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Course: Social Sciences

Material No. 29
Subject Guide No. 12

SUMMARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY

(PREHISTORY, ANCIENT, MIDDLE, MODERN
AND 19TH CENTURY)

EXPECTED LEARNING
Students will be able to:
• Recognize important characteristics of the stages of development of prehistoric man.
• Compare the first great civilizations in various aspects in order to understand their differences and similarities
and value their contribution to culture.
• Know, understand and analyze the main characteristics of the Greek and Roman cultures and value their legacy
to Western civilization.
• Locate chronologically and establish the differences between the Low and High Middle Ages.
• Know and analyze the complex relationships that existed in the Middle Ages between the Church and the State
for supremacy.
• Recognize the feudal institutionality of Feudalism as a prominent system in the Middle Ages and the events that
contributed to its decline.
• Recognize situations from the Middle Ages that justify the theocentric character of the Era.
• Identify the economic, social, ideological, religious and political characteristics that are present in the Modern
Era.
• Know, understand and value Humanism and the Renaissance and their various manifestations, as an expression
of the anthropocentric conception of man in Modern Times.
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I. PREHISTORY AND DIVERSITY OF CIVILIZATIONS:

PREHISTORY: It is the period that elapsed from the beginning of the process of human evolution
until the appearance of writing. In Europe this stage is subdivided into the Stone Age and the
Metal Age .

THE STONE AGE covers a large part of the existence of the Homo species, from 2.5 million years
to 5 thousand years ago and is subdivided into:

• Paleolithic or Carved Stone: 2.5 million to 10 thousand years ago. In this period the use
of fire appears, simple and carved lithic instruments such as crushers, cutters and perforators
are developed. Their organizational structure was nomadic hunter-gatherer or fishermen bands,
they lived in caves and small camps, using animal skins for clothing. At the end of this period,
the first magical-religious conceptions appeared, such as animism and fetishism, cave painting,
clay figures, and stone instruments were perfected with more specialized spears and
arrowheads, as well as the use of bones and ivory to hunting and gathering techniques.

• Neolithic or Polished Stone: 7 thousand to 3 thousand years ago. Sedentarization

begins, agriculture emerges and the plow and the wheel, ceramics, textiles, the domestication
of animals are developed and the first towns with built houses appear. Art is associated with
religious and magical aspects, extraterrestrial life is conceived and megalithic monuments
emerge such as the Cromlech of Stonehenge in England, the Dolmens and the Menhirs. The
population volume increases and social hierarchization and specialization of work begins. The
first towns, tribes and lordships emerge. d
THE AGE OF METALS: It began 4 thousand years ago, since at the end of the Neolithic period
copper was used as a material to make various artifacts. It's divided in:

• Bronze Age : It began to be manufactured between 4,000 and 3,500 years BC and derived
from the alloy of copper and tin. It arose in the Near East, spread to the Eastern Mediterranean
and ended around 1,200 BC. Initially it had a limited, decorative and religious use, but over
time its use became widespread for the making of weapons and utensils.

• Iron Age: Around the year 2000 BC it began to be worked in the Near East and its use spread
to Europe, southern Asia and northern Africa around the year 1,300 BC, ending at the dawn of
the Empire. It replaced bronze in the manufacture of instruments and weapons.

THE ANCIENT GREAT CIVILIZATIONS (Mesopotamia and Egypt):

The first great civilizations originated from the settlement in fertile alluvial plains and the control of
these river networks, which is why they have been called Hydraulic Societies . They began in
the 4th millennium BC in the Near East and we are referring to Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Among the common characteristics of these first great civilizations are:

• An economy based on agriculture.

• The control of water from extensive rivers through canals and reservoirs to solve drought
problems and intensify cereal production.
• The mastery of bronze to manufacture better work tools and weapons to impose itself on other
populations.
• The development of trade through the sale of surpluses from agriculture (intensive or
extensive) and livestock.

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• The appearance of the first signs of writing (Sumer).
• The formation of States with the development of territorially expansive phases.
• The emergence of hierarchical and estate social structures.
• The creation of States governed by powerful and sometimes deified political leaders, who relied
on the bureaucracy, military and priestly castes.
• The development of state religious cults.
• The construction of monumental architectural works.
• Settlement in cities.
• Astronomical and mathematical knowledge.

MESOPOTAMIA
Region included between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which originate in the mountains of
Armenia and flow into the Persian Gulf, constituting an area of 140 thousand km 2 . It includes two
regions, Assyria to the north, arid and mountainous, and Chaldea to the south, fertile and
temperate. Today the region belongs to Iraq. Mesopotamia means “between rivers” and was
the cradle of civilization. The first inhabitants, the Elamites, occupied the region of Chaldea.

LEGACY

• Step pyramids (temples), called Ziggurat.

• Cuneiform writing.
• Horoscope and signs zodiac.
• They established the foundations of the Astronomy.
• 7 day week.
• Sexagesimal system.
ACADEMIC

ANCIENT EGYPT: To the northeast of Africa is the plain of the Nile River, which rises in the lakes
of Central Africa and flows into a delta in the Mediterranean, where this Ancient Empire developed.

LEGACY

• Two types of writing : Hieroglyphic , of the pictographic type and used by priests, and
Demotic, more popular, used by Scribes for their administrative and economic functions.
• Its monumental constructions, canals and reservoirs reveal great engineering knowledge, as
well as great temples, pyramids and columns.
• The Solar Calendar created by the priests. It consisted of 365 days (12 months of 30 days
and 5 additional holidays). This calendar was later modified by the Romans and imposed on
the Western world.
• Mummification and embalming techniques in order to preserve the body for the afterlife,
which demonstrates great anatomical and physiological knowledge.

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II. THE CLASSICAL HERITAGE:

GREECE.

INTRODUCTION: Ancient Greece should be understood as a CULTURAL concept, and not as the name
of a specific country or area. The Hellenes or Greeks spoke of HELLASE , to refer to the “Greek world”,
which included among its most relevant sectors the Balkan Peninsula, southern Italy, the coasts of Asia
Minor and the coasts of the Black Sea. Those who were left outside this world were considered
foreigners or barbarians.

The inhabitants of Greece did not form a

single State, but considered themselves a
single people. They all spoke the same
language, with some dialects depending on
the region, and they worshiped the same
gods. These small communities of
shepherds and farmers that populated
these lands were organized into small
states called Polis or city-states. Each Polis
was totally independent politically,
economically and militarily.

It is in this Mediterranean world that

ATHENS stands out as the exemplary polis
of economic, political, social and cultural
development; as a great ' hegemon or
leader '. It is located in the center of the
Balkan Peninsula, and more specifically
located in the area of the
Attica. Another city of great importance in
the Greek world was SPARTA , which was located south of the Balkans, on the Peloponnese Peninsula.

The following participated in the formation of the Greek people :

Cretans or Minoans. III Millennium BC Pelasgians people originating from Mediterranean landscapes
Indo-European peoples (Achaeans, Ionians, Aeolians) II Millennium BC The Mycenaean civilization
(Achaean and Minoan) New Indo-European peoples, highlighting the DORIAN for their mastery of the
horse and iron weapons. 13th century BC From the Mixture of these peoples the Hellenes or
Greeks emerge.

POLITICAL EVOLUTION OF ATHENS.

The Athenian polis is located in Attica, very close to the sea, which is why it will develop a great
maritime and commercial vocation early on. Formed by heterogeneous groups in which the Ionians
stood out, it is an example of political evolution that experienced the stages of Monarchy, Aristocracy,
Plutocracy, Tyranny and Democracy as forms of government, becoming a transcendental teaching in the
development of Western civilization.

SPARTA . Located in the Eurotas valley, in the region of Laconia, with expansion into neighboring
regions, the powerful city of Dorian origin will represent the Polis whose forms of social, political and
economic organization are very different from the Athenian city state.
Political organization. It is a polis that is essentially aristocratic and oligarchic, militarized
and where institutionality is subordinated to the State .

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CULTURAL LEGACY OF GREECE.

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The Greek Polis developed a great culture in every sense. About any topic that is discussed, be it
culture, politics, art, constructions, theater, history, ideas about the why of life, science, etc. We can
refer to Greece since our culture, to a large extent, derives from it. A great model of cultural
development is seen in Athens during the 5th century BC under the leadership of Pericles . Let us
briefly review some of its most notable dimensions.

Philosophy: Emerges around 500 BC trying to explain the secrets of nature through reason. The first
philosophical development then was cosmological, following an anthropological period, focused on the
problems of man and destiny. The philosophers of Classical Greece created a system of logical
explanation about man and the world. The set of concepts developed and their subsequent evolution
laid the foundations for Western scientific development.
Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes stood out in Miletus, but the summit of this discipline is in the
work of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, who developed their teachings in Athens and dedicated their time
to the analysis of man and his moral conduct.

Aristotle: It is one of the most universal spirits the world has ever seen. Codifier of logic and ethics,
biologist, cosmologist and physicist. Some maintain that his main contribution was logic, or a systematic
set of rules for reasoning and finding the truth.

Politics, democracy and citizenship: The responsible participation of those who were citizens, which
meant training youth in order to instill in them the ideals and virtues of civic life and to enable them to
adequately carry out public positions. The just and cultured citizen, fully formed, was a precondition for
the proper functioning of the democratic system. It was a direct democracy , although imperfect,
because it did not recognize political rights for women, foreigners and slaves. Even so, it meant
progress and a model that could be imitated and surpassed by later civilizations. PRE-UNIVERSITY
Astronomy and Mathematics : The Greeks were great observers of astronomical phenomena.
Eclipses of the sun and moon and the movements and shape of the earth. Eratosthenes, for example,
calculated the distance of the Earth's circumference and Aristarchus studied the movements of the
Earth. Geometry was cultivated by Euclid . In mathematicians of this time, practical problems related
to the needs of arithmetic calculations, measurements and geometric constructions continued to play a
great role.
Architecture and sculpture: The temples stood out for their sobriety, proportion and harmony. Like
the universe and the State, the temple had to constitute a Cosmos , a harmonious and beautiful order.
Ictinos and Callicrates achieved with the Parthenon a masterpiece of Hellenic architecture. In sculpture,
Phidias stands out, whose masterpiece is Pallas Athena located in the nave of the Parthenon. In the
century of Pericles, sculpture experienced its peak due to the quality of its movement, its expression
and its tight proportion, highlighting Myron with the Discobolus, which reveals a careful study of human
anatomy.
Medicine: History conferred the honorary title of father of medicine on Hippocrates (S. IV BC) He
flatly rejected the hypothesis of divine intervention in the development of diseases and sought to
discover through observation the effects of material causes on the human organism, subjected to the
multiple influences of food and the environment.
Letters: Poetry, whose most remote antecedent is found in the Homeric Poems, was intensely
cultivated. Tyrtheus, Anacreon, Pindar and the poetess Sappho stand out as lyric poets. Tragedy
and comedy derived from the cult of the God Dionysus. Theater was not simple entertainment, but
fulfilled a function whose objective, according to Aristotle referring to tragedy, was catharsis , the
purification of the soul. Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides stood out in tragedy, and Aristophanes
in comedy.
History: Herodotus is considered. The author of the 9 books as the father of historiography. Among
others, it recounts the war against the Persians. Thucydides wrote the History of the Peloponnesian
Wars. Xenophon also stands out in this area.

