Introduction to

Process Control
1.1 ® INTRODUCTION
When observing a chemical process in a plant or laboratory, one sees flows surg
ing from vessel to vessel, liquids bubbling and boiling, viscous material being
extruded, and all key measurements changing continuously, sometimes with small
fluctuations and other times in response to major changes. The conclusion imme
diately drawn is that the world is dynamic! This simple and obvious statement
provides the key reason for process control. Only with an understanding of tran
sient behavior of physical systems can engineers design processes that perform
well in the dynamic world. In their early training, engineering students learn a
great deal about steady-state physical systems, which is natural, because steady-
state systems are somewhat easier to understand and provide appropriate learning
examples. However, the practicing engineer should have a mastery of dynamic
physical systems as well. This book provides the basic information and engineer
ing methods needed to analyze and design plants that function well in a dynamic
world.
Control engineering is an engineering science that is used in many engineering
disciplines—for example, chemical, electrical, and mechanical engineering—and
it is applied to a wide range of physical systems from electrical circuits to guided
missiles to robots. The field of process control encompasses the basic principles
most useful when applied to the physicochemical systems often encountered by
chemical engineers, such as chemical reactors, heat exchangers, and mass transfer
equipment.
 Since the principles covered in this book are basic to most tasks performed by
chemical engineers, control engineering is not a narrow specialty but an essential
CHAPTER 1 topic for all chemical engineers. For example, plant designers must consider the
Introduction to dynamic operation of all equipment, because the plant will never operate at steady
Process Control state (with time derivatives exactly equal to zero). Engineers charged with oper
ating plants must ensure that the proper response is made to the ever-occurring
disturbances so that operation is safe and profitable. Finally, engineers perform
ing experiments must control their equipment to obtain the conditions prescribed
by their experimental designs. In summary, the task of engineers is to design,
construct, and operate a physical system to behave in a desired manner, and an
essential element of this activity is sustained maintenance of the system at the
desired conditions—which is process control engineering.
As you might expect, process control engineering involves a vast body of ma
terial, including mathematical analysis and engineering practice. However, before
Control we can begin learning the specific principles and calculations, we must understand
calculation the goals of process control and how it complements other aspects of chemi
cal engineering. This chapter introduces these issues by addressing the following
questions:
Sensor
• What does a control system do?
• Why is control necessary?
• Why is control possible?
• How is control done?
• Where is control implemented?
• What does control engineering "engineer"?
• How is process control documented?
• What are some sample control strategies?

Final element
1.2 m WHAT DOES A CONTROL SYSTEM DO?
FIGURE 1.1

Example of feedback control for steering First, we will discuss two examples of control systems encountered in everyday
an automobile. life. Then, we will discuss the features of these systems that are common to most
control systems and are generalized in definitions of the terms control andfeedback
control.
The first example of a control system is a person driving an automobile, as
j (sensor) shown in Figure 1.1. The driver must have a goal or objective; normally, this would
be to stay in a specific lane. First, the driver must determine the location of the
Thermostat Controller
automobile, which she does by using her eyes to see the position of the automobile
on the road. Then, the driver must determine or calculate the change required to
maintain the automobile at its desired position on the road. Finally, the driver must
change the position of the steering wheel by the amount calculated to bring about
the necessary correction. By continuously performing these three functions, the
Furnace Fuel Flow driver can maintain the automobile very close to its desired position as disturbances
like bumps and curves in the road are encountered.
(final element) The second example is the simple heating system shown in Figure 1.2. The
FIGURE 1.2 house, in a cold climate, can be maintained near a desired temperature by circulat
Example of feedback control for ing hot water through a heat exchanger. The temperature in the room is determined
controlling room temperature. by a thermostat, which compares the measured value of the room temperature to
a desired range, say 18 to 22°C. If the temperature is below 18°C, the furnace and
pump are turned on, and if the temperature is above 22°C, the furnace and pump
are turned off. If the temperature is between 18 and 22°C, the furnace and pump What Does a Control
statuses remain unchanged. A typical temperature history in a house in given in System Do?

