health issues related to early discharge have been identified.
Significant hyperbilirubinemia in neonates can be predicted on the basis of predischarge
TSB being plotted on the nomogram developed by Bhutani et al. However, the
estimation of TSB levels is an invasive, risky, painful, and time-consuming procedure.
On the other hand, recently introduced TcB measuring devices have been seen to be
quite precise and time-saving for estimating bilirubin concentrations in neonates. TcB
measurements are now being used with increasing frequency in the screening of
newborn infants for significant hyperbilirubinemia despite TSB being the ultimate
investigation of choice.
In the present study, we have determined a cutoff value of 8 mg/dl for the prediction of
significant NNH at 24 h of life. A high serum bilirubin level at 24 h of life, has also
predicted a high peak subsequently on day 3 of life. By demonstrating a significant
difference in the 1st day serum bilirubin values of infants who subsequently did and
those who did not develop significant hyperbilirubinemia, the present study has proved
63
the usefulness of the test. Area under the curve was 0.95. This is an excellent value to
calculate accuracy of 24 h TCB to predict significant hyperbilirubinemia at 72 h.
At 72 h, in a hyperbilirubinemic infant, the possibility that TcB at 24 h was >8 mg/dl, i.e.,
sensitivityisof79.71%, whilegivenanonhyperbilirubinemic baby,thepossibilityofTcB
<8 mg/dl, i.e. specificity is of 96.41%, positive predictive value, i.e., the possibility of a
neonate developing significant NNH if TcB >8 mg/dl was 90.16%, negative predictive
value, i.e., possibility of not developing hyperbilirubinemia when TcB is <8 mg/dl is of
92.00%, and a diagnostic accuracy is of 91.50% for detecting subsequent NNH at 72 h.
#15
Every worker should play a role in housekeeping, even if that means keeping his or her
own workspace clean. Housekeeping should be an ongoing process, not a one-time
practice.
To some people, the word “housekeeping” calls to mind cleaning floors and surfaces,
removing dust, and organizing clutter. But in a work setting, it means much more.
Housekeeping is crucial to safe workplaces. It can help prevent injuries and improve
productivity and morale, as well as make a good first impression on visitors. It also can
help an employer avoid potential fines for non-compliance.
The practice extends from traditional offices to industrial workplaces, including factories,
warehouses and manufacturing plants that present special challenges such as
hazardous materials, combustible dust and other flammables. Experts agree that all
workplace safety programs should incorporate housekeeping, and every worker should
play a part. In addition, housekeeping should have management’s commitment, so
workers realize its importance. Slips and falls were the second leading cause of nonfatal
occupational injuries or illnesses involving days away from work in 2013, according to
data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
OSHA’s Standard states that all workplaces should be “kept clean and orderly and in a
sanitary condition.” The rule includes passageways, storerooms and service rooms.
64
Floors should be clean and dry. Drainage should be present where “wet processes are
used.”
Employers should select adequate flooring (e.g., cement, ceramic tile or another
material), as different typesofflooring hold up better under certain conditions, said Fred
Norton, technical director of ergonomics and manufacturing technology for Risk Control
Services. Then, develop and implement housekeeping procedures using appropriate
cleaners.
“Things like oils and grease – if you don’t use the right kind of cleaning protocols, you’ll
just spread slipperiness around rather than getting it up and off the floor,” Norton said.
#16
As most innovations, technology in medicine can be both a blessing and a curse. In
medical school, devices like smartphones and ipads can enhance the medical school
experience while also serving as a distraction from learning. In a hospital, technology
can offer efficiency and more treatment options, while also impersonalizing the doctor-
patient relationship.
As quoted in Modern Health, “technology is critical in the evolution of health care, but
using it effectively is a balancing act between preserving the doctor-patient relationship
and ensuring patients receive cost-effective and convenient care.”
So how can we benefit from technology in medicine without being mastered by it?
Simply being aware of how it affects us for better or worse is a good place to start.
Technology in medical school
With the rise of the information age and popularity of personal devices, learning is now
more accessible than ever before. Teachers write on digital smartboards during lectures,
students take notes on digital tablets, and practice tests are available on the go via
smartphones. While the benefits of technology cannot be denied, there are also serious
learning implications to be aware of.
For example, recent studies show that those who multitask or are distracted by multi-
taskers performed worse on exams. Cell phones in particular seem to be a big hindrance
to learning in class—even for those using them for note-taking. In fact, it was revealed
65
that students on their phones caught 62% less of the information given in class than
their peers using pen and paper.
Training in telemedicine
One of the biggest technological changes in health care delivery is telemedicine. Nearly
all schools are beginning to train their students in this practice, and well over 64% of
patients are open to the idea of meeting with a doctor via video. In fact, a vast majority
of patients are expressing a preference for a more convenient, remote option of health
care. It is important for every medical student and physician to be aware of this trend
and put it into practice.
On one hand, telemedicine offers benefits like more direct and immediate access, lower
health care costs, and wider range of physicians to choose from. On the other
hand, more technical training and equipment are needed, and there is less continuity of
care—as well as tricky payment policies to sort out on both ends.
Though limitations still exist, the ultimate goal of telemedicine is to enhance patients’
health care needs.
Rise of digital empathy
So what can be done to find a balance? At the core of technological advancement is the
acknowledgement that optimal care involves treating the entire person—not just the
physical ailment. So the only way the benefits of technology in medicine will outweigh
thelimitations isif it serves to uphold a central quality of the physician—empathy.
This is a hard enough skill to master on its own, and that challenge can be exacerbated
when there is a piece of machinery in the mix. Thus, a recent phenomenon called “digital
empathy” is beginning to grow in popularity both in medical school curricula and on the
job. While developing emphatic skills is a good place to start, digital communication
requires extra consideration and training since non-verbals such as eye contact and
body language are often lost on these devices.
There is still much to be learned on how to make technology in medicine enhance our
humanity rather than restrict it, but the most encouraging thing is the desire to improve
ourselves and our care of others any way we can.
66
#17
Despite recent innovations in ad-tech, advertisers remain frustrated with their ability to
reach the right consumers, at the right time, with the right offers.
To make matters worse, advertisers face an ever-shrinking window to capture
consumers’ attention when the average digital ad is viewed for just 1.7 seconds. While
these challenges may seem unsurmountable, there is a silver lining on the horizon. New
advances in intelligent media delivery—including improvements in data accuracy,
personalization, optimization and measurement—have the potential to make advertising
more effective than ever before.
Here’s four solutions to help advertisers with some of their toughest challenges.
Challenge #1: Obtaining a full online-offline view of consumers.
Consumers shop online anywhere and anytime, and, because they have so many digital
devices, advertisers have an opportunity to fully understand consumer behavior by
looking at their cross-screen lives. This affords the promise of greater engagement