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Greek culture was based on three fundamental ideals, they were the concepts of beauty , truth and
freedom . These three concepts had great significance in this culture. The Greeks loved beauty above
all else.

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ROME.

Since its founding, Rome expanded its territory until it became the capital of the most extensive empire
of Antiquity. The first historical signs of the city are found on the Italian peninsula . There, on the
banks of the Tiber River, seven hills rise that were inhabited by seven towns, which were located in the
highest areas to protect themselves from frequent floods. The history of the Roman people is usually
divided into three great eras, according to the form of government they had in each one, these are:
MONARCHY, REPUBLIC AND EMPIRE .

THE MONARCHY (753 - 510 BC): According to tradition, Rome was ruled by 7 Kings starting with the
legendary Romulus, the last three being of Etruscan origin. Monarchical government rested primarily on
the Monarch, aided by an Assembly of nobles or Patricians (pater) known as the Assembly of the Curias
(Comicios Curiados) and a Council of noble Elders, the Senate.

THE SOCIETY : Composed of Patricians, Plebeians and Slaves and a special category of Clients, like all
ancient peoples, the friction and conflicts between them would lead more than once to civil war.

Patricians: descendants of the founders; the only citizens and the only ones entitled to take part in the
government. They were governed by their own laws, they waged private wars, they did not divide
property among heirs. Their name derives from the fact that they had “pater familia” , which means
that they descended from the first founders of the city and the family.
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Plebeians: arrived in Rome after the foundation; They lacked all civil political, social or religious rights,
but they longed to obtain them. They were dedicated to commerce, industry or agriculture. Clients:
they did not constitute a social class but were commoners and freedmen to whom a patrician provided
protection in exchange for which they provided company and attention. This custom disappeared as the
commoners achieved legal equality.

Slaves: large class, made up of prisoners of war, or commoners who could not pay their debts. The
master had the right of life, sale and death over the slave.

THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (510-27 BC): In this long period of Roman history, the government of the
patricians prevailed at first, and then it was shared with the richest plebeians until the people finally
emerged; During this evolution Rome advanced in the conquest of Italy and then the entire
Mediterranean, becoming the most extensive Empire of Antiquity. The increase in power and wealth
brought important social or class struggles within it and new forms of government such as triumvirates
were emerging . The final synthesis was the Principality Regime, which meant the death of the
Republic.

INSTITUTIONS AND JUDGMENTS OF THE REPUBLIC.

The Consulate : After the expulsion of Tarquin the Proud in the year 510, two Consuls elected annually
and with the impossibility of being re-elected within 10 years replaced the kings and exercised Executive
power. Among his numerous powers and functions were: The functions of the Consul were wide-ranging
and far-reaching. These were of a political nature such as the calling of sessions of the Senate or the
calling of assemblies; and of a legal nature, such as mainly the formation and proposal of new laws - a
fact that used to bring about many discussions - . Another of their main tasks was to be the architects,
something like the muscle, of the decisions made by the Senate and the people. They also directed the
armies and could exercise the right to veto the decisions of the other Consul or Colleague.

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The Senate : Regularly composed of 300 members, which in Caesar's time amounted to 900. They are
a life-long body, at first reserved only for the patricians, which is constituted by their stability in the true
political power of Rome.
It is essentially the Legislative power and its responsibilities were broad, covering all aspects of the life
of the State, namely, Economic : it determines expenses and resources of the State; monitors the
officials in charge of public money. Religious: determines sacrifices in honor of the gods; authorizes
certain cults; allows foreign gods to enter the Pantheon. Policies: declare war and make peace;

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receives ambassadors and sends representatives; exercises the right of veto over decisions of the
Elections. Military: recruit and distribute contingents.

The Dictatorship : It is an exceptional magistracy appointed in times of danger for the Republic. The
Dictator appointed for 6 months, extendable if necessary, held power with greater powers than normal.
Its functions included absorbing the powers of all the magistracies and exercising command over the
first century to enforce its provisions.
The Comitia : To the already named Comitia by Curia and Centuriate Comitia, in the course of the
Republic the Comitia by Tribes formed only by Plebeians will be added, which will acquire more and
more importance in the historical future of Rome.

The plebiscite was originally a decision adopted by the plebs exclusively, without the intervention of
the patricians. The Assembly was presided over by a plebeian, a popular tribune or a popular aedile. All
voters were commoners, and the norm voted was only for the commoners, not binding on anyone else.
The agreement adopted is only an agreement (scitum) and the Assembly does not have the character of
elections but of council (concilium).

THE FIGHT OF THE COMMONERS TO ACHIEVE EQUALITY.

One of the main moments of this process is experienced in 451 when the commoners achieve that
customary laws become written law with the Law of the XII Tables , which constitutes a milestone in
the construction of what would be one of Rome's most important contributions to Western culture,
Roman Law .

THE EMPIRE.
The Principality and Empire of Augustus ; He is considered by many the best emperor in the history
of Rome. His long government allowed him to consolidate the regime and increase his prestige; It
fundamentally provided the security of its borders, the formation of a stable central government and
internal peace, which also produced obvious benefits in the economic sphere.

His government was characterized by austerity, justice and humility; for external peace, for a
reorganized Senate with administrative responsibilities.
Upon coming to power, Augustus found Rome plunged into absolute chaos. When he died, the State had
been pacified and organized. With this phrase we can summarize the more than 50 years that Octavian
spent at the head of the Roman government.
End of the Empire: The 5th century AD

In the year 410, Rome was invaded by the Visigoths and in the year 461, Romulus Augustulus was
crowned emperor of Rome. He was the son of Orestes, a general of Germanic origin who had been a
kind of prime minister of Attila, the king of the Huns. Romulus will not have a long duration as emperor
because in the year 476 the Heruli , led by Odoacer, destroy Rome. Thus the last Roman emperor of
the West is overthrown; The dismantling or fall of the Roman Empire is usually located on this date,
although this is the product of a long process that spanned from the end of the 2nd century to the end
of the 5th century. The excess power of imperial Rome attracted various foreign peoples to its borders.
Rome, weakened, fell under the power of the Germanic invaders.

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Map of the Roman Empire. UNIV t KSIIAKIO

CHRISTIANITY IN THE EMPIRE.

Jesus was born as a Roman subject under the reign of

DIVI-A of was accused of
Augustus and
rebellion against the Empire, he was sentenced by the Roman authority of the area to die on the cross,
a sanction applied to the worst criminals and enemies of the Empire. Jesus proclaimed that he was
God, Son of the Father, and the Messiah promised to the Jews. His mode of communication consisted of
speaking through parables that his followers easily understood.

This growing religion soon felt the power of the Empire and persecutions began in 64 AD. when Nero
accused them of burning Rome, killing important leaders such as Saint Peter and Saint Paul. For more
than 250 years, Christianity suffered persecution in various regions of the Empire, but from the 18th
century onwards. III these were more violent with the purpose of exterminating this religion because it
did not make social differences, its followers were accused of immorality in their rites, and they did not
accept to participate in state pagan cults or venerate the figure of the Emperor.

In the S. IV, the Church was an institution of great social power and the year 313 AD Emperor
Constantine, through the Edict of Milan, proclaimed total freedom of worship in the Empire and the
equality of Christianity with other religions. He also openly protected the Christian church by donating
temples and lands, as he also promoted the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. to put an end to theological
disputes between members of the clergy, becoming the first Christian ecumenical council in history
where the Creed was drafted and Arianism was proclaimed as a heresy, which established that Christ
was not God, but a creature of God. The year 380 AD, Emperor Theodosius with the Edict of

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Thessalonica.

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THE ROMAN LEGACY.

The Roman Empire reached an enormous extension and spread its culture throughout its territories in a
process known as Romanization. From this process, we recognize today as a legacy:

The law: At first, Roman laws were a set of rules imposed by custom and by the provisions of the
Senate. The first Roman code was the Law of the Twelve Tables (5th century BC). Laws from various
sources were later added to this text: decisions of the praetors, the Assembly and the Senate and the
decrees of the Emperors. Augustus gave great importance to Jurisconsults. The Emperor Hadrian in the
2nd century carried out a notable task of Codifying the Law through the Perpetual Edict in which the
jurist Salvio Julianus stood out.
In the 6th century AD The Byzantine emperor Justinian compiled all the edicts, decrees, regulations, in
what is known as the Corpus Juris Civilis . It is a specialized law, in which the fundamental ideas
stand out: the equality of people before the law and the innocence of the accused until his guilt is
proven.

Political and administrative concepts : Republic, Senate, Comitia, Pontiff, Principality, Empire and
others constitute part of the political and administrative conceptualization of universal use in the West
that constituted a school and model to follow for the cultural heirs of the Empire.

Language: From Latin , the official language of the Empire, the Romance languages are derived,
among which Spanish, French, Italian and Portuguese stand out, which emerged from the evolution of
Vulgar Latin. This language is called mother, because it gave rise to others such as Italian, Catalan,
Spanish, Roman and Portuguese.

Family: As a concept it also comes from Rome. The term family derives from the Latin word famulus
(servants), which was applied to designate the group of slaves in a house and also the group of people
who lived under the command of the same Pater Familias.
_ pg p) mV x. ITEM TO
Christianity : Christian doctrine spread slowly in the Roman Empire, starting with the message of
Jesus. After the disappearance of the Empire, the new religion survived it and became a basic
component of our Western culture.

The sculpture : Inspired by the Greeks. It begins with the portrait, closely linked to the cult of the
dead. Precisely, Roman sculpture stood out over Greek sculpture in relation to the creation of portrait
sculpture. And the Roman portrait has its roots in Etruscan art, but also in the Greek Hellenistic world
and in the " mayorum masks ", that is, wax masks that were applied to the faces of the deceased for
their later remembrance and worship.