Figure 1.3, which shows how the temperature slowly drifts between the upper and
lower limits. It also exceeds the limits, because the furnace and heat exchanger
Controlled
cannot respond immediately. This approach is termed "on/off" control and can variable:
be used when precise control at the desired value is not required. We will cover Room
better control methods, which can maintain important variables much closer to temperature
their desired values, later in this book. Manipulated
Now that we have briefly analyzed two control systems, we shall identify variable:
Furnace
some common features. The first is that each uses a specific value (or range) as a fuel
desired value for the controlled variable. When we cover control calculations in Time
Part HI, we will use the term set point for the desired value. Second, the conditions FIGURE 1.3
of the system are measured; that is, all control systems use sensors to measure
Typical dynamic response of the room
the physical variables that are to be maintained near their desired values. Third, temperature when controlled by on/off
each system has a control calculation, or algorithm, which uses the measured and feedback control.
the desired values to determine a correction to the process operation. The control
calculation for the room heater is very simple (on/off), whereas the calculation
used by the driver may be very complex. Finally, the results of the calculation
are implemented by adjusting some item of equipment in the system, which is
termed the final control element, such as the steering wheel or the furnace and
pump switches. These key features are shown schematically in Figure 1.4, which
can be used to represent many control systems.
Now that we have discussed some common control systems and identified key
features, we shall define the term control. The dictionary provides the definition
for the verb control as "to exercise directing influence." We will use a similar

Desired
va ue

<

Controller

Sensor

Final
element
Process CIther
Other
inputs on tputs

FIGURE 1.4

Schematic diagram of a general feedback control system showing

the sensor, control calculation based on a desired value, and final
element.
 definition that is adapted to our purposes. The following definition suits the two
physical examples and the schematic representation in Figure 1.4.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to
Process Control
Control (verb): To maintain desired conditions in a physical system by adjusting
selected variables in the system.

The control examples have an additional feature that is extremely important.

This is feedback, which is defined as follows:

Feedback control makes use of an output of a system to influence an input to the

same system.

For example, the temperature of the room is used, through the thermostat on/off
decision, to influence the hot water flow to the exchanger. When feedback is em
ployed to reduce the magnitude of the difference between the actual and desired
values, it is termed "negative feedback." Unless stated otherwise, we will always
be discussing negative feedback and will not use the modifier negative. In the so
cial sciences and general vernacular, the phrase "negative feedback" indicates an
undesirable change, because most people do not enjoy receiving a signal that tells
them to correct an error. Most people would rather receive "positive feedback,"
a signal telling them to continue a tendency to approach the desired condition.
This difference in terminology is unfortunate; we will use the terminology for
automatic control, with "negative" indicating a change that tends to approach the
desired value, throughout this book without exception.
The importance of feedback in control systems can be seen by considering the
alternative without feedback. For example, an alternative approach for achieving
the desired room temperature would set the hot water flow based on the measured
outside temperature and a model of the heat loss of the house. (This type of predic
tive approach, termedfeedforward, will be encountered later in the book, where its
use in combination with feedback will be explained.) The strategy without feedback
would not maintain the room near the desired value if the model had errors—as
it always would. Some causes of model error might be changes in external wind
velocity and direction or inflows of air through open windows. On the other hand,
feedback control can continually manipulate the final element to achieve the de
sired value. Thus, feedback provides the powerful feature of enabling a control
system to maintain the measured value near its desired value without requiring an
exact plant model.
Before we complete this section, the terms input and output are clarified.
When used in discussing control systems, they do not necessarily refer to material
moving into and out of the system. Here, the term input refers to a variable that
causes an output. In the steering example, the input is the steering wheel position,
and the output is the position of the automobile. In the room heating example, the
input is the fuel to the furnace, and the output is the room temperature. It is essential
to recognize that the input causes the output and that this relationship cannot be
inverted. The causal relationship inherent in the physical process forces us to select
the input as the manipulated variable and the output as the measured variable. Why Is Control
Numerous examples with selections of controlled and manipulated variables are Possible?
presented in subsequent chapters.
Therefore, the answer to the first question about the function of control is, "A
feedback control system maintains specific variables near their desired values by Feed Temperature
applying the four basic features shown in Figure 1.4." Understanding and designing