based on more relevant advertising.
Unfortunately, deciphering online-offline consumer behavior isn’t feasible for the
majority of advertisers today. Too many use targeting that isn’t based on real-world,
comprehensive views of consumers. Worse, many overly rely on incomplete consumer
profiles restricted to over-used cookie pools, retargeting profiles and syndicated data.
Solution#1: Data and platforms that reach and activate consumers across all channels.
In particular, work to capture the following key consumer data points:
• Location Data: A consumer’s location and information about who they are and
what they’re interested in, is a high priority for progressive advertisers. However,
when a premium is paid for location data, fraud instances tend to spike.
Advertisers should pick a highly flexible technology platform that can ingest
massive amounts of data from multiple data sources and determine which data
to keep and/or filter out, all while focusing on driving impact and providing real-
time optimization of advertising campaigns.
• Personalization: Tailoring messaging, channels and timing to the unique needs
and preferences of each individual consumer must begin with an examination of
67
the campaign creative to confirm it’s based on signals (such as location) that
indicate status.
• Customer Graphs: Building a view of the consumer that can update in real-time
is an essential first step in establishing a long-term understanding of customers.
This profile can then influence campaign activation by filtering down to the
optimal channel for each individual. Customer graphs can also be leveraged to
track and measure the success of ad campaigns by displaying true, in-store
impact, without relying on traditional, empty online advertising metrics.
Challenge #2: Meaningfully engage consumers to propel them to purchase.
With consumers today seeing anywhere between 4,000 and 10,000 advertisements
each day, breaking through requires advertisers to reach consumers in the ways they
prefer. They also need to be able to fulfill consumer demand at any given moment, on
any given screen and at any given place, and activate consumers by getting them into a
store and inciting them to buy.
Solution #2: Intelligent media delivery that’s channel agnostic and flexible.
Media companies often have an inherent bias, focusing on an advertising channel that
serves them best. The brands that rely on those firms for their advertising efforts often
have disjointed campaigns (from the shopper’s point-of-view). Brands need media
companies to take into consideration the consumer’s overall behavior, their holistic path
to purchase, or how, when and where he/she prefers to receive brand messages and
offers.
Rather than taking a biased, channel-focused route, advertisers need media that’s
channel agnostic and flexible to how consumers engage. This will help advertisers:
• Understand where consumers are on the path to purchase
• Make a real connection with their audience at the right time
• Create delightful experiences for their buyers
• Deliver powerful brand messaging at scale across the channels that matter
Challenge #3: Understanding what’s moving consumers down the path to purchase.
Many advertising agencies are too focused on overall campaign measurement, rather
than analyzing what combination of channel, message and/or product is successfully
motivating a segment of consumers to act. Advertisers need to know not only how their
68
campaign performed, but how it’s contributing to brand success and how the parts of
each campaign (i.e. channels, messages, timing, product, etc.) are working.
Solution #3: Measurement and attribution that’s connected to the real world.
To determine what marketing levers and approaches are working (and which one’s
aren’t), brands need to expand their data sources to get a 360-degree view of the
customer journey. Specifically, they need to:
• Measure how ad spend moves the revenue needle. Engagement metrics such as
click-through rates won’t cut it. Brands need to understand real-world sales
impact—does the ad actually drive people to a store to purchase the product?
• Do something with the measurement data. It’s not enough to know that a
campaign resulted in sales. Advertisers need to analyze the data to understand
how their campaign can grow sales with the next campaign.
• Demonstrate the value of the company’s marketing efforts.Brands need to
assess foot traffic and sales spikes to understand what drives consumers to
stores. Not only can they then see what’s working, but they can share that value
with their retail partners.
#18
In general, the three pressures reporters face the most in covering any story are:
1. Time. Production quotas, explicit or implicit, mean getting a story posted quickly.
Competitive pressures are even worse, because there are no news cycles. A dozen or a
hundred or a thousand other news organizations may be preparing to publish the same
story right this second. None of the above helps accuracy, detail, context or due diligence
as to the reliability of sources.
2. Measurability. Until awards season in the spring, journalistic success is mainly
measured in clicks. This creates an environment where clickbait headlines, drama,
simple narratives, scandal, conventional wisdom and unfounded assumption can — and
often do — trump patience, perspective, caution, complexity, sensitivity, accuracy,
fairness, depth and basic newsworthiness. A grisly murder may have little impact on the
world except to the victim and his/her circles but will get attention while crucial (and
69
often corrupt) decisions are being made by public official with no journo-scrutiny
whatsoever.
3. Ignorance. It is really hard to address economic subjects, or scientific ones, or legal ones,
or statistical ones if you have no background in these disciplines. Good reporters ask
good questions and do their best to get it right, but you don’t know what you don’t
know.
#19
Despite its often dramatic results, investigative journalism receives relatively little
funding. How does changing revenue models affect investigative journalism?
Investigative journalism is routinely under attack and funding it has become a major
challenge. During better financial times for the media, we did not have to make a public
case for investigative reporting. But with news organizations increasingly using a variety
of funding models - nonprofits, crowdfunding, foundation funding, cooperatives,
government grants - it's imperative that we demonstrate that investigative journalism is
a public service. The materials that we are assembling (as part if the Investigative Impact
project) - the videos, interviews, data, the case studies - are there to help increase
support to investigative journalists worldwide.
Is there enough public interest in investigative journalism to sustain crowd funding
models? Are people willing to pay for such journalism?
Crowdfunding is still in its infancy and it has enormous potential. We will undoubtedly
see more of this. In a sense, crowdfunding has already helped sustain investigative
journalism nonprofits for more than 30 years. The more established US-based
nonprofits like the original Center for Investigative Reporting or Center for Public
Integrity have mailing lists with tens of thousands of people on them. In the old days we
used direct mail. We didn't call it crowdfunding back then, but in a sense that's what it
was. We've just updated the technology.
70
Still, there are plenty of challenges. Traditions of philanthropy and economic incentives
varywidely countrytocountry. Somenations, like theUS andUK, give sizabletax breaks
for donations to nonprofit groups, but others do not.
Crowdfunding is only one tool for generating revenue by investigative news
organizations.
Investigative journalism has an extraordinary range of impacts across society. We're at
the start of a golden era of collaboration among investigative journalists.
#20
The purpose of this systematic review is considered to assess the effectiveness of
various conservative physical therapy interventions in the management of Cervicogenic
Headaches. Hadwetomentiontheinterventionsassessed,wecouldconcludethatthey
included: cervical and/or upper thoracic manipulation in isolation, cervical sustained
natural apophyseal glides (SNAG) mobilization, cervical manipulation and mobilization,