The architecture : The buildings were built in a solid way, which has allowed them to resist the
passage of centuries. They were generally carried out by armies and were public in nature. Its
dimensions were colossal, a characteristic not found in Greek art. They include temples, theaters,
amphitheaters, circuses, basilicas, thermal baths, roads, triumphal arches and aqueducts. Among them
the most famous are the Colosseum , built by the Flavians a monumental amphitheater; the Circus
Maximus in Rome which is reserved for chariot races and the thermal baths with rooms for
gathering, reading and the gymnasium like the grandiose ones built by Caracalla.

THE LETTERS, HISTORY AND APPLIED SCIENCE OF THE ROMANS: In pure science and
philosophy the Romans showed great inferiority in relation to the Greeks. There are relevant

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contributions in the letters and history. Yes, they gave more impetus to applied sciences, that led them
to the improvement of agriculture, engineering, navigation, the art of war and the construction of
monumental works.

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THE ROMAN EMPIRE AND THE CRISIS OF THE 4TH CENTURY.
Rome managed to achieve the political unity of the Mediterranean basin when Emperor Caracalla
granted the right of citizenship to all free men of the Empire; The State became a republic, from a legal
point of view, capable of regulating relations between all citizens based on a single law, Roman law.
This political and cultural cohesion of the peoples of the Mediterranean basin determined their history
for a long time. However, in recent times, signs of instability and breakdowns are appearing, leading to
the imperial crisis.
In the 4th century AD Differences appear between the western and eastern part of the Empire.
Constantine left Rome to found Constantinople, a new imperial capital, better adapted to the situation
that was developing. Theodosius divided the Empire into two sectors under the control of his sons
Arcadius and Honorius, while the pressure on the imperial borders increased so much that the emperor
was forced to allow the Germans to settle in some bordering provinces, change of military aid in the
defense of borders. Through the federation pacts, Rome respects the internal living conditions of each
of these peoples, who maintain their chiefdoms, languages and customs.
These towns, federated with Rome, would later claim their complete independence; "Roman
universalism was forced to yield to the particularism of the new states." In the West, only the Catholic
Church maintains links with the Roman past, and through it Latin culture, the foundation of modern
European civilization, will survive. On the other hand, the Catholic Church, starting with Emperor
Constantine, had accumulated goods and privileges; and becomes the only institution capable of saving
its status. Even before the first invasions, the Church was structurally consolidating in the different
provinces of the Empire. In this framework of crisis we enter the 5th century and the Middle Ages.

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, Latin
Agriculture Right Constantine
Italy
Mediterranean Unit Trade Christianity Theodosiu
Policy s
Caracalla Division of
Europe-Asia Citizenship Empire

Roman Law

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III. MEDIEVAL EUROPE.

ORIGIN OF EUROPE.

The Middle Ages is the historical era that covers a long period of ten centuries. It extends from the fall
of the Western Roman Empire (476) to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) or, if you
prefer, until the Discovery of America, in 1492. The expression "Middle Ages" was not invented by
medieval men, but by the humanists of the 15th century, who sought to express with that name that
this era only deserved consideration for having served as a transition from classical to Renaissance
civilization. What lay between those two extreme times was, in his opinion, a period of darkness. This
continued until the 19th century when the romantics aroused interest in the Middle Ages, thus
vindicating this historical era. Today the Middle Ages are considered by historians as a period that
fulfilled its civilizing mission with full originality that, far from being obscure, was a rugged but
uninterrupted path through which progress and culture were transmitted to the West. The main
processes that constituted Europe as a cultural entity took place during the Middle Ages. Over a
thousand years, numerous social, political, economic and cultural processes were forged that were
transformed and shaped during this period to give Europe today its own identity. It was during the
Middle Ages that the most important basic elements of what we call European culture today were
formed: diverse culture and therefore rich in contributions and synthesis; Mediterranean legacy,
German, Anglo-Saxon, Christian culture, developing urban life and also the origins of capitalism.

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STAGES OF THE MIDDLE AGES.

Early Middle Ages: Covers from the fall of the Western Roman Empire, 5th century to the 10th
century. Among the general characteristics of this period we can mention: the conservation, in its
beginnings, of the idea of the Roman Empire, which caused the tendency to form large political nuclei
such as the Carolingian Empire , the Holy Roman German Empire , the Byzantine Empire. , and
also the Muslim Empire; the destruction of the political unity of the Roman Empire, but not of the
cultural heritage of Antiquity, since in the midst of the disorder produced by the invasions, it
resurfaces, for example, in Italy with the Ostrogoths and in Spain with the Visigoths; the Muslim Arab
domination of North Africa with the imposition of a new political and cultural, linguistic, religious and
economic unity that will mark a difference between the lands of the European and African
Mediterranean and; the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, which developed during the 6th
century in all its splendor, but which remained until 1453, making great contributions to Western
European culture.

Late Middle Ages: It extends from the 10th century to the 15th century when the gestation of
national monarchies began, the beginning of the Renaissance, Humanism, and the time of the great
geographical discoveries, its characteristics were: the feudal organization, which determines the
political fragmentation and the consolidation of the lords as the powerful class; The crusades (11th -
13th centuries) provoked a new order in the West, the urban bourgeoisie emerged, literature became
popular, and aristocratic society made possible the development of letters and the arts; The 13th
century constitutes the golden age of medieval civilization, essentially Christian: the Gothic style
emerges, schools and universities flourish, scholasticism reaches the highest degree of splendor, with
perfection. With the development of the Romance languages, popular and cultured poetry, epic, lyric,
theater, narrative prose, etc. flourish. All social classes collaborate to forge a high culture: artisans,
clerics, monarchs. The 13th century is the classical medieval century.

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The Early Middle Ages 5th to 10th centuries:

Carolingian empire Holy Empire Byzantine Empire

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The Carolingian Dynasty In the eastern sector of the In the last centuries of its
and the formation of the Carolingian Empire, in the existence, the Roman Empire had
Empire : The idea of rebuilding part inherited by Louis the been transformed into a single
a similar empire survived for a Germanic, a new tried state with two capitals. To the
long time. to the of Rome. succumb the part
of
Charlemagne was the first to western, (5th century) the
undertake the great work,
rebuild the empire eastern is considered its heir.
rescuing the tradition Roman. This Empire with its capital in
spiritual of the old empire, that Formation of the Empire: Constantinople or Byzantium is
is, the Christian doctrine. Otto I pursued, imitating the one of the big
Charlemagne manages to form a work of Charlemagne, that is, transmitters of classical culture
Empire, which restore a throughout the Middle Ages. The
It extends from the Atlantic to Christian empire ; that will Empire maintained economic
the Danube and from Rome to achieve the elevation of prosperity due to its crafts, fleet
the North Sea. Aachen was the and trade with the East, in
Rome, which is why one of
capital, where he governed, addition to bureaucracy and
advised by important religious
his most attractive actions administration. of their
and civil officials. Despite its was to be crowned King of provinces, which were models in
absolutism, it allowed the Aachen. His second step was their time. Its geographical
General Assembly to meet twice to reduce the political position and the walls that
a year, in which the laws were strength of the dukes, for surrounded it made it
approved, which were which he relied on counts and impregnable to the assault of the
transcribed in the so-called bishops to destroy the barbarians who invaded Western
Capitulars . prevailing feudalism. Europe, achieving its maximum
His work did not last long; Once the Western Empire was splendor in the 6th century.
upon his death (814), Louis restored (which would later be It is worth highlighting the
the Pious (814-840), son of called the Holy Roman- emperor Justinian (527-565),
Charlemagne, had to face the Germanic Empire , although who during his reign managed to
wars for succession unleashed without the extension that it had control the eastern
by his own sons, Charles, had in ancient times), once again Mediterranean and achieve the
Louis and Lothair. In 843 they the emperor and the Pope were greatest apogee for his Empire.
the two supreme powers within Justinian's great dream was to
signed the Treaty of Verdun.
of the rebuild the Roman Empire, a task
in that Christendom.
he considered feasible given the
The Empire was formally instability of the Germanic
divided into three parts. kingdoms in the West.
The western part, the basis of Organization: There were
today's France, was left to three fundamental elements that
Charles the Bald; the eastern diagram the history of
sector, part of modern Germany, Byzantium. Solid and permanent
was left to Louis the Germanic; institutions . Continuing and
for Lothair it was the title of cohesive civilization of the Greco-
emperor, possessions in Italy Latin contribution: law, fiscal
and a narrow belt, the policy and art. Christianity as a
Lotharingia, which ran from the clear cultural result.
North Sea to Italy and ran
between the Rhine River and the
Alps.

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ISLAM AND ITS EXPANSION THROUGH THE MEDITERRANEAN
Towards the 7th century, on a peninsula located southwest of the Asian continent and in a territory
extended between the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, a new religion emerged with such powerful
characters that it became an Empire, Islam. Its geographical environment was characterized by
extreme aridity, which conditioned the coastal grouping, mainly in the cities of Mecca and Yatrib. The
Arabs received Judeo-Christian influence, but they worshiped the forces of nature, which is why their
main worship was the Black Stone (aerolith), which was worshiped in the sanctuary of The Kaaba.
The mentor of this new religious doctrine was Muhammad , who after starting a family and dedicating
himself to commerce, took advantage of his experience and the passivity of the desert, to develop
permanent meditation processes, in which he came to the conviction of being revealed as a prophet. of
the only true god Allah. This self-consecration was not very well received by the Arabs, which led to
Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina), in the year 622, an event known as the hegira . In
that city he established strong power and established the Holy War against the infidels (jihad), which
spread throughout northern Africa and western Europe. Islam means “submission to Allah” and muslim
or Muslim means “follower of Allah.”

Map of the spread of Islam.

The ingenuity and intellectual development of the Arabs is further proven by their outstanding
assimilation and expansion of Greco-Latin sciences. Already in the 10th century, the first Universities
were founded in Baghdad, Damascus and in the 13th century in Salamanca. The Arabs had a high
esteem for letters and art. Since the Quran prohibited the representation of the human figure, Arab
artists developed complicated geometric figures (arabesques). Architecture developed a new structure,
called an ogive, for the arches of doors and windows. The most important monuments of Arab
architecture are the mosque (temple) and the alcazar (palace). The Mosque of Córdova, the Alcázar of
Seville and the Alhambra palace in Granada are famous. Both in the scientific and philosophical fields
they achieved such development that the Islamic people maintained cultural primacy in all these areas
until around the 12th century in the Mediterranean world. Their most applauded progress was achieved
in the fields of Medicine, Mathematics, Astronomy, Geography, Chemistry and Physics. In philosophy,
the desire for rational explanations to the problems posed by religion stood out, mainly supported by

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Aristotelian philosophy.