u
feedback control systems is a major emphasis of this book.
Product
1.3 B WHY IS CONTROL NECESSARY?
A natural second question involves the need for control. There are two major
reasons for control, which are discussed with respect to the simple stirred-tank
heat exchanger shown in Figure 1.5. The process fluid flows into the tank from a
pipe and flows out of the tank by overflow. Thus, the volume of the tank is constant.
The heating fluid flow can be changed by adjusting the opening of the valve in the
heating medium line. The temperature in the tank is to be controlled.
f
Heating medium
The first reason for control is to maintain the temperature at its desired value FIGURE 1.5
when disturbances occur. Some typical disturbances for this process occur in the Schematic drawing of a stirred-tank
following variables: inlet process fluid flow rate and temperature, heating fluid heating process.
temperature, and pressure of the heating fluid upstream of the valve. As an exercise,
you should determine how the valve should be adjusted (opened or closed) in
response to an increase in each of these disturbance variables.
The second reason for control is to respond to changes in the desired value. For
example, if the desired temperature in the stirred-tank heat exchanger is increased,
the heating valve percent opening would be increased. The desired values are
based on a thorough analysis of the plant operation and objectives. This analysis
is discussed in Chapter 2, where the main issues are arranged in seven categories:

1. Safety
2. Environmental protection
3. Equipment protection
4. Smooth plant operation and production rate
5. Product quality
6. Profit optimization
7. Monitoring and diagnosis

These issues are translated to values of variables—temperatures, pressures, flows,

and so forth—which are to be controlled.

1.4 a WHY IS CONTROL POSSIBLE?

The proper design of plant equipment is essential for control to be possible and for
control to provide good dynamic performance. Therefore, the control and dynamic
operation is an important factor in plant design. Based on the key features of
feedback control shown in Figure 1.4, the plant design must include adequate
sensors of plant output variables and appropriate final control elements. The sensors
 must respond rapidly so that the control action can be taken in real time. Sensors
using various physical principles are available for the basic process variables (flow,
CHAPTER 1 temperature, pressure, and level), compositions (e.g., mole fraction) and physical
Introduction to properties (e.g., density, viscosity, heat of combustion). Many of these sensors are
Process Control
inserted into the process equipment, with a shield protecting them from corrosive
effects of the streams. Others require a sample to be taken periodically from the
process; note that this sampling can be automated so that a new sensor result is
available at frequent intervals. The final control elements in chemical processes are
usually valves that affect fluid flows, but they could be other manipulated variables,
such as power to an electric motor or speed of a conveyor belt.
Another important consideration is the capacity of the process equipment.
The equipment must have a large enough maximum capacity to respond to all
expected disturbances and changes in desired values. For the stirred-tank heat
exchanger, the maximum duty, as influenced by temperature, area, and heating
medium flow rate, must be large enough to maintain the tank temperature for
all anticipated disturbances. This highest heat duty corresponds to the the highest
outlet temperature, the highest process fluid flow, the lowest inlet fluid temperature,
and the highest heat loss to the environment. Each process must be analyzed to
ensure that adequate capacity exists. Further discussion of this topic appears in the
next two chapters.
Therefore, the answer to why control is possible is that we anticipate the
expected changes in plant variables and provide adequate equipment when the plant
is designed. The adequate equipment design for control must be calculated based
on expected changes; merely adding extra capacity, say 20 percent, to equipment
sizing is not correct. In some cases, this would result in waste; in other cases, the
equipment capacity would not be adequate. If this analysis is not done properly
or changes outside the assumptions occur, achieving acceptable plant operation
through manipulating final control elements may not be possible.

1.5 s HOW IS CONTROL DONE?