and cervical manipulation and mobilization with exercise. Based on effect sizes, the
results have indicated that both cervical manipulation and mobilization, along with
exercise, were the most effective conservative interventions for decreasing cervicogenic
headaches intensity, frequency, and neck pain, which is consistent with the literature.
One interesting finding to be analyzed is the lack of variety in conservative physical
therapy treatment techniques. Though many other conservative treatment options are
available, such as modalities, traction, and deep tissue massage, no randomized
controlled trial has reported the use of these conservative interventions. Of the six trials
which were included in this body of literature, two had the same lead author with very
similar methodologies. Five of the six considered studies utilizing manipulation or
mobilization as the primary conservative intervention. Additionally, only one
study compared exercise only to a combination of exercise with mobilization and
manipulation. No other randomized controlled studies were found to use a combination
method of active strengthening with manual therapy.
71
#21
The future of surgery offers an amazing cooperation between humans and technology,
which could elevate the level of precision and efficiency of surgeries so high we have
never seen before.
Will we have Matrix-like small surgical robots? Will they pull in and out organs from
patients’ bodies?
The scene is not impossible. It looks like we have come a long way from ancient Egypt,
where doctors performed invasive surgeries as far back as 3,500 years ago. Only two
years ago, Nasa teamed up with American medical company Virtual Incision to develop
a robot that can be placed inside a patient’s body and then controlled remotely by a
surgeon.
That’s the reason why it is strongly believed that surgeons have to reconsider their
stance towards technology and the future of their profession.
Surgeons are at the top of the medical food chain. At least that’s the impression the
general audience gets from popular medical drama series and their own experiences.
No surprise there. Surgeons bear huge responsibilities: they might cause irreparable
damages and medical miracles with one incision on the patient’s body. No wonder that
with the rise of digital technologies, the Operating Rooms and surgeons are inundated
with new devices aiming at making the least cuts possible.
We need to deal with these new surgical technologies in order to make everyone
understood that they extend the capabilities of surgeons instead of replacing them.
As technological solutions find their way into their practice taking over part of their
repetitive tasks, I would advise them to rethink their stance. Treating patients with
empathy before and after surgery would ensure their services are irreplaceable also in
the age of robotics and artificial intelligence.
Here follow some technologies that will have a huge impact on thefuture of surgery.
1) Virtual reality
For the first time in the history of medicine, in April 2016 Shafi Ahmed cancer surgeon
performed an operation using a virtual reality camera at the Royal London hospital. It is
a mind-blowingly huge step for surgery. Everyone could participate in the operation in
real time through the Medical Realities websiteand the VR in OR app. No matter
72
whether a promising medical student from Cape Town, an interested journalist from
Seattle or a worried relative, everyone could follow through two 360 degree cameras
how the surgeon removed a cancerous tissue from the bowel of the patient.
This opens new horizons for medical education as well as for the training of surgeons.
VR could elevate the teaching and learning experience in medicine to a whole new level.
Today, only a few students can peek over the shoulder of the surgeon during an
operation. This way, it is challenging to learn the tricks of the trade. By using VR,
surgeons can stream operations globally and allow medical students to actually be there
in the OR using their VR goggles. The team of The Body VR is creating educational VR
content as well as simulations aiding the process of traditional medical education for
radiologists, surgeons, and physicians. I believe there will be more initiatives like that
very soon!
2) Augmented reality
As there is a lot of confusion around VR and AR, let me make it clear: AR differs in two
very important features from VR. The users of AR do not lose touch with reality, while
AR puts information into eyesight as fast as possible. With these distinctive features, it
has a huge potential in helping surgeons become more efficient at surgeries. Whether
they are conducting a minimally invasive procedure or locating a tumor in liver, AR
healthcare apps can help save lives and treat patients seamlessly.
As it could be expected, the AR market is buzzing. More and more players emerge in the
field. The complex image reconstructing technology basically empowers surgeons with
X-ray views – without any radiation exposure, in real time. The True 3D medical
visualization system of EchoPixel allows doctors to interact with patient-specific organs
and tissue in an open 3D space. It enables doctors toimmediately identify, evaluate, and
dissect clinically significant structures.
3) Surgical robotics
Surgical robots are the prodigies of surgery. According to market analysis, the industry
is about to boom. By 2020, surgical robotics sales are expected to almost double to $6.4
billion.
The most commonly known surgical robot is the da Vinci Surgical System; and believe
it or not, it was introduced already 15 years ago! It features a magnified 3D high-
73
definition vision system and tiny wristed instruments that bend and rotate far greater
than the human hand. With the da Vinci Surgical System, surgeons operate through just
a few small incisions. The surgeon is 100% in control of the robotic system at all times;
and he or she is able to carry out more precise operations than previously thought
possible.
Recently, Google has announced that it started working with the pharma giant
Johnson&Johnson in creating a new surgical robot system. I’m excited to see the
outcome of the cooperation soon. They are not the only competitors, though. With their
AXSIS robot, Cambridge Consultants aim to overcome the limitations of the da Vinci,
such as its large size and inability to work with highly detailed and fragile tissues. Their
robot rather relies on flexible components and tiny, worm-like arms. The developers
believe it can be used later in ophthalmology, e.g. in cataract surgery.
4) Minimally Invasive Surgery
Throughout the history of surgery, the ultimate goal of medical professionals was to
peak into the workings of the human body and to improve it with as small incisions and
excisions as possible. By the end of the 18th century, after Edison produced his
lightbulb, a Glasgow physician built a tiny bulb into a tube to be able to look around
inside the body.
But it wasn’t until the second half of the 20th century when fiber-optic threads brought
brighter light into the caverns ofthe body. And later, tiny computer chip cameras started
sending images back out. At last, doctors could not only clearly see inside a person’s
body without making a long incision, but could use tiny tools to perform surgery inside.
One of the techniques revolutionizing surgery was the introduction of laparoscopes.
The medical device start-up, Levita aims to refine such procedures with its Magnetic
Surgical System. It is an innovative technological platform utilizing magnetic retraction
designed to grasp and retract the gallbladder during a laparoscopic surgery.
The FlexDex company introduced a new control mechanism for minimally invasive tools.
It transmits movement from the wrist of the surgeon to the joint of the instrument
entirely mechanically and it costs significantly less than surgical robots.
74
5) 3D Printing and simulations in pre-operative planning and education
Complicated and risky surgeries lasting hours need a lot of careful planning. Existing
technologiessuchas3Dprintingorvarioussimulationtechniqueshelpalotinreforming
medical practice and learning methods as well as modelling and planning successfully
complex surgical procedures.
In March 2016 in China, a team of experienced doctors decided to build a full-sized