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The Late Middle Ages 10th to 15th centuries

FEUDALISM: The decline of absolute centralism, marked by the disappearance first of the Carolingian
Empire and then of the Holy Roman-German Empire, together with the emergence of new invading
waves over Europe in the 9th century, such as the Normans over Russia, England, northern France and
the Mediterranean; Slavs in central Europe, Hungarians and Bulgarians in Eastern Europe and finally,
Barbary pirates in France and Italy, created an atmosphere of insecurity that forced the European
population to seek physical and economic protection from anyone who had the necessary resources. to
enable some degree of subsistence. This degree of subsistence increased to the extent that numerous
economic practices, such as trade, declined, leading to the decrease in the use of currency and the loss
of geographical supremacy by the city. All of the above led to the land assuming a leading role, both in
economic and human behavior, a situation that led to the birth of a new political, economic and social
order: Feudalism.
This need for protection, especially of the weakest, outlined a widespread custom, to submit to that
man who emerged with the most economic power and demonstrated maximum cunning in matters of
war, who became known as lord and the conglomerate of people subjected to him, vassals . A kind of
tacit contract was generated between the lord and the vassal: the former offered his protection to the
vassal and the latter swore fidelity and provision of various services to his protector, a relationship that
was summarized in the name: vassal regime.
This order was generalized throughout society: the king headed, as lord, a kind of social pyramid in
which his vassals were dukes, counts and other powerful lords. These, for their part, received the
"loyalty" of the richest and most influential people in their region, who, in turn, received the services of
more modest vassals. In this way, from the top to the bottom of society, every person was linked to
another. With the economic primacy of land, it became an important source of wealth, from which a
new social order in Europe was derived. Thus, many times he who sought protection donated his lands
to his lord, maintaining his usufruct; In turn, the powerful lords transferred certain sectors of their
property (only for usufruct) to their servants in gratitude for their collaboration. The man remained the
owner, but the servant could take advantage of his products. This act was called “benefit”; in the early
days and later became generalized under the name “fiefdom”.

THE FEUDAL SOCIETY. Medieval society was

organized hierarchically into classes, each of which
fulfilled a specific social function:
The nobility was made up of the king, the lords and
the knights (who had neither fiefdom nor vassals), of a
hereditary nature, the condition of nobility was more
warrior than palace. This is seen in the fact that they
lived for war. A very precious object were the hosts or
cavalcades, which consisted of the assault of a lord's
domain, seeking loot and the capture of the owner, for
ransom collection. This deep warmongering triggers the
custom of chivalry , which determined a long process
of learning and protocol, to end with the touch of the
sword on the shoulder by the godfather, and thus invest
a nobleman as a knight (endorsement). The clergy is a
fully feudalized institution. The religious orders are
landowners, and increase their possessions thanks to
donations. They are authentic feudal lords with the

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same economic and political role as the nobility. During the Early Middle Ages, Rome's control over the
religious orders was very limited, and they dedicated themselves to exercising their power
authoritarianism. The absence of a rule that regulates life in the monasteries favors

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corruption and degeneration of spirituality. It was divided into High and Low Clergy. The Plain State :
It was composed mainly of the peasant mass that was distinguished between serfs and villains. The
first were people attached to the land and had to provide total service to the lord. Villains were free
men subject to a lord, poor vassals, who had obligations that serfs did not have, living together in
towns called towns. Depending on the size of a fief, it could have one or more villas.

CHRISTIANITY AS A UNIFYING ELEMENT OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE.

As a whole, the Christian Church became an organization so powerful that the Empire could not avoid
it. The idea of Christianity and the universal Empire had coincided. The Christian Church favored it with
its concept of authority by divine will and its imperative of obedience, submission and resignation
before all lordship as before Jesus Christ himself.
The clerics held the most important positions in the chancellery, in the monarch's court and in politics.
They were literate people, who could generally be trusted for their supposed selflessness. It is
understandable that Charlemagne, for example, placed his greatest trust in them for the position of
Missi Dominici. Certainly, the cardinal content of this era will always be the triumph of Roman
Christianity in central and western Europe, by which the Germanic world was Christianized and,
therefore, Romanized. The Western Church lived and taught in the language of the Romans, making
Latin the liturgical language and thus the instrument of all culture. The monasteries and convents not
only became industrial and agricultural centers, but also continued the tradition of the schools of
Antiquity.

EMERGENCE AND DEVELOPMENT OF BURGOS (THE MEDIEVAL CITY).

Due to the commercial boom generated by the crusades, the same lords were forced to favor the
installation of commercial fairs in their fiefdom once a year, which led to the gradual establishment of
cities at the foot of the walls of a castle or next to it. of an episcopal palace. At first the cities belonged
to the lord, but from the 11th century onwards the cities claimed royal tutelage, with which the king
began to accumulate wealth via taxes.
Along with the feudal decline, parallel
processes developed that collaborated in the
historical dynamization of the city, such as the
demographic expansion, which Europe was
experiencing since the 12th century, which
favored commercial expansion. Another
participating element is the increase in
cultivable space, with an increase in productive
capacity, which generated wealth , which was
invested in the nascent city . Everything noted
brought as a singular consequence the
enrichment of the cities: when referring to
agricultural expansion we said that it
generated enormous income, which was
invested in the city, mainly in industrial and
manufactured products, which was the
vocation of the city, then the old Cities
recovered their economic stability, giving way to a gradual process of urban revitalization. “The
development of new manufacturing and transportation techniques, the diffusion of paper, the
increasing use of iron, strengthens the enrichment of cities and their two most characteristic elements:
artisans and merchants.”

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In the first years of this urban revitalization process, cities had to surround themselves with
fortifications and walls, to avoid the belligerent conditions of the time. In the center of the city was the
square, which served as the municipal market, next to the square were the Church, the town hall and
the homes of the most notable neighbors. Due to the agreed characteristics, the urban space was
limited, with small streets and narrow houses. The government of the

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cities was corporate, exercised through the city council and the Municipal Councils , its members
mostly belonged to patrician families. It was chaired by the Mayor, and its most notable functions
were: collecting taxes, defending the city, appointing judges and juries, managing schools and
hospitals, and guiding economic policy, which was supported by commercial and artisanal activities. To
carry out these activities, one had to belong to a guild , which was a type of representative association
of each craft sector, which offered defense of the common interests for the members. There were
numerous guilds, in relation to the various craft sectors, shoemakers, leatherworkers, jewelers,
gunsmiths, weavers, blacksmiths, etc. The guilds determine the conditions of production, set the prices
of the items, and ensure the quality of the product. In relation to the hierarchy of artisans, not all of
them belonged to the same category. There are three types of artisans:

The Masters : of the highest standing, workshop owners and very efficient in their work.
The Officials : those who collaborate and help the teacher in the workshop. To reach the rank of master, the
so-called "masterpiece" must be exhibited, which must be accepted by the guild.
The Apprentices : as their name indicates, they are learning how to manage the activity, they live with the
teacher, not receiving money for their work, quite the contrary, they must pay for what they have learned.

THE FORMATION OF NATIONAL MONARCHIES.

A new social element, called the bourgeoisie, will play a leading role in relation to the development of
National Monarchies. When the feudal regime entered into crisis, the monarchies recovered their
strength and an accelerated process of unification began, both political and territorial. This is how the
borders of states tend to be fixed and expanded. The State was conceived as a political expression of a
territory and a people united by a culture and a language and governed by a monarch. In the 15th
century, the process of formation of National Monarchies began, to the extent that the king recovered
his political power, from the hands of the feudal lords, and encouraged by the bourgeoisie who
observed the need for a firm and centralized authority. TARIO

CULTURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES.

. .. ..... PJ R _ — .11 , ....

Medieval culture is fundamentally religious. It is theocentric , that is, it places God at the center of
thought. The transition from classical to medieval thought is marked by the fathers of the Church, who
delimited Christian philosophy. Among them, Saint Augustine, bishop of Ipona, one of the great
Christian thinkers of the 5th century, stands out. In the first centuries of the Middle Ages the
Carolingian Renaissance shines, in which schools are established and medieval knowledge spread. In
general, only convents have libraries and they are dedicated to reproducing some ancient works.
A great role is played by the Arabs , who not only transmit the works of the ancient Greeks to Europe,
but also have important philosophers such as Avicenna and Averroes from Córdoba. In Western Europe,
the Romance languages are formed, which are the evolution of low Latin. This is how chansons de
geste emerge, literary works that narrate epics such as “My Cid”, “The Song of Roland” and “The Song
of the Nibelungs”. While national languages were gradually being formed, Latin continued to be the
universal language and was used as a link between all peoples for their international relations.
The people create their first poems and artistic songs orally. Minstrels wander from one country to
another bringing news and songs, messengers of different and distant cultures. Troubadours are

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cultured poets who compose love songs or romantic poems. Sacred music developed based on
Gregorian chants, an almost linear melody that begins and ends at the same intonation point.
Polyphony originates in the 11th century, music becomes more complex with different melodic lines.
In the architectural styles we find the Romanesque and the Gothic.
Scholasticism is medieval philosophy, it was based on the conviction that religious truth and
philosophy, in other words, faith and reason, are one, because both come from God. It was rationalist,
dogmatic and had a moral purpose. The greatest representative was the Italian theologian and
philosopher Saint Thomas Aquinas, who established the relationship between reason and revelation.

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THE UNIVERSITIES. ROGER BACON

Universities were born as free and spontaneous foundations of professors and disciples, others were
founded by a monarch, and some at the initiative of the church. All of them required approval by the
Pope to function.
They were maintained with the contributions of princes and the church. They had special privileges as
courts and union organizations. In the 13th century, these guilds were called faculties; there were four
of them: Arts, Law, Medicine and Theology. Education was free, and the students were from various
places in Europe.
The first Universities were Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Salamanca.

IV. HUMANISM AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT

Fundamental characteristics of the Modern Era:

The name Modern Era or Modern Times refers to the historical period that goes from the conquest of
Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 to the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789. The
discovery of America in 1492 and the Lutheran Reformation in 1517 are also considered the beginning
of new times.