As we have seen in the automobile driving example, feedback control by human
actions is possible. In some cases, this approach is appropriate, but the continuous,
repetitious actions are tedious for a person. In addition, some control calculations
are too complex or must be implemented too rapidly to be performed by a person.
Therefore, most feedback control is automated, which requires that the key func
tions of sensing, calculating, and manipulating be performed by equipment and
that each element communicate with other elements in the control system. Cur
rently, most automatic control is implemented using electronic equipment, which
uses levels of current or voltage to represent values to be communicated. As would
be expected, many of the computing and some of the communication functions
are being performed increasingly often with digital technology. In some cases
control systems use pneumatic, hydraulic, or mechanical mechanisms to calcu
late and communicate; in these systems, the signals are represented by pressure
or physical position. A typical process plant will have examples of each type of
instrumentation and communication.
Since an essential aspect of process control is instrumentation, this book intro
duces some common sensors and valves, but proper selection of this equipment for
plant design requires reference to one of the handbooks in this area for additional
 details. Readers are encouraged to be aware of and use the general references listed
at the end of this chapter.
Obviously, the other key element of process control is a device to perform the Where Is Control
calculations. For much of the history of process plants (up to the 1960s), control cal- implemented?
culations were performed by analog computation. Analog computing devices are
implemented by building a physical system, such as an electrical circuit or mechan
ical system, that obeys the same equations as the desired control calculation. As
you can imagine, this calculation approach was inflexible. In addition, complex cal
culations were not possible. However, some feedback control is still implemented
in this manner, for reasons of cost and reliability in demanding plant conditions.
With the advent of low-cost digital computers, most of the control calculations
and essentially all of the complex calculations are being performed by digital
computers. Most of the principles presented in this book can be implemented
in either analog or digital devices. When covering basic principles in this book,
we will not distinguish between analog and digital computing unless necessary,
because the distinction between analog and digital is not usually important as
long as the digital computer can perform its discrete calculations quickly. Special
aspects of digital control are introduced in Chapter 11. In all chapters after Chapter
11, the control principles are presented along with special aspects of either analog
or digital implementation; thus, both modes of performing calculations are covered
in an integrated manner.
For the purposes of this book, the answer to the question "How is control
done?" is simply, "Automatically, using instrumentation and computation that
perform all features of feedback control without requiring (but allowing) human
intervention."

1.6 □ WHERE IS CONTROL IMPLEMENTED?

Chemical plants are physically large and complex. The people responsible for op
erating the plant on a minute-to-minute basis must have information from much of
the plant available to them at a central location. The most common arrangement of
control equipment to accommodate this need is shown in Figure l .6. Naturally, the
sensors and valves are located in the process. Signals, usually electronic, commu
nicate with the control room, where all information is displayed to the operating
personnel and where control calculations are performed. Distances between the
process and central control room range from a few hundred feet to a mile or more.
Some control is performed many miles from the process; for example, a remote oil
well can have no human present and would rely on remote automation for proper
operation.
In the control room, an individual is responsible for monitoring and operating
a section of a large, complex plant, containing up to 100 controlled variables and
400 other measured variables. Generally, the plant never operates on "automatic
pilot"; a person is always present to perform tasks not automated, to optimize
operations, and to intervene in case an unusual or dangerous situation occurs,
such as an equipment failure. Naturally, other people are present at the process
equipment, usually referred to as "in the field," to monitor the equipment and
to perform functions requiring manual intervention, such as backwashing filters.
Thus, well-automated chemical plants involve considerable interaction between
people and control calculations.
 Local
10

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Central control
manipulation
o Local
display

Process Control room

do
fWM] Sensor

\~r
Cables potentially
hundreds of meters
long
Calculations
and display

FIGURE 1.6
Schematic representation of a typical control system showing both local
and centralized control equipment.

Other control configurations are possible and are used when appropriate. For
example, small panels with instrumentation can be placed near a critical piece of
process equipment when the operator needs to have access to the control system
while introducing some process adjustments. This arrangement would not prevent
the remainder of the plant from being controlled from a central facility. Also, many
sensors provide a visual display of the measured value, which can be seen by the
local operator, as well as a signal transmitted to the central control room. Thus,
the local operator can determine the operating conditions of a unit, but the indi
vidual local displays are distributed about the plant, not collected in a single place
for the local operator.
The short answer to the location question is

1. Sensors, local indicators, and valves are in the process.

2. Displays of all plant variables and control calculations are in a centralized
facility.

It is worth noting that increased use of digital computing makes the distribution
of the control calculation to the sensor locations practical; however, all controllers
would be connected to a computing network that would function like a single
computer for the purposes of the material in this book.

1.7 1 WHAT DOES CONTROL ENGINEERING "ENGINEER"?

What can engineers do so that plants can be maintained reliably and safely near
desired values? Most of the engineering decisions are introduced in the following
five topics.
Process Design 11
A key factor in engineering is the design of the process so that it can be controlled
What Does Control
well. We noted in the room heating example that the temperature exceeded the
Engineering
maximum and minimum values because the furnace and heat exchanger were not "Engineer"?
able to respond rapidly enough. Thus, a more "responsive" plant would be easier
to control. By responsive we mean that the controlled variable responds quickly
to adjustments in the manipulated variable. Also, a plant that is susceptible to few
disturbances would be easier to control. Reducing the frequency and magnitude
of disturbances could be achieved by many means; a simple example is placing a
large mixing tank before a unit so that feed composition upsets are attenuated by
the averaging effects of the tank. Many more approaches to designing responsive
processes with few disturbances are covered in the book.