model of the heart of a small baby born with a heart defect. Their aim was to pre-plan
an extremely complicated surgery on the tiny heart. This was the first time someone
used this method in China. The team of medical professionals successfully completed
the surgery. The little boy survived with little to no lasting ill-effects.
In December 2016, in the United Arab Emirates doctors have used 3D printing
technology for the first time to help safely remove a cancerous tumour from a 42-year-
old woman’s kidney. With the help of the personalized, 3D printed aid the team was
able to carefully plan the operation as well as to reduce the procedure by an entire hour!
The technology started to get a foothold also in medical education. To provide surgeons
and students with an alternative to a living human being to work on, a pair of physicians
at the University of Rochester Medical Center (URMC) have developed a way to use 3D
printing to create artificial organs. They look, feel, and even bleed like the real thing. Truly
amazing!
To widen the platform of available methods for effectively learning the tricks of the
trade, Touch Surgery developed a simulation system. It is basically an app for practicing
procedures ranging from heart surgery to carpal tunnel operations.
6) Live diagnostics
The intelligent surgical knife (iKnife) was developed by Zoltan Takats of Imperial College
London. It works by using an old technology where an electrical current heats tissue to
make incisions with minimal blood loss. With the iKnife, a mass spectrometer analyzes
the vaporized smoke to detect the chemicals in the biological sample. This means it can
identify whether the tissue is malignant real-time.
The technology is especially useful in detecting cancer in its early stages and thus
shifting cancer treatment towards prevention.
75
#22
A primary role of education is to equip people with the knowledge to make a positive
difference in society. Also, education helps instill values, attitudes and behaviors that
align with those expected in a society.
As technology and the culture changes, the role of education evolves. The core purpose
of education will always remain the same, which is to empower people with important
information and skills so they can be successful in the future, hopefully contributing to
bettering society. Education is a vital part of society and a community growing and
advancing in general. However, the methods of delivery for education has been
changing as has the role of the teacher and the traditional classroom. Although the
future of education remains to be seen, it's clear there are major changes in the way that
people are teaching and learning.
Teaches Critical Thinking
In modern times when the internet is readily available and bursting with information,
education, especially kindergarten through 12th grade, has a different role than it did
before. Rather than being a source of facts and information, teachers offer applied
learning as well as teaching critical thinking skills. When there's so much information
available, it's important to be able to have discernment.
Prepares People for Careers
Attending educational institutions is vital in learning the necessary information to be
successful in various fields. Also, there exist new and modern career fields that don't
require traditional educational paths. These include computer programming and website
development. For nontraditional education, students can attend boot camps that teach
critical skills for a fraction of the cost of a university education.
Engages People's Passions
With the advent of the Internet, anyone's passions are easier to learn about than in the
past. Whether it's learning how to paint or how to fix a vintage receiver, there are guides
and tutorials available. In addition, K-12 institutions offer extracurricular activities or
clubs that teach students new skills that can be very valuable as they get older and
pursue career options.
76
Provides a Better Life
Education prepares young people for the demands of work life and mitigates the risks
of poverty. Educated people also recognize the importance of social justice and
sustainability and are more apt to apply their knowledge and skills beyond their job roles.
Increased education plays a role in a person's social mobility and likelihood to remain in
good health.
Evolves with Technology
The way teachers teach and students learn is ever-changing. There's a need to foresee
new careers in the future and to prepare students for real jobs.
#23
Every workplace has hazards. As an employer, you have a legal responsibility to look
after your employees’ safety and protect them against health and safety hazards at
work.
In order to manage workplace health and safety and help prevent accidents and sickness
absence, it’s important to identify, monitor and reduce the risk associated with
workplace hazards.
What are workplace hazards?
Simply put, workplace hazards are any aspect of workthat cause health and safetyrisks
and have the potential to harm.
Some hazards are more likely to be present in some workplaces than others, and
depending on the work that you do, there will be hazards that are more or less relevant
to your business.
What are the most common workplace hazards?
There are many types of workplace hazards, which tend to come under four main
categories:
o physical hazards – the most common workplace hazards, including vibration,
noise and slips, trips and falls;
o ergonomic hazards – physical factors that harm the musculoskeletal system, such
as repetitive movement, manual handling and poor body positioning;
77
o chemical hazards – any hazardous substance that can cause harm to your
employees;
o biological hazards – bacteria and viruses that can cause health effects, such as
hepatitis, HIV/AIDS and Legionnaire’s disease.
Some of the most common health risks associated with workplace hazards include:
o breathing problems;
o skin irritation;
o damage to muscles, bones and joints;
o hearing damage;
o reduced wellbeing.
How to prevent workplace hazards
The best way to protect yourself and your employees from workplace hazards is to
identify and manage them and take reasonable steps to prevent their potential to harm.
In order to control workplace hazards and eliminate or reduce the risk, you should take
the following steps:
o identify the hazard by carrying out a workplace risk assessment;
o determine how employees might be at risk;
o evaluate the risks;
o record and review hazards at least annually, or earlier if
something changes.
#24
Early detection of pregnancy offers many advantages for the fetus andthe mother. Many
medical benefits depend on early detection, including social and emotional well-being
and the avoidance of medications, irradiation, and other teratogenics. In the past,