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN TIMES

XV century 1789
Renaissance National state Liberalism

Humanism
Capitalism

Bourgeoisi
e

Discoveries Revolution
Geographic Reform French

The disintegration of the medieval world allowed the emergence, development and dissemination of
new concepts and trends that produced great material and cultural transformations that shaped the
modern world. The Renaissance and the Reformation created the foundations for a new worldview. As a
consequence of the anthropocentric spirit of life and the birth of new religious movements, the unity of
the Christian Church was undone. The Catholic Church would see its spiritual hegemony in the West
resented with the action of new religious confessions.

One of the essential political events of Modern Times was the formation of the National State, centered
on the person of the monarch. This change began at the end of the Middle Ages, with the study of
Roman Law; The Prince's will is the supreme law. The Law begins to be standardized and feudal
privileges are suppressed. This new political reality would result in the replacement of feudal

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monarchies with absolute monarchies. Powerful National States emerged and absolute monarchies took
hold. European states would adopt policies aimed at strengthening their internal power and increasing
their international influence. The struggles for predominance in Europe were only contained by the
ideas of the “concert of nations” and the “European balance” .

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During the 16th and 17th centuries, violent religious conflicts took place, but gradually the spirit of
belligerence declined, producing a progressive secularization of culture, where the State and lifestyles
were organized according to worldly tendencies and earthly purposes. In the scientific and technological
field there were great advances, facilitating the domination of nature for the benefit of man. A great
confidence arises in the power of reason and society is constituted in accordance with rational
principles.

Estate society, inherited from the Middle Ages, remains essentially the same: the nobility loses its
political role but largely retains its social and economic privileges; Of course, the new position of the
monarchy turns many of them into court nobility. The same thing happens with the clergy in Catholic
countries. The bourgeoisie consolidates its economic power and aspires to political influence.
Simultaneously with commercial activities, financial activities developed and new forms of payment,
credit and investment appeared.

Despite the incomparable increase in trade and finance, agriculture continued to be the economic base.
Most of the population continued to live in the countryside and derived their livelihood from agriculture.
In the 17th century, when the absolute monarchs were at the maximum splendor of their power,
agriculture received great support with projects and resources that favored its modernization. The
discovery and conquest of overseas continents and peoples expanded the horizon of European history
to a truly universal dimension.

THE CAPITALIST ECONOMY IN MODERN TIMES

Since the Renaissance, economic activities experienced a notable increase. Geographical discoveries
and the worldly and luxurious spirit of the Renaissance contributed to this. New arts, industries,
techniques and inventions emerge. The monetary economy becomes important. The city became the
center of economic, political and cultural life. In Italy, the ports of Genoa and Venice and the cities of
Rome, Florence and Milan stood out. In Germany, Augsburg, Nuremberg and Frankfurt. In Flanders
(now Belgium), Ghent, Bruges and Antwerp. In France, Paris and Lyon. With the geographical
discoveries, the ports of Seville, Cádiz, Lisbon, Bristol and London gain importance. Commerce and
industry become more important than agriculture. Great fortunes were made. It is the
beginning of commercial and financial capitalism.

The Kings, to strengthen their power and finance the bureaucracy, the mercenary army and the wars,
needed a lot of money, especially gold and silver. They turned to bankers for loans and to subjects for
contributions. The monarchs were interested in consolidating the National State and that is why they
favored commerce and industry, built roads and improved communications. They tried to attract
bankers and specialized workers. They protected the national industry, granting privileges to merchants
and establishing customs duties. New commercial practices are developed such as credit, bills of
exchange, interest collection and accounting operations. Banks and Stock Markets become
important. Leaders in these changes were the Italian Republics.

NEW ECONOMIC IDEAS.

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Mercantilism (16th century to the mid-18th century). It constituted the early form of Capitalism. In
this system there was a close relationship between politics and economics; It was a statist economy.
Economic autarky was the goal, and it was based on the fact that the wealth of a country is in direct
relation to the accumulation of precious metals (gold and silver). To achieve this objective, exports had
to be encouraged and imports restricted. Apply protectionist customs tariffs to achieve a favorable
trade balance (surplus).

Have colonies as suppliers of raw materials and exclusive markets. This implied developing the national
merchant navy and also developing the national industry to achieve economic self-sufficiency. All major
countries in Europe practiced Mercantilism. France stood out, where it was called Colbertism (after
Jean-Baptiste Colbert, finance minister to King Louis XIV).

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Physiocratism (18th century) was an agrarian doctrine that developed especially in France. Its main
representatives were the French economists Quesnay, Gournay and Turgot. They believed in natural
and perfect laws that regulated the economy. They opposed the regulation of Mercantilism because the
economy should enjoy freedom. The source of wealth is the land, therefore the only branch of
production that had to pay contributions was agriculture since it was the true creator of value. Its
defenders invoked the principle of laissez-faire and pointed out that all intervention in industry and
commerce should disappear. They defended private property.

Economic Liberalism . It would become the most important economic doctrine at the end of the 18th
century and developed parallel to political liberalism. The Scottish economist Adam Smith is considered
the father of the doctrine. This author wrote the work: " Essay on the nature and causes of the
wealth of nations ", published in 1776 where he postulated that each individual in seeking his own
benefit is guided by an "invisible hand" that in accordance with natural law It would allow you to
contribute to the common good. Supporters of economic liberalism were defenders of private ownership
of sources of wealth. For them, the driving force of the economy was the desire for personal gain or
profit. Enemies of customs, they advocated free trade.

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT.

HUMANISM.
It is the name given to the study of ancient culture, through whose knowledge man could become truly
human. It is considered the intellectual expression of the Renaissance. The humanists were writers who
devoted themselves enthusiastically to the study of the works of classical antiquity. The search and
discovery of Greek and Latin manuscripts allows us to penetrate the literary world of works unknown
and forgotten for several centuries. But the desire to reborn the luminous ancient past was not limited
only to literature, but to the arts and ways of life. Various factors contributed in the 15th century to
give a decisive boost to Humanism, among them, the attacks of the Turks on the Byzantine Empire, the
invention of the printing press, the action of patrons and the influence of Byzantine culture that is
manifested in the teaching Greek and Latin. Humanism reached its peak at the end of the 15th century
in Italy and then spread to other European countries.
EUROPEAN HUMANISM
AUTHOR CONSTRUCTION SITE

“Utopia”, a work in which he describes a perfect society where there is no

monetary economy or private property and in which every person is happy.
THOMAS MORE (1478-
1535) ENGLAND
He published the first “Spanish Grammar” (1492).
ANTONIO DE NEBRIJA
(1441-1522) SPAIN

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ERASMUS OF ROTTERDAM Considered the greatest exponent of the humanist movement. Most notable
(1467-1536) work: “In Praise of Madness.” He fought the vices of his time and advocated
NETHERLANDS a profound renewal in Christianity, a return to its origins, to the very truth of
Christ.

THE RENAISSANCE.

The Renaissance is understood as a process of profound changes that occurred in the cultural, literary,
artistic and political life of Europe. This cultural movement flourished in the 15th and 16th centuries
and aimed to revive or “reborn” the splendid classical Greco-Latin past. A group of extraordinary men
emerged whose talent and genius made creations of universal value possible. It begins in Italy from
where it radiates to the rest of the countries of Europe. The Renaissance, however, is not an event that
suddenly arises at the dawn of Modern Times, but rather is the culmination of the conditions that occur
in the last centuries of the Middle Ages, when an attitude and a feeling of admiration for the works of
Greco-Roman antiquity.

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The study of classic works and the assimilation of ancient culture, adapted to the conditions of modern
Europe, will define a meaning of life and the world different from the preceding era. Italy is then in a
very favorable situation, as heir to the greatness of Imperial Rome; with an enviable geographical
position that allowed it to control trade with the East, intensified by the crusades, until 1453. On the
other hand, the fall of Constantinople produced a true exodus of scholars, artists, writers and
intellectuals in general towards Italy. The political organization of the medieval Italian republics, the
germ of the Modern State, also represents a positive factor for trade and the height of the Renaissance
in the other countries of Europe.

POST-BIRTH: THE BAROQUE.

The most significant culture of the period between the end of the 16th century and until the 18th
century was the Baroque, an expression of the Counter-Reformation and Absolutism . It was a
new way of thinking and feeling, a cultural phenomenon that encompassed all of Europe, expressing
itself in customs, clothing, language, letters, arts and music. It started in Spain and Italy. The Baroque
developed a restless and sophisticated style, breaking simple classical forms. He preferred wavy lines,
decorative details, and sumptuousness. It was a sensual art, because it appealed to the senses; He
wanted to give expression to force and movement. It developed especially in the churches and courts
of princes. The architecture tended towards the grandiose and monumental and resorted to circular and
oval shapes. Domes and spiral columns were used, arts, walls with pictorial frescoes and columns
adorned with statues were integrated. The baroque was also expressed in clothing full of lace and in
the use of wigs. It meant an intense social life in courts and salons.

THE GREAT DISCOVERIES.

The Expansion of the European Geographic
Horizon.
During the last centuries of the Middle Ages the
commercial economy, particularly in the cities of the
west
R
of the Mediterranean, experienced a considerable
increase. This boom led to the search for direct
relations with the countries of Asia, from which
numerous objects of trade came (silks, precious stones,
incense, medicinal and toilet products) and especially
spices (pepper, cloves, cinnamon, etc. .), essential in
the food of the time. The occupation by the Turks of
the entire Near East area increased the need in Europe
to create new trade routes to the “Indies”. In addition
to this situation, the following causal aspects should be
mentioned: Incentives of an economic and social
nature: Need for metal to mint coins, thirst for gold,
which drives states and sailors to search for it. Big
cities also encourage
Technical factors: Invention of the compass, improvement of cartography, creation of the astrolabe
eagerness to find routes for products. Religious incentives: The continuity of the so-called crusading
spirit that encourages Christians to travel for evangelization.
(instrument for calculating latitude) and faster ships such as caravels that improve navigation, allowing
long ocean voyages to be undertaken.
Renaissance mentality: Spirit of the discoverer, an independent, free, cosmopolitan, adventurous

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and intrepid man with some scientific knowledge. To achieve the required objective, the Europeans had
two possibilities: reach the East bordering Africa or venture across the Atlantic Ocean; The Portuguese
and Spaniards pursued both possibilities respectively. This process of contact with other continents
culminated at the end of the 15th century with the discovery of America.
Portugal, the first National State in Europe, will begin explorations in Africa. Infante Enrique, son
of Juan I de Avis, had a very important role in creating a Nautical School in Sagres, in the south of the
country. His support for the discovering companies was fundamental, earning him the nickname “ The

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Navigator". The Portuguese organized voyages with the desire to explore the African coasts. They
discovered the Madeira Islands, Cape Blanco, Senegal, the Azores Islands and the Cape Verde Islands,
between the years 1419 and 1455. Years later, in 1487, the Portuguese managed, with Bartolomé Díaz,
to reach the Cape of Good Hope, located at the southern end of the African continent.
Parallel to Columbus's voyage, Portugal discovered the route to India and the country of spices. This
honor corresponded to the nobleman Vasco da Gama who, in the year 1498, after doubling the Cape of
Good Hope, and stopping at the African ports of Sofala, Mombasa and Malindi, arrived at Calicut, at the
southwestern tip of India. In 1498, the Portuguese Duarte Pacheco Pereira followed Columbus's route
on the third voyage and sighted lands in the Southwest of America. This explains the trip in the year
1500 of Pedro Álvarez Cabral who reached the coasts of Brazil, which was within the area assigned in
the Treaty of Tordesillas.
The Portuguese created a large colonial empire in the 16th century that included possessions on the
African coast, in America (Brazil) and in Asia. In 1532, the Portuguese Martín Alfonso de Sousa,
commissioned by King John III of Portugal, founded the colony of San Vicente on the coast of Brazil.