Measurements
Naturally, a key decision is the selection and location of sensors, because one can
control only what is measured! The engineer should select sensors that measure
important variables rapidly and with sufficient accuracy. In this book, we will
concentrate on the process analysis related to variable selection and to determining
response time and accuracy needs. Details of a few common sensors are also
presented as needed in exercises; a full review of sensor technology and commercial
equipment is available in the references at the end of this chapter.

Final Elements
The engineer must provide handles—manipulated variables that can be adjusted by
the control calculation. For example, if there were no valve on the heating fluid in
Figure 1.5, it would not be possible to control the process fluid outlet temperature.
This book concentrates on the process analysis related to final element location.
We will typically be considering control valves as the final elements, with the
percentage opening of these valves determined by a signal sent to the valve from a
controller. Specific details about the best final element to regulate flow of various
fluids—liquids, steam, slurries, and so forth—are provided by references noted at
the end of this chapter. These references also present other final elements, such as
motor speed, that are used in the process industries.

Control Structure
The engineer must decide some very basic issues in designing a control system. For
example, which valve should be manipulated to control which measurement? As
an everyday example, one could adjust either the hot or cold water valve opening
to control the temperature of water in a shower. These topics are presented in later
chapters, after a sound basis of understanding in dynamics and feedback control
principles has been built.

Control Calculations
After the variables and control structure have been selected, equation(s) are cho
sen that use the measurement and desired values in calculating the manipulated
variable. As we shall learn, only a few equations are sufficient to provide good
12 control for many types of plants. After the control equations' structure is defined,
parameters that appear in the equations are adjusted to achieve the desired control
CHAPTER 1 performance for the particular process.
Introduction to
Process Control

1.8 □ HOW IS PROCESS CONTROL DOCUMENTED?

As with all activities in chemical engineering, the results are documented in many
forms. The most common are equipment specifications and sizing, operating man
uals, and technical documentation of plant experiments and control equations. In
addition, control engineering makes extensive use of drawings that concisely and
unequivocally represent many design decisions. These drawings are used for many
purposes, including designing plants, purchasing equipment, and reviewing oper
ations and safety procedures. Therefore, many people use them, and to avoid mis
understandings standard symbols have been developed by the Instrument Society
of America for use throughout the world. We shall adhere to a reduced version of
this excellent standard in this book because of its simplicity and wide application.
Sample drawings are shown in Figure 1.7. All process equipment—piping,
vessels, valves, and so forth—is drawn in solid lines. The symbols for equipment
items such as pumps, tanks, drums, and valves are simple and easily recognized.
Sensors are designated by a circle or "bubble" connected to the point in the process
where they are located. The first letter in the instrumentation symbol indicates the
type of variable measured; for example, "T" corresponds to temperature. Some of
the more common designations are the following:

A Analyzer (specific analysis is often indicated next to the symbol, for

example, p (for density) or pH)
F Flow rate
L Level of liquid or solids in a vessel
P Pressure
T Temperature

Note that the symbol does not indicate the physical principle used by the sensor.
Backup tabular documentation is required to determine such details.
The communication to the sensor is shown as a solid line. If the signal is used
only for display to the operator, the second letter in the symbol is "I" for indicator.
Often, the "I" is not used, so that a single letter refers to a measurement used for
monitoring only, not for control.
If the signal is used in a calculation, it is also shown in a circle. The second letter
in the symbol indicates the type of calculation. We consider only two possibilities
in this book: "C" for feedback control and "Y" for any other calculation, such
as addition or square root. The types of control calculations are covered later in
the book. A noncontrol calculation might use the measured flow and temperatures
around a heat exchanger to calculate the duty; that is, Q = pCpF{Tm — Toul). For
controllers, the communication to the final element is shown as a dashed line when
it is electrical, which is the mode communication considered in designs for most
of this book.
The basic symbols with their meanings are documented in Appendix A. This
simplified version of the Instrument Society of America standards is sufficient for
Feed
13

What Are Some

U Product Sample Control
Strategies?