women became aware of their pregnancies only when the organogenesis of the fetus
was almost concluded.
Today, by means of beta-subunit human chorionic gonadotropin RIA tests, pregnancy
can be detected before the first day of the next expected menses. Early pelvic ultrasound
studies provide the ability to give the prognosis in those pregnancies as well.
78
Traditionally, pregnancy has been diagnosed on pelvic examination by uterine
enlargement, which becomes evident by the sixth week of gestation (when
menstruation has been late for only two weeks). Human pregnancy lasts an average of
40 weeks (+2 weeks) from the first day of the last normal menstruation. Organogenesis,
the development of embryonic organ systems and the period when the conceptus is
more susceptible to serious malformations, concludes by the eighth week. Often neither
the woman nor health professionals are aware of the pregnancy. Hence, women may
continue of beginthe use of such teratogenic agentsas irradiation, drugs, and vaccines.
Although elective diagnostic and therapeutic procedures that include anesthesia may be
postponed when it is known that the woman is pregnant, they can be managed with
special consideration for the embryo, despite the pregnancy, if necessary.
If elective radiological and gynecological procedures are performed only during the first
half of the menstrual cycle on a woman aged less than 51 years (the average age of
menopause), neither the woman nor her physician will be surprisedlater withthefinding
of an unknown pregnancy.' Even if the ethical and legal implications for treating and
consulting physicians are disregarded momentarily, if pregnancy is discovered on
examination of a hysterectomy specimen, or after bowel or bladder x-ray examination,
or when the patient delivers after a tubal sterilization procedure because a "luteal
pregnancy" was not recognized, the evidence of pregnancy can be deeply disappointing
for everyone involved. It may not be convenient for some physicians to perform elective
surgical or radiological procedures during the first half of the menstrual cycle and it may
not be convenient for the woman. Hence, a reliable pregnancy test that detects
pregnancy early should be used.'
The test must be very sensitive (able to detect the smallest amount of the substance,
avoiding false negative results) and very specific (minimal cross-reactivity or none at all,
avoiding false positives). The test must also be easy to perform, easily available, easily
reproducible, able to be performed in a relatively short time, and inexpensive. This article
presentstheevolutionofpregnancytestinguptothepresent anddescribes apregnancy
test that meets these requirements. The assistance provided by pelvic ultrasound
studies will also be mentioned.
79
#25
Dyspnoea, fatigue, reduced exercise tolerance, peripheral muscle dysfunction and mood
disorders are known to be common features of many current chronic respiratory
disorders. Pulmonary rehabilitation has successfully treated these manifestations in
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and emerging evidence suggests that
these benefits could be extended to other chronic respiratory conditions, although
adaptations to the standard programme format may be required.
Whilst the benefits of exercise training are well established in asthma, pulmonary
rehabilitation can also provide evidence-based interventions including breathing
techniques and self-management training. In interstitial lung disease, a small number of
trials has shown improved exercise capacity, symptoms and quality of life following
pulmonary rehabilitation, which is a positive development for patients having few
treatment options. If we had to assess exercise training in pulmonary arterial
hypertension, we could say that it wouldn’t be safe and effective unless patients were
stable on medical therapy and close supervision were provided. Pulmonary
rehabilitation for bronchiectasis, including exercise training and airway clearance
techniques, improves exercise capacity and quality of life. In non-small cell lung cancer,
a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach is required so as to ensure the success of
pulmonary rehabilitation following surgery. Pulmonary rehabilitation programmes
provide important and underutilised opportunities to improve the integrated care of
people suffering from chronic respiratory disorders other than COPD.
#26
Have you realized that you’re able to instantly identify a business by looking at its logo,
even if their name isn’t a part of the logo? Perhaps you’ve noticed that you can correctly
guess the nature of a business by looking at its logo for the first time, even if you’ve
never heard of the business before. Symbols are a succinct and efficient way of
communicating information about your business. A logo is an important part of your
company’s brand and makes a significant impact on a company’s public perception. In
fact, a logo is one of the most important branding investments a business can make.
80
Why is Logo Design Important?
A logo can be described as the face of a company. Quite often, it’s the first thing that a
potential customer will notice about your business. A logo is much more than just an
image; it is a point of recognition for clients and an important foundation for the branding
of your company. It is often said that customers form an opinion about a company within
seconds. A well-designed logo is an easy way to convey to potential customers that
your business is professional, trustworthy, and provides quality goods or services.
Factors to Consider
A logo should be distinctive enough to be easily recognized and simple enough to work
across multiple media. A good logo is memorable and makes a great first impression. It
should be effective at any size – whether it’s on a billboard or on a pen. A good logo
makes an impact both in colour and in black and white.
With logos, details are extremely important. Particular attention must be paid to every
element of the logo, including colours, shapes and fonts. All of these elements help to
convey a message about your brand. A gym may choose to use thick, bold fonts, while
a wedding planning agency may use fanciful, cursive fonts for their logo.
The visuals and imagery should be appropriate for your company to avoid any
discrepancies or confusion. All colours, shapes, images and fonts must be consistent
with the idea that is to be communicated. It’s very important that your logo delivers the
correct message about your company.
#27
There’s a news cycle that we have all become attuned to. It’s what has led various
publications to conclude that broccoli is both causing and preventing cancer, that
chocolate is a weight-loss food and a diet killer, and that diet soft drinks, against all
odds, are causing people to gain weight.