Spain: Spanish claims to achieve new routes were satisfied by discovering and colonizing America, a
vast territory, mistakenly identified as the East in the first instance. This process begins with the long
pilgrimage of Christopher Columbus, in search of financing, until the completion of his four voyages,
which resulted in the discovery of a new continent and the reaffirmation of the sphericity of the earth.
Chronologically, Columbus on his first voyage explored the Bahamas Archipelago, Cuba (Juana Island),
and Haiti (Hispaniola). On his second trip, the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica and Puerto Rico. On his third
voyage, the island of Trinidad and the mouth of the Orinoco (marks the effective discovery of South
America). On his fourth and last trip he explored the entire Central American coast from Honduras to
Panama.

It began its expansion to the East (via the Western route) with the Capitulations of Santa Fe (1492)
signed by Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs. As a result of Columbus's first voyage, the dispute
between Portugal and Spain began in relation to the territories discovered by Columbus. Pope
Alexander VI drew the so-called Alexandrian line (1493), dividing the world from pole to pole, a line
drawn 100 nautical leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde islands. The lands to the west of the
indicated line would be for Spain and the lands to the east of the king of Portugal.

This distribution of the world made by the Pope is very important, because from this Pontifical donation
(Bulas lnterçaeteras) , the rights of the Kings of Spain over America would be born. The King of
Portugal did not accept this distribution and agreed directly with the King of Spain. Thus was born the
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), which extended the line 370 leagues from the Azores island and Cape
Verde. From there derived Portugal's right to Brazil.

In America there were two places that acted as a center of irradiation of the Spanish conquests: Las
Antilles, especially the islands of Cuba and Haiti; and Panama (La Tierra Firme or Darién). In 1513,
Basque
Núñez de Balboa discovered the South Sea
(Pacific Ocean), crossing the isthmus of
Panama. In 1516 Juan Díaz de Solís
discovered the Río de la Plata Estuary (El Mar
Dulce). On November 1, 1520, Hernando
Magellan discovered the strait he called Todos
los Santos (today the Strait of Magellan). The
first circumnavigation of the world was made
by Sebastián Elcano, Magellan's lieutenant,
after he died in the Philippines. The Magellan-
Elcano expedition was very important, as it

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experimentally verified the sphericity of the earth, which was also larger than thought. The Spanish
made many voyages of discovery, exploration and conquest especially in the 16th century. Among
others we can mention: the expeditions of Juan Ponce de León, conqueror of Puerto Rico and the
Florida Peninsula; Diego de Velásquez, conqueror of Cuba; Hernán Cortés, conqueror of Mexico (1519 -
1521); Hernando de Soto, discoverer of the Mississippi River; Gonzalo Jiménez de Quezada,

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conqueror of New Granada (Colombia); Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro, conquerors of Peru
(1532-1535); Sebastián de Benalcazar, conqueror of Ecuador; Diego de Almagro, discoverer of Chile
(1536); Pedro de Mendoza, conqueror of the Río de la Plata (1535-1537); Pedro de Valdivia, conqueror
of Chile (1541).
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION: The profound religious crisis that occurred in the 16th
century is called the Reformation, which led to the breakdown of Christian unity, which had prevailed
for centuries in Western Europe. The Middle Ages would pass without major upheavals or theological
conflicts and papal authority acquired characteristics of universality. However, there were prolonged
disputes between Rome and Constantinople (Byzantium) mainly over the issue of papal authority and
the alleged supremacy of Rome. On the other hand, the schism produced by the transfer of the papal
see from Rome to Avignon gave rise to the celebration of various councils in order to overcome the
crisis and restore order in the Church. This schismatic confusion brought with it the conciliar theory that
sought to strengthen the authority of cardinals and bishops. At the same time, he attributed the
representativeness of the Church to the council (assembly of bishops), placing it above the authority of
the Pope.
Lutheran Reformation John Calvin Anglicanism

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Its main theological Henry VIII was a convinced
postulate is the anti-Lutheran. However, the
Predestination . papal rejection of a petition for
marriage annulment and a
Luther questioned the possibility According to divorce for reasons of state
of salvation because man is in a Calvin, God is the Creator and would cause his break with
state of guilt since original sin absolute sovereign of the world.
Rome. Enrique VIII
and, therefore, is not capable of Man has been put on earth to
He got the House of Lords to
knowing and doing good. His fulfill the will of God.
approve the king's
desperation drove himto Consequently, it lacks
study appointment as supreme head
autonomy, man is not free to
carefully the Bible and the decide his destiny between good of the Church of England. He
works of Saint Augustine. In the and evil. Good works and faith Dad
Epistle of Saint Paul to the in God have no value in He excommunicated Henry
Romans, he found the key achieving salvation. The destiny VIII. The royal response was
phrase that allowed him to of man has been decided by the to vote and approve in
quench his spiritual thirst: “For will of the Creator. So it turns Parliament, in November
this message teaches us that out that some are elected 1534, the "Act of Supremacy",
the way in which God accepts us and others which granted the king
is by faith and by faith alone failed; Those who are under the extensive powers religious
as it says in the Scriptures. : He protection of divine grace do and
who is accepted by God through good and their efforts are ecclesiastical: government of
faith will live.” Therefore, faith crowned with success. On the the Church of England,
as an individual act is the path other hand, those convictedthey right of excommunication and
to salvation. In 1517 Martin comply persecution and punishment of
Luther established 95 theses on inexorably the designs of evil,
heresies. The break had been
the door of the castle churchof without being able to avoid the
consummated politically (the
Wittenberg, implacable rigor of God's will.
bishop of Rochester and the
inviting a public theological The work reaches a
discussion in relation to this former chancellor Sir Thomas
true
problem. Invited by the glorification and economic
More were tried, condemned
ecclesiastical authorities to prosperity is a sign of divine and beheaded in 1535 for not
explain his ideas, the approval. The Calvinist doctrine, endorsing the king's will). On
discussions theological as can the other hand, the
carried out confirmed the be warned, gave a confiscation and sale of the
fundamental discrepancies religious foundation to clergy's lands was carried out,
between the Catholic Church capitalism. the exclaustration of the
and the position of Luther, who, monasteries and the
radicalizing his position, denied suppression of religious
the authority of the Pope and orders.
the Councils (Leipzig
Controversies of 1519).
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The Counter-Reformation was the response to the Protestant Reformation which had questioned
Catholic dogmas and traditions and denied the authority of the Pope. Its objectives were to renew the
Church and prevent the advance of Protestant doctrines. His measures focused efforts and energies on
the internal reorganization of the Church, establishing the most rigid authority and discipline. The most
relevant events in this sense were the Council of Trent (1545-1563) and the founding of the Jesuit
Order (1534).

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FORMATION OF THE MODERN STATE.

The Absolute Monarchy and National State in Europe. The Modern State was established in the
midst of violent struggles that occurred at the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern
Era, as a result of economic and social changes, the decline of feudalism and religious wars. Absolute
monarchy appears as the solution to anarchy and the restoration of peace and justice. The absolute
regime was essentially characterized by the concentration of the three powers of the State
in the hands of the monarch. The King represents the unity of the country in the national State; His
royal power is absolute and of divine origin. The King creates a Court and a ceremonial; He orders the
construction of magnificent palaces, symbols of his great power. The King received the support of the
bourgeoisie, since a powerful Monarch meant standardizing laws and taxes. His power was based on a
bureaucracy of public employees and an army of mercenaries. The actual expenses were defrayed by
taxes collected from the non-privileged classes. With national states, a new international relationship
emerges, the “concert of nations”, the “balance of forces”.

The leadership of a country or a monarch is no longer accepted. Diplomacy is born. Its first orientation
was accepted, tolerated and shared espionage. Politics is secularized, it is not linked to moral norms.
The State and the Monarch justify their behavior in the so-called “Reason of State”, a type of higher
principles, prior to commandments and morality. Making King and country powerful was a motivating
force for geographical discoveries and colonialism. Monarchical absolutism centralized political power
and administratively and economically unified the country.

18TH CENTURY, THE CENTURY OF ENLIGHTENMENT: It was a century of contrasts: the

structures of previous centuries are maintained: absolute monarchy, privileged classes, religious
intolerance, economic statism, intellectual censorship; But the “new ideas” propagated by the so-called
philosophers appear, especially in France. These new ideas are expressed in the “Natural Rights of
Men” . Hence arises the antagonism with the “Ancient Regime” . Man exalts the value of his reason,
they affirm that it is the only valid and worthy thing. The culture of the Enlightenment was rational,
worldly, cosmopolitan, with strong critical thinking. This exaggerated rationalism had two
consequences: on the one hand, the progress of scientific disciplines based on experimentation and
observation of phenomena, and on the other hand, the attack on dogmatic religious conceptions. The
persecution of the Catholic Church focused on the Jesuits.