I"®-
■$ $
Heating medium ©
(a) (b)

Feed A FeedB
-t^-

^E3—i—*- Product

/-H&— CD
tJ
(c) id)
FIGURE 1.7
(a) Continuous stirred-tank reactor with composition control, (b) Flow controller.
(c) Tank level with controller, id) Mixing process with composition control.

this textbook and will provide an adequate background for more complex drawings.
While using the standards may seem like additional work in the beginning, it should
be considered a small investment leading to accurate communication, like learning
grammar and vocabulary, used by all chemical engineers.

1.9 ® WHAT ARE SOME SAMPLE CONTROL STRATEGIES?

Some very simple example process control systems are given in Figure 1.7a
through d. Each drawing contains a process schematic, a controller (in the in
strumentation circle), and the connection between the measurement and the ma
nipulated variable. As a thought exercise, you should analyze each process control
system to verify the causal process relationship and to determine what action the
controller would take in response to a disturbance or a change in desired value (set
point). For example, in Figure 1 .la, with an increase in the inlet temperature, the
control system would sense a decrease in the outlet composition of reactant. In
response, the control system would adjust the heating coil valve, closing it slightly,
until the outlet composition returned to its desired value.
A sample of a more complex process diagram, this one without the control
design, is given in Figure 1.8. The process includes a chemical reactor, a flash
14

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to
Process Control

Feed Heat Chemical Heat Flash

Ta n k Exchanger Reactor Exchanger Separator
FIGURE 1.8

Integrated feed tank, reactor, and separator with recycle.

separator, heat exchangers, and associated piping. Note that a control design en
gineer must select from a large number of possible measurements and valves to
determine controller connections from an enormous number of possibilities! In
Chapter 25 you will design a control system for this process that controls the
key variables, such as reactor level and separator temperature, based on specified
control objectives.

1.10 m CONCLUSIONS
The material in this chapter has presented a qualitative introduction to process
control. You have learned the key features of feedback control along with the types
of equipment (instruments and computers) required to apply process control. The
importance of the process design on control was discussed several times in the
chapter.
Based on this introduction, we are prepared to discuss more carefully the
goals of process control in Chapter 2. Understanding the process control goals is
essential to selecting the type of analysis used in control engineering.

REFERENCES
ISA, ISA-S5.3, Graphic Symbols for Distributed Control/Shared Display In
strumentation, Logic and Computer Systems, Instrument Society of Amer
ica, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1983.
ISA, ISA-S5.1, Instrumentation Symbols and Identification, Instrument Soci
ety of America, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1984.
 ISA, ISA-S5.5, Graphic Symbols for Process Displays, Instrument Society of 15
America, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1985. \Ms^m§^mmmmmmm
ISA, ISA-S5.4-I989, Instrument Loop Diagrams, Instrument Society of Amer- Additional Resources
ica, Research Triangle Park, NC, July, 1989.
Mayer, Otto, Origins of Feedback Control, MIT Press, 1970.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Process and control engineers need to refer to books for details on process control
equipment. The following references provide an introduction to the resources on
this specialized information.

Clevett, K., Process Analyzer Technology, Wiley-Interscience, New York,

1986.
Considine, R., and S. Ross, Handbook of Applied Instrumentation, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1964.
Liptak, B., Instrument Engineers Handbook, Vol. I: Process Measurements
and Vol. 2: Process Control, Chilton Book Company, Radnor, PA, 1985.
Driskell, L., Control Valve Selection and Sizing, ISA Publishing, Research
Triangle Park, NC, 1983.
Hutchison, J. (ed.), ISA Handbook of Control Valves (2nd ed.), Instrument
Society of America, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1976.
ISA, Standards and Practices for Instrumentation and Control (11th ed.),
Instrument Society of America, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1992.

The following set of books gives a useful overview of process control, ad

dressing both equipment and mathematical analysis.

Andrew, W, and H. Williams, Applied Instrumentation in the Process Indus

tries (2nd ed.), Volume I: A Survey, Gulf Publishing, Houston, 1979.
Andrew, W., and H. Williams, Applied Instrumentation in the Process Indus
tries (2nd ed.), Volume II: Practical Guidelines, Gulf Publishing, Hous
ton, 1980.
Andrew, W., and H. Williams, Applied Instrumentation in the Process Indus
tries (2nd ed.), Volume III: Engineering Data and Resource Manual, Gulf
Publishing, Houston, 1982.
Zoss, L., Applied Instrumentation in the Process Industries, Volume IV: Con
trol Systems Theory, Troubleshooting, and Design, Gulf Publishing, Hous
ton, 1979.