This is the world of nutritional epidemiology. And it is complex.
81
The dark truth about chocolate
Most recently we’ve been told that whole grains – the minimally-processed foods such
as rye bread that contain high levels of fibre – are the key to preventing diabetes.
And while there is no argument that whole grains are good for you, or at the very least
far better than the highly-processed alternatives, the claim that they prevent diabetes is
much harder tojustify.
Nutritional epidemiology is fascinating, but many people who comment on it do not
discuss the complexities of the situation.
Grains are good
The most recent study was a piece of epidemiological brilliance. The researchers took a
large sample of people who had given information on how many grains they ate, and
looked to see if grain intake was correlated with diabetes. They also controlled for a
number of factors, including age, gender, and socio-economic status, making their
results really quite good.
The study found that people who ate more whole grains, in particular rye bread, were
less likely to get diabetes. There was even what’s known as a biological gradient – the
more grains the study participants ate, the less likely they were to get diabetes.
If this sounds very convincing, that’s because it really was an excellent study.
But there are someimportant limitations that most peopledid not discuss andthat mean
that it may have very little relevance to your life at all.
The biggest issue with all nutritional epidemiology studies is something known as
residual confounding. Confounding is the process that occurs when issues external to a
study are not taken into account. So, for example, if you are studying the rate of deaths
caused by falling out of an airplane, but don’t know how many of your participants were
wearing parachutes, you might conclude that actually it’s pretty safe. The problem with
epidemiological trials like this isthat you can account for many factors but youjust can’t
account for everything.
The recent study on grains accounted for a lot of things, but ultimately there are likely
still residual issues that they just can’t address. The people in this study who ate more
grains were thinner, better-educated, more active, less likely to smoke, and other good
things, than the people who ate the least grains. It is extremely likely that there are
82
residual factors that the researchers could not take into account that may have caused
the people who ate the most grains to be healthier — and thus, less likely to have
diabetes — than the people who ate less grains.
There were other points in the study that make interpretation somewhat problematic.
For one thing, the absolute risk difference between the highest and lowest grain intake
groups was just 4%, which is much less than the relative difference reported on in most
media stories. This was also a study in Danish people over the age of 50, which means
that it’s very difficult to generalise the findings to people living elsewhere.
And sadly, this sort of complexity is common. Misinterpretation happens all the time.
#28
The world is changing rapidly and with it, the knowledge and skills - even the
dispositions and attitudes - that educational systems need to deliver. Where once the
focus of education was on the inculcation of knowledge, now it must reflect emerging
new priorities. Creativity, problem-solving, adaptability, complex decision-making,
innovation, collaboration, global awareness, digital literacy, communication, the ability
to be self-motivated, resilience, resourcefulness - even spiritual and moral ‘literacies’ -
are found in the curriculum aspirations of many countries. Yet in practice, education is
becoming more and more out of step with the wider world. As daily life is transformed
by the digital revolution; as business demands recruits with very different competencies
and as the world faces an unprecedented number of global threats, educational
practices continue much as before. This is largely because assessment practices act as
a barrier to educational change. If education systems are to respond effectively to
contemporary social, political, environmental and economic challenges, assessment
practices needto change. They will need to include evidence of achievement presented
in a diversity of formats and to recognise achievement across a much wider range of
knowledge and skills.
The methods of assessing students’ learning that have so far been developed are
surprisingly limited. Written examinations, multiple choice tests and oral examinations,
are almost the only tools that are trusted for use in any highly-competitive assessment
situation. Most new assessment tools such as the use of portfolios remain largely
83
confinedtojudgingwhether students havereached anappropriatestandardrather than
in highly-competitive testing situations. The potential of technology to support
transformations in assessment in a world already transformed by technology in the way
people communicate, do business and live their daily lives, educational assessment has
changed hardly at all. Inertia and tradition and the lack of new assessment tools are a
brake on change. While sophisticated digital learning platforms, multi-media
technologies and wireless communication are transforming what can be learned, when
and how, there is no similar transformation taking place in assessment thinking and
practice. Why is this? Already, emerging digital cultures are making possible greater
levels of ‘authorship, autonomy, collaboration and choice for students in the process of
learning’. Developments that exploit multiple forms of representation could enable
students to represent their learning in ways of their choice and to demonstrate, as never
before, their knowledge, skills, competences and dispositions. The tools that might be
used to support assessment in this area could include Web 2.0 technologies such as
wikis, blogs, there exist the following possibilities: The potential to elicit and evaluate
complex skills and practices; to provide immediate ‘real-time’, feedback and support for
collaborative learning. Assessing complex skills like problem-solving, decision making
and testing hypotheses, which are argued to be more authentic to future work
experiences. Providing richer activities that can lead to improved student engagement
and potentially improved student performance. A wider range of measurement using
complex data sets. These can measure authentically, multi-faceted skills, knowledge and
cognitive processes that are otherwise difficult to assess, improving the validity of
assessment. Increasing flexibility in the approach, format or timing of an assessment,
without time or location constraints.
#29
With increasing obesity rates and a nation addicted to unhealthy foods, there is an
obvious need to improve nutritional habits. Advancing technology has affected nearly