THE ENLIGHTENED IN THE 18TH CENTURY FORMULATED DEEP CRITICISM OF THE

POLITICAL ABSOLUTISM OF MONARCHS OF DIVINE ORIGIN. The philosopher Juan
Jacobo Rousseau (1712-1778) raises the thesis of popular sovereignty, from which the power of the
ruler would emanate. Rousseau's most important work was The Social Contract . Men enjoyed equal
rights and lived in complete freedom. They went from the state of nature to the state of society
through an agreement called the social contract, in which everyone participated equally. Such was the
origin of government and society. Consequently, all men are equal. They delegate the function of
governing to some, but the source of political authority, that is, sovereignty, is in the people. The
principles developed by Rousseau in political matters will serve to found democracy and universal
suffrage.

Charles de Secondat , Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755), criticized French monarchical

absolutism, the corruption of the court, the lack of freedom of expression, and the desire for dominance
of members of the clergy. His most transcendent work was “The Spirit of the Laws” , proving himself
to be the best exponent of the thesis of the Separation of the Powers of the State . Montesquieu
points out

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that the State must guarantee freedom, which is achieved with a strict and well-balanced division of

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powers. According to him: "the State must be organized in such a way that some can curb the
power of others." Similar to the English Constitutional Monarchy, it proposes that the Executive
Power should be in the hands of the monarch, the Legislative Power in the hands of a parliament or
representative assembly, and the Judicial Power in charge of judges and magistrates.

François-Marie Arouet (Voltaire) (1694-1778) was the most important philosopher of this time.
Witty and critical. He vigorously fought the Old Regime in all its forms, especially in relation to religious
intolerance. For his acid criticism of religion, politics and society, he was locked up in the Bastille. He
goes into exile in England, a country whose political system he admires. His genius led him to establish
a relationship with Frederick II of Prussia and to cultivate the friendship of Catherine, the Tsarina of
Russia. He expounded his ideas in the “Philosophical Letters” and in his historical works, “The
Century of Louis XIV” and “Essay on Customs” . In his work there are strong criticisms of the
absolute and despotic authority of the king, demanding the suppression of censorship and tirelessly
fighting for freedom of conscience, tolerance and rational thought.

ILLUSTRATED DESPOTISM. Many European monarchs of the 18th century were convinced that,
without losing their authority, they could carry out reforms in the sense that the ideas of the
Enlightenment proposed in order to achieve progress and benefits for their respective peoples and thus
ward off the ghosts of rebellion and revolution. Thus, Enlightened Despotism was born, which is
identified with the expression “everything for the people, but without the people.” In this way
and following the ideas of the physiocrats, they promoted agriculture, developed education,
mathematical and astronomical sciences, and made reforms in justice, putting an end to torture. They
intervened in the Church by limiting the powers of the clergy, they fought the Jesuits, obtaining from
the Pope the dissolution of the Society of Jesus in 1773. Prominent enlightened despots were King
Charles III of Spain, Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria and Catherine II of Russia .

CONSEQUENCES OF THE ILLUSTRATED MOVEMENT. The ideas formulated by the

exceptional thinkers of the Enlightenment movement were parallel to the economic revolution,
generated by the spread of highly libertarian ideas in this regard. In the 18th century, changes
occurred in the social structure: the old upper classes (clergy and nobility) only retained privileges and
lost political leadership. The Bourgeoisie is the ruling class and driver of changes. This is testified to by
two large-scale political revolutions developed in the most important countries of the time in Europe,
first it was England and later it was France, in both of which the extreme of regicide was reached.
When the first Industrial Revolution emerged in England in the 18th century, whose symbol minerals
were coal and iron, machines and the modern factory were born. The proletarians take importance. The
world lives better, with more comforts, but these riches are not the same for everyone. There was a
significant increase in population. This generated migration processes outside Europe. Furthermore,
countries needed to have colonies from which to obtain raw materials. At the same time, place capital
and manufactured products. Colonial imperialism begins. All of the above marks the end of a stage
based on deeply humanist principles, to begin a stage in which materialism will take over, bringing on
the one hand well-being and on the other hand suffering to huge masses of human beings who will be
considered as an instrument of wealth without any regard for respect for his dignity as a human being.

V. INTRODUCTION TO THE 19TH CENTURY. GENERAL ASPECTS,

REVOLUTIONS, LIBERAL AND NATIONAL MOVEMENTS
Finally, the period between the French Revolution, in 1789, and the end of the Second World War in
1945, is known as the "Age of Revolutions" . Also known as Contemporary Era. The 18th century
was one of contradictions. It was the century of the Old Regime and Enlightened Despotism, with its
class and discriminatory society and its divine right absolutism. But it was at the same time the century
of new ideas: of the proclamation of the Natural Rights of Man, of the principles of Equality, Freedom,
Popular Sovereignty and Separation of the Powers of the State. The 18th century saw several
revolutions, one ideological, one industrial, one demographic, one agrarian and two great political

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revolutions such as the Independence of the United States and the French Revolution that undermined
the foundations of the Old Regime and its class society. On the economic level, liberalism and
physiocratism originated; while in the religious sphere, the rationalism of

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The 18th century gave life to Deism and Secularism, as well as promoted the development of natural
sciences based on observation and experimentation.

CONSEQUENCES AND PROJECTIONS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

In France the Old Regime ended. The Bourbons, back on the throne, had to respect some
revolutionary conquests: Abolition of serfdom and the privileges of the nobility, equality of inheritance,
rights of the bourgeois to public office, guarantee of private property before the government, legislative
assembly (although restricted), etc. In the rest of Europe, mentality also changed , thanks to the
spread of the enlightened ideals made from France. The bourgeoisies of each nation felt strong and
encouraged to achieve power and put an end to the old structures. The Declaration of the Rights of Man
and of the Citizen inspired the social struggles of the 19th century and the formation of Western
democracies. Strong nationalism , as a reaction to Napoleon's conquering expansion, developed
throughout Europe. The dismembered nations fought for their unity and the subjugated ones to achieve
their independence. The power of the Church was reduced and secularism gained strength, in favor of
separating it from the State and for it to assume control of education. In Latin America, revolutionary
ideas encouraged Creoles to demand more rights and access to the government. The Napoleonic
invasion of the Iberian Peninsula precipitated the independence movements.

The fall of the Napoleonic Empire was followed by an attempt to reestablish the Old Regime and
strengthen the powers, without taking into account small or disunited nations. But this process lasted a
few years, since new ideologies unleashed movements opposed to absolutism and in favor of national
unities.

Congress of Vienna and Holy Alliance: Kings and ministers of the victorious nations and France,
meeting at the Congress of Vienna (1815), proclaimed the legitimacy of the existing order in 1789 and
restored the monarchs to their thrones: The Bourbons (in France , Spain and Naples), the Habsburgs
(in the Italian states), the king of Portugal and Pope Pius VII in the Papal States. They reestablished
the existing States in 1789, although to the benefit of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Holland and
Savoy. Faithful to its policy of maritime domination, Great Britain obtained important positions for its
trade and control of the seas. France was reduced to its old border and surrounded by powerful
enemies. In this way, the European balance was achieved that maintained peace between the powers
for 40 years. The Holy Alliance was the pact made by Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain (which
soon withdrew) and France, at the initiative of Tsar Alexander, to maintain the thrones and Christian
principles of the nations.

REACTIONS TO THE RESTORATION:

Liberalism: Heir to the French Revolution, he wanted to establish constitutions that guaranteed
individual rights and freedoms, economic freedom and the protection of private property. It was the
ideology of the upper bourgeoisie in the first half of the century and, once in power, it had to extend its
conquests to the middle classes and other popular sectors due to their demands.
Nationalism: It exalted national values such as culture, language, historical tradition, etc. In countries
subjected or divided by powers, he fought for independence and unity; in the great powers - Great
Britain, Prussia and Russia - exalted world domination.

Three cultural currents influenced liberalism and nationalism: Romanticism and realism , which were
philosophical, artistic and literary movements, and positivism , as a scientific trend.

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CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHIES AND LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS.

The liberal postulates contributed to the transformation of Absolute Monarchies into Constitutional
Monarchies.

The revolution of 1830 managed to overthrow the Bourbons of France. Charles X, who sought to
restore the Old Regime, had to flee and was replaced by Louis Philippe of Orleans, who was

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proclaimed citizen-king. A liberal constitution was drawn up, favorable to the bourgeoisie, and a
constitutional monarchy began to govern. Later , the revolution of 1848 overthrew the bourgeois
monarchy of Louis Philippe of Orleans in France. Social groups of different origins and ideologies fought
for the extension of democratic rights and the solution of various social problems derived from the
recent industrialization of the country . The Second Republic , proclaimed in February 1848, brought
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon's nephew, to power.

UNIFICATION PROCESS OF ITALY AND GERMANY.

In the context of the development of romanticism and nationalism in the mid-19th century, in Italy and
Germany the processes of unification of their respective territories were developed, thus at the
beginning of the second half of the 19th century, Italians lacked a political unity in any way. that the
name Italy “was only a geographical expression.” While in Germany, after the Congress of Vienna, it
was divided into 39 states. Political unity was achieved around Prussia, which first promoted economic
unity through the Zollverein , a customs union that eliminated tariff barriers between the different
northern states, forming a kind of German common market. He also signed a treaty of friendship with
the southern states. The political unity of the Germans took nine years to be consummated, that is, it
was achieved between 1862 and 1871.

GLOSSARY
PREHISTORY - ANCIENT TIMES
CUNEIFORM: Writing of Sumerian origin in the form of wedges. It was written on clay tablets
in the absence of paper or papyrus.

DOLMEN: It is a megalithic construction consisting of two slabs buried in a vertical position

and a cover slab supported on them in a horizontal position.
It corresponds to a tomb.

FETISH:
p KEUIVEK3I IAKI U
It is the devotion to material objects, which have been called fetishes.
MASTABA: np)fm'm VAVmViAV . . .
It is the funerary building of ancient Egypt, types of mausoleums with a
11 rectangular and pyramidal base.
MENHIR:
It is a prehistoric construction consisting of an elongated stone buried vertically;
Its main function was to worship the Sun.
WELLING WALL:
It is the sacred site of Judaism and a retaining wall, according to popular opinion
the last vestige of the Temple of Jerusalem, the most sacred building in Judaism.

OBELISK:
It is a stone monument in the shape of a square column, topped at the top by a
small pyramid also with four faces. There is no clarity regarding their function,
although one of the theories suggests that they would warn of the solstices and
equinoxes, by indicating the sunrise on the horizon at each of these astronomical
moments.

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PESAH: It is the Jewish holiday that commemorates the departure of the Jewish people
from Egypt, recounted in the biblical book of Exodus.