The following references provide clear introductions to general control meth

ods and specific control strategies in many process industries, such as petrochem
ical, food, steel, paper, and several others.

Kane, L. (Ed.), Handbook of Advanced Process Control Systems and Instru

mentation, Gulf Publishing, Houston, 1987.
Matley, J. (Ed.), Practical Instrumentation and Control II, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1986.
16 The following are useful references on drawing symbols for process and con
trol equipment.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Austin, D., Chemical Engineering Drawing Symbols, Halsted Press, London,
Process Control
1979.
Weaver, R., Process Piping Drafting (3rd ed.), Gulf Publishing, Houston,
1986.

Finally, a good reference for terminology is

ISA, Process Instrumentation Terminology, ANSI/ISA S51.1-1979, Instru

ment Society of America, Research Triangle Park, NC, December 28,
1979.

QUESTIONS
1.1. Describe the four necessary components of a feedback control system.
1.2. Review the equipment sketches in Figure Ql 2a and b and explain whether
each is or is not a level feedback control system. In particular, identify the
four necessary components of feedback control, if they exist.
(a) The flow in is a function of the connecting rod position.
(b) The flow out is a function of the level (pressure at the bottom of the
tank) and the resistance to flow.

Flow in varies, cannot be adjusted

Flow out
varies, cannot
be adjusted

Flow out depends on

the level and resistance
% valve opening depends due to the exit constriction
on the connecting rod position and pipe
(«) (b)
FIGURE Ql.2

1.3. Give some examples of feedback control systems in your everyday life,
government, biology, and management. The control calculations may be
automated or performed by people.
1.4. Discuss the advantages of having a centralized control facility. Can you
think of any disadvantages?
1.5. Review the processes sketched in Figure 1.7a through d in which the con
trolled variable is to be maintained at its desired value.
(a) From your chemical engineering background, suggest the physical
principle used by the sensor.
 (b) Explain the causal relationship between the manipulated and controlled 17
variables.
(c) Explain whether the control valve should be opened or closed to in Questions
crease the value of the controlled variable.
(d) Identify possible disturbances that could influence the controlled vari
able. Also, describe how the process equipment would have to be sized
to account for the disturbances.

1.6. The preliminary process designs have been prepared for the systems in
Figure Ql .6. The key variables to be controlled for the systems are (a) flow
rate, temperature, composition, and pressure for the flash system and (b)
composition, temperature, and liquid level for the continuous-flow stirred-
tank chemical reactor. For both processes, disturbances occur in the feed
temperature and composition. Answer the following questions for both
processes.
(a) Determine which sensors and final elements are required so that the
important variables can be controlled. Sketch them on the figure where
they should be located.
(b) Describe how the equipment capacities should be determined.
(c) Select controller pairings; that is, select which measured variable should
be controlled by adjusting which manipulated variable.
(These examples will be reconsidered after quantitative methods have been
introduced.)

Heat exchangers
Vapor

r~\

G O Drum

C?
-»- Liquid

Pump
(a)

Solvent

■€ 7 T

Reactant
do
£F ( T O
& ~

Cooling
(b)
FIGURE Q1.6
18 1.7. Consider any of the control systems shown in Figure 1.7a through d. Sug
gest a feedback control calculation that can be used to determine the proper
CHAPTER 1 value of the manipulated valve position. The only values available for the
Introduction to calculation are the desired value and the measured value of the controlled
Process Control
variable. (Do the best you can at this point. Control algorithms for feedback
control are presented in Part III.)
1.8. Feedback control uses measurement of a system output variable to deter
mine the value of a system input variable. Suggest an alternative control
approach that uses a measured (disturbance) input variable to determine
the value of a different (manipulated) input variable, with the goal of main
taining a system output variable at its desired value. Apply your approach
to one of the systems in Figure 1.7. Can you suggest a name for your
approach?
1.9. Evaluate the potential feedback control designs in Figure Ql .9. Determine
whether each is a feedback control system. Explain why or why not, and
explain whether the control system will function correctly as shown for
disturbances and changes in desired value.

-H^r -t&r— C&H-

& ^

(a) Level control (b) Level control

U&
do
-C&r
iron
Cooling
Solvent ^ medium
+
component
oo
-t^T
(c) Composition control without (d) Temperature control
chemical reaction
FIGURE Q1.9