every aspect of our lives, and nutrition appears to be another area that is rapidly being
influenced by science. These exciting advances in technology are quickly changing and
improving the way we eat.
84
1. INCREASE IN FOOD SCANNERS
There are now a variety of food scanners on the market that can provide consumers
with important nutritional information regarding the food they eat. Tech Times describes
molecular sensors that can scan food to reveal a variety of important information. They
can read barcodes to list ingredients in a product or give the nutritional value of a specific
type of food.
While these scanners can currently only scan homogeneous food such as a piece of
chicken or a solid piece of cheese, scanners of the future may be able to scan more
complex types of food such as pizza or a sandwich. Eventually consumers may be able
to have scanners built into their phones that will scan items while they're shopping at
the grocery. The scanner would tell customers exactly what type of fish they're getting,
how long it has been frozen and if it contains any harmful chemicals.
2. MORE DELIVERY FOOD APPS
An incredible variety of apps have been created to help customers avoid long lines at
their favorite restaurants by ordering food online. A few apps have garnered a lot of
attention. Customers can order from the menu and have delicious food delivered to their
doorstep without even communicating directly with anyone from the restaurant. This
will enable busy individuals to eat healthy without spending a lot of time.
There are even apps for kids to help them understand the importance of nutrition at an
early age. There are apps that help children understand the connection between fitness
and food, and even an app for planning a healthy picnic. There are apps designed for
kids as young as two that help them recognize veggies and their nutritional benefits.
3. THE USE OF NANOPACKAGING
The Asia Pacific Food Industry cites several benefits of nanopackaging. A few include
preserving food and extending shelf-life. Specific types of nanopackaging can even
protect food from tampering and indicate the presence of contaminants. This can help
consumers not only save money by preventing spoilage but possibly even improve the
freshness and maintain the nutritional value of food.
4. ADVANCES IN AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
Good nutrition should start at the source, and that includes technological advances in
agricultural biotechnology. According to the balance, scientists are now creating foods
85
with increased nutritional value. An example of this type of modification includes what
is called Golden Rice. This specific type of rice contains beta-carotene, which enables
people eating the rice to produce more vitamin A in their bodies. Besides nutrient
supplementation, agricultural advances include genetically altered crops that can grow
in extreme drought or cold.
5. INCREASE IN FOOD TECH STARTUPS
There's currently a boom in food tech companies that provide everything from
connecting chefs with diners to helping consumers grow their own produce virtually
anywhere. Advancing technology will help grow high quality food, store and maintain it
for longer periods and then deliver it to the consumer's doorstep with the ease of an
app. These amazing advances in food and nutrition technology are likely just the
beginning of what we'll see in the near future.
#30
Why Did English Become Important?
English is one of the most used languages in the world.
Even outside of countries like the U.S. and the U.K., many people can speak and
understand English.
And if you include people who speak it as a second language, an estimated 1 billion
people worldwide speak English! On top of this, 67 countries have English as their
official language and there are 27 countries that have English as their secondary official
language. Because so many people can speak the language, it helps connect us in a
global world. It can also help you in your personal and professional life.
Below are the ways that knowing the language can help you as an English language
learner.
1. English Opens New Career Opportunities
First and foremost, learning English can help you pursue and obtain more career
opportunities. These days, the job market is global—many companies need employees
who can communicate with partners and clients all over the world. Very often, that
means finding employees who speak English.
86
Are you job hunting? Are you looking for a promotion within your company? Do you just
want to keep your professional options open? Learning English is an important step
forward to all of those goals.
The global job market has even created new positions for bilingual people. By learning
English, you could become a translator, a language teacher or an English marketing
professional for a global company.
No matter what career path you decide to pursue, learning English is a valuable skill. It’ll
help you become a better, more sought-after employee as well as a more well-rounded
person.
2. English Is the Top Language of the Internet
English is the most-used language online, with nearly 1 billion users typing and chatting
in the language. If you can understand and read English, you’ll be able to access and
enjoy many more resources online.
You can read online news articles. You can leave comments on an English video. You
can understand Tweets from English-speaking celebrities. You can participate in a
discussion on a forum. The possibilities are endless!
Obviously, this is helpful if you’re just using the internet to browse and have fun. But
many people and businesses also need to conduct research, market themselves or
communicate and develop connections online—English will be crucial for success.
Email is also now a very common way to talk with people all over the world. Email is the
primary way for many companies to communicate with customers or other
businesses. Being able to write emails or other correspondences in English is another
important asset for employers.
Whether it’s for fun or for work, if you can understand English, you’ll be able to
communicate with more people online or use many more materials.
3. Learning English Can Make You Smarter
On top of all of these benefits, learning a new language such as English helps your brain
function in new ways. Literally!
Research shows that learning a new language changes your brain structure (don’t
worry, it’s in a good way). It impacts the parts of your brain that are responsible for
87
memory, conscious thought and more. Put simply, learning a new language can make
your brain stronger and more versatile, improving the way you think.
Research also shows that bilingualism can keep the brain strong and healthy into old
age, and helps with memory, concentration and other skills.
88