SANSKRIT: It is a language of the Indo-European family. It is a classical language of India

and a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
TABERNACLE:
It was the mobile sanctuary built by the Jews in the desert, during the exodus
from Egypt, as a place of worship to God and in which the Tables of the Law
were kept.
CLASSICAL HERITAGE
ACROPOLIS:
Designate the highest and most fortified place in the Greek polis city and
whose original function was to provide protection to the population in case
of attack and as an enclosure for religious monuments. In steep and
fortified Athens at a height of 100 meters, there were several temples and
sanctuaries dedicated to Athena, goddess of wisdom and patron of the city.

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APOSTLES:
They are the men chosen by Jesus, to be with him and to send them to
preach (cf. Mk 3 13). The term apostle has become, by extension, an
expression used to identify the propagator of a doctrine or religious belief,
and even individuals who disseminate social and political ideas.

BYZANTIUM: Greek colony located in the Bosphorus Strait (a passage that connects the
Mediterranean Sea with the Black Sea).

CUSTOMERS: They were considered a special part of the Roman family since the clientele
was an institution deeply rooted in Roman society. Important families
boasted about the number of clients they had and their prestige and power
depended largely on them.
COLISEUM: It is a large building located in the city center of Rome.

COLONATE: It was an institution of Roman Law and a form of exploitation of agricultural

land. The colonist had an intermediate status between slavery and
freedom: he was that free person who cultivated land that did not belong to
him and was linked to it, without being able to abandon it. For the fact of
cultivating it, he paid an annual fee or rent, whether in money or in
species.
CONSUL: Roman magistracy created to replace the monarchy at the head of the State
(See Rome (Republic)). Each year two consuls were elected.

HELLENIC CULTURE:
pp I Own Hellade, the name with A that the Greeks named their territory.

DEMOCRACY:
.I According to the historian Thucydides (455-400). Pericles referred to it as: “…
regime… in which the State, our home, is concerned with individual
differences, equality is assured to all by law, but as far as participation in
public life is concerned, each one obtains consideration on the basis of one's
merit.”

DEMOS:
Community, town or small city in Attica. Demos means People. Local
communities retained their importance well into the 20th century. v. BC
MEDICAL WARS: 500 to 479 BC Military confrontation between the Greek Polis and the
Empire
Persian.
HELLENISM: Set of cultural characteristics that all Greek peoples considered common and
that united them and differentiated them in relation to other peoples.

LEGIONS:
Basic infantry military unit of Ancient Rome. It consisted of a heavy infantry
corps of about 5,000 and later 10,000 infantry and several hundred cavalry.

CANULEIA LAW:
Abolition of the prohibition of marriage between patricians and plebeians.

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MYCENICA:
Around 1900 BC Indo-European peoples, coming from the Danube plains,
penetrated the Balkan Peninsula and spread to the Peloponnese. They are
known as Achaeans, they had bronze weapons. Cities such as Mycenae,
Tiryns and Troy stood out.

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OSTRACISM:
iiudjptviliki
It developed in Athens with the reforms of Cleisthenes. Through a vote and
with the aim of avoiding political conflicts, citizens expelled public figures
accused of conspiracy. The accused had to go into exile for 10 years and lose
his political rights. To vote they used pieces of ceramic (ostraka).
POLIS: Emergence of cities 700 BC Political unity classical period. The polis or city
state was a limited, independent and autonomous community that
demanded the loyalty of its members. Sovereign state with a unified
government, based on a city or metropolis and dominating the territories
that surrounded it, whether large or small.

THEOLOGY:
It is a set of techniques and methods of philosophical human nature that aim
to achieve particular knowledge about divine entities. Etymologically it
comes from the Greek: theos and logos , which mean god and treaty, study.

LANDOWNER: It refers to the owner or possessor of land or property. Although the term
would be applied very generally, its current use corresponds to the
designation of large landowners.

MEDIEVAL EUROPE
BURG: Walled city arises around commercial dynamics.

CALIPHATE: Time and territory in which the caliph (Successor of Muhammad) ruled.

CAESAROPAPISM: Submission of the Byzantine Church to the will of the emperors.

SCHISM: Division within the Catholic Church. In the year 1054, the Orthodox Church or
Church of the East emerged in this way.

CLASSICAL CIVILIZATION: All artistic, philosophical and cultural expression referring to Greece and Rome.

KORAN: Muslim holy book that introduces texts with foundations and advice
21 sacred and civil norms-laws. It resembles the Christian Bible.
CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS: Codification and conservation of Roman Law by the Byzantine King Justinian I, in
the year 529.
CRUSADES: Event of religious significance and motivation that led European Christians to
confront the Muslim Turks in the holy places between 1095 and 1270. There were
8.
SCHOLASTICISM:
Religious thought strengthened by Saint Thomas Aquinas where Theology uses
philosophy for explanations and interpretations of various spiritual natures.

FIEF: It is the name used to designate the land that the lord grants to the vassal in the
vassalage contract, as part of the beneficium (benefit) that he owes to him for
the fulfillment of his obligations: (aid, or military service and advice or political
support).
GERMANS: Peoples beyond the limits of Rome that were introduced from the 3rd century AD,
beginning an integration and strong cultural dynamic with Rome, fundamental for
the formation of Western civilization.
TRIBUTE AND INVESTITURE:
Feudal contract by which the lord and vassal contracted mutual obligations.

INQUISITION: Ecclesiastical court that persecuted heresy.

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HEGIRA: Muhammad's flight from Mecca in the year 622. Year zero of the Muslims.

LAIC: Referring to all civil exercises and areas.

NICOLAISM: Marriage of priests.

ROMANCE: Language belonging to the linguistic family formed by languages descended from
Latin.

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SIMONY: Business of sacred things, which included the purchase of ecclesiastical
positions.

HUMANISM AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT

ANGLICANISM: Official religion of England, product of the separation of the Roman Church,
initiated by Henry VIII. It took elements from Christianity and Calvinism.
ANTHROPOCENTRIC:
Man is the center of intellectual, social, economic and political activity.
BOURGEOISIE:
Group of citizens whose wealth does not come from the possession of land, but
from their dedication to certain trades: the bourgeoisie emerged as a class with
the appearance of the first cities.
CAPITALISM:
Economic system in which capital, especially money, is generally in private
hands. It basically operates in a free market economy.
COUNTER REFORMATION:
Actions and events of the Catholic Church in the 16th century to counteract the
effects of the Protestant Reformation.

COLBERTISM: Synonym of Mercantilism in France.

COUNTER REFORMATION: Movement and work carried out by the Catholic Church to counteract the
Reformation. Main work: citing the Council of Trent.
SOCIAL ISSUE:
Human problem of the 18th century in the relationship between capitalists and
proletarians, characterized by the abuses committed against employees.

NATURAL RIGHTS: Immanent, universal, imprescriptible principles of the human being, prior
PR to the State. Its expression: Freedom, equality, sovereignty, property,
ILLUSTRATED DESPOTISM: democracy.
•UI V t K 3 1 1 AK 1 U
p* Attitude of absolutist Kings who made reforms, inspired by the thoughts of 18th
the power". His motto: Everything for the people, but without the people.
Ecclesiastical sanction of separating a member from the Church for serious
EXCOMMUNICATION:
misconduct.
PHYSIOCRATISM:
Economic doctrine of the 17th and 18th centuries. It was especially developed in
France. Central idea: The source of wealth is the Earth. Agriculture and mining
create wealth.
INDULGENCES:
Thanks or merits of Christ, The Virgin, The Saints, who administer the Church.
They serve Christians to forgive the temporal punishment deserved for sins
committed, that is, to avoid a stay in Purgatory.
INQUISITION:
Religious court created in Spain by the Catholic Monarchs, (also called Holy
Office), whose purpose was to persecute and condemn heretics, false converts,
accused of witchcraft, pact with the devil.
LIBERALISM:
Economic doctrine of the 18th century. Central idea: the source of wealth is
work, which must be carried out with absolute freedom. It is the ideological
foundation of the capitalist system or free market economy.
MERCANTILISM:
Economic system and doctrine in force in the 16th to 18th centuries. Central
idea: wealth is directly related to the possession of precious metals and stones
(especially gold and silver).

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ABSOLUTE MONARCHY:
The King centralizes all power. Foundation: Monarchy of divine right. Synonym:
ABSOLUTISM.

PREDESTINATION: The final destiny of man, in the afterlife, is decided by God.

PROTESTANTS: Followers of religions born during the reform process.

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PEDRO DE VALDIVIA
REASON OF STATE: Higher principles, which justify the action of the ruler, independent of moral
norms, commandments.

REFORM: Movement of division of the Roman Church. It gave birth to the Protestant
religions. It was started by Martin Luther.

RENAISSANCE: Cultural movement of the 16th-17th centuries that aims to make man reborn,
inspired by the classical Greco-Latin past. It is considered a comprehensive
cultural revolution.

SECULARIZATIONS: Confiscations of the assets of the Church in Germany, made by the nobles,
inspired by the ideas of an evangelical Church preached by Luther.

POPULAR The legal and effective residence of the power of command of a social group is
SOVEREIGNTY: found and exercised in and by the universality of citizens", and particularly in
democratic States.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

- “Ancient Universal History”, Acuña Peña Manuel, Ancient Universal History, Stgo. 1965.
- "Universal history. Volume I - II.”, Aguado Bleye M., Edit. Espasa-Calpe, Madrid.1975.
- “Humanity through the Ages”, Savelle Max (others), Edit. Marín., Barcelona. 1962.
- “Universal History of the East”, Secco-EllauriBaridón, Edit. Kapelusz., Buenos Aires. 1970.
- “Athenian Democracy”, Rodríguez Adrados Francisco.
Medieval "Jacques Le Goff, Edit “The Stock Market -Economy and on in the Middle Ages,
" The man
and Life Religio
1944, n
“European History from the invasions to the 16th century”, Henri Pirenne, Edit. “Economic and Social History
of the Middle Ages”, Economic Culture Fund, 2002.
- “The Feudal Society”, Marc Bloch, Edit. Akal Universitaria, 2006.
- “The Autumn of the Middle Ages”, J. Huizinga, Edit. McGrawhill, 1994.
- “Universal History”, Ricardo Krebs Wilckens, Editorial Universitaria Santiago Chile. 2003.
- “The Modern and Contemporary Ages”, J.Bustinza and G.Ribas, Editorial Kapelusz. Buenos Aires.
2005.
- “Modern Times”, Secco Ellauri Baridon, Editorial Kapelusz - Buenos Aires. 1994.

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DMCA – CS29

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