Guia de Estudio Ingles Ii Lectocomprensión - 90504

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

Guia de Estudio Ingles Ii Lectocomprensión - 90504

Cargado por

Información del documento

Título original

Derechos de autor

Formatos disponibles

Compartir este documento

Compartir o incrustar documentos

Opciones para compartir

¿Le pareció útil este documento?

¿Este contenido es inapropiado?

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

Guia de Estudio Ingles Ii Lectocomprensión - 90504

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

U N IVE R S ID A D D E MO R Ó N IN GLÉS I I

NOMBRE DE LA ASIGNATURA: INGLÉS II CÓDIGO: 90504

CICLO LECTIVO: 2023 DURACIÓN: Cuatrimestral

El idioma inglés se ha convertido en una herramienta de creciente utilización en el campo

Estructura de la oración en inglés. Sustantivos. Pronombres. Adjetivos. Comparaciones. Tiempos

PROGRAMA ANALÍTICO DE CONTENIDOS:

En la enseñanza de la lectocomprensión en la lengua extranjera se abordará el método cognitivo-

Las estrategias didácticas empleadas para la adquisición de conocimientos teóricos, prácticos,

EVALUACIONES DEL APRENDIZAJE:

Régimen de Promoción por Exámenes Parciales.

Nº APELLIDO Y NOMBRE CARGO

103534 LAZZARINI, MARIA EUGENIA Asociado Extraordinario

108220 VELASCO, MARÍA PAZ Adjunto Interino

CRONOGRAMA DE CLASES, PARCIALES Y RECUPERATORIOS

Semanas TEMA OBSERVACIONES

02 Adjetivo: invariabilidad y características

04 La frase verbal: núcleo y auxiliares. Tiempos

05 Formación de palabras. Frases verbales. Área de

06 Verbos modales (can, may, must, might, could,

08 Tiempos perfectos. Contraste entre presente

13 Infinitivo de propósito. Oraciones condicionales

de texto y de la observación de las claves dadas por el contexto, mediante la aplicación

del sentido común.

Lo esencial es captar el sentido de las ideas expresadas en el idioma extranjero,

ayudándonos con el marco contextual, y reexpresarlas en el propio idioma.

teniendo en mente al lector, por lo que dicha traducción será comunicativa.

Por ejemplo, si la oración en inglés es:

The work on occupational safety was performed successfully.

La traducción podría ser:

Se realizó exitosamente el trabajo sobre seguridad laboral.

El trabajo sobre seguridad laboral resultó exitoso.

Ambas versiones comunican perfectamente al lector lo que está expresado en el original,

expresarse de la persona que realiza la traducción, ya que en ambos casos se respeta el

sentido y tanto el mensaje como el contenido de lo expresado en inglés coinciden

concepto fundamental del original, es preciso detenerse a reflexionar y a analizar las

formas corrientes de expresión de ideas en el idioma extranjero.

Oración: Conjunto de palabras que incluye al menos un verbo principal conjugado e

independiente y que encierra una idea completa

Párrafo: Conjunto de oraciones que tienen una idea central común.

Oración Subordinada (Cláusulas): Conjunto de palabras que contiene un verbo

función puede ser sustantiva, adjetiva o adverbial.

USO DEL DICCIONARIO

causas de mala comprensión al intentar abordar un texto en lengua extranjera.

La elección del diccionario adecuado es uno de los puntos fundamentales. Lo importante

Al iniciarse en el uso de un diccionario bilingüe es aconsejable:

sustantivo, adjetivo, verbo, etc.

• Asimismo, es diferente su significado según el área temática o la disciplina.

• La palabra debe tener sentido dentro del contexto de que se trate.

• Es imprescindible familiarizarse con las abreviaturas y formas de presentación de los

significados, según el diccionario que utilicemos.

• Subject + Verb + Object:

• Subject + Verb + Complement:

• Subject + Verb + Adverbial:

The publishing office is nearby.

• Subject + Verb + Object + Object:

The doctor gives the patient some pills.

Personal pronouns have a subject form, Subject forms

more possessive forms. Objective forms

ME, YOU, HIM, HER, IT, US, THEM