Approche Systemique de La Prise de Decis
Approche Systemique de La Prise de Decis
Approche Systemique de La Prise de Decis
Spécialité : Mécanique
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SOMMAIRE
Sommaire .................................................................................................................... - 3 -
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Deuxième Partie : Synthèse des travaux de recherche menés ........................... - 35 -
Introduction ................................................................................................................ - 37 -
Conclusion ................................................................................................................. - 83 -
Annexes.................................................................................................................... - 92 -
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« Deviens qui tu es ! Fais ce que toi seul peut faire. »
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AVANT PROPOS
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PREMIERE PARTIE : CV PERSONNEL ET ACTIVITES
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CURRICULUM VITAE
Etat Civil
Julie STAL-LE CARDINAL
Adresse Professionnelle :
Ecole Centrale Paris
Laboratoire Génie Industriel
Grande voie des vignes
92295 Châtenay Malabry
tel : 01 41 13 15 69 / fax : 01 41 13 12 72
email : julie.le-cardinal@ecp.fr
web : http://www.gi.ecp.fr/
Formation
1997-2000
Thèse de doctorat sur une étude des dysfonctionnements dans la prise de décision.
Application au choix d’acteur (Ecole Centrale Paris).
Composition du jury :
Jean-Paul BARTHES : Professeur UTC (Rapporteur).
Olivier GARRO : Professeur UTBM (Rapporteur).
Jean-Louis ERMINE : Professeur INSTN, CEA, Saclay.
Jean-Claude PROUHEZE : Directeur R&D, Vallourec.
Sendor VAJNA : Professeur Universitat Magdeburg, Allemagne.
Jean-Claude BOCQUET : Professeur ECP (Co-Directeur de thèse).
Mounib MEKHILEF : Maître de Conférence Université d'Orléans (Co-Directeur de
thèse).
1996-1997
Diplôme d'Etudes Approfondies Génie des Systèmes Industriels (GSI), option
Productique (Ecole Centrale Paris).
Projet de recherche de DEA GSI (ECP) concernant l'élaboration d'un modèle de
capitalisation du savoir-faire (développement de l’outil RADo).
1991-1996
Diplôme d'Ingénieur en Génie Mécanique, filière Design Industriel (Université de
Technologie de Compiègne).
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Expérience professionnelle de recherche
depuis 2002
Poste de Chef des Travaux à l’Ecole Centrale Paris (poste équivalent pour l’ECP à
Maître de Conférences).
Unité de recherche d’appartenance : EA2606.
depuis 2001
Qualifiée aux fonctions de Maître de Conférences en 60ème section (Mécanique, génie
mécanique, génie civil) renouvelée en 2005 et 2009.
2000-2002
Poste d’Assistant à temps plein à l’Ecole Centrale Paris.
1999-2002
Consolidation des travaux de recherche sur des projets R&D du groupe Vallourec en
vue de proposer une méthodologie adaptée. Etude de 22 dysfonctionnements de
projets et propositions de préconisations.
depuis 2007
Membre de la délégation chargée de la supervision des échanges d’élèves-ingénieurs
entre l’ECP et les universités américaines Columbia et Cornell.
depuis 2002
Poste de Chef des Travaux à l’Ecole Centrale Paris.
2000-2002
Poste d’Assistant à l’Ecole Centrale Paris.
1997-2000
Poste de monitorat à l'Ecole Centrale Paris : initiation à la pratique de la pédagogie,
stages de formation à l'enseignement supérieur, cours sur l'analyse de la valeur, la
gestion de projets, encadrement de projets de deuxième et troisième année.
1996
Formatrice GRETA pour DNTS (innovation, méthodes de créativité, conception coût
global objectif, gestion de projet, ingénierie simultanée).
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2000-2002
Accompagnement de chefs de projets de la société Vallourec dans l’objectif de déployer
une démarche projet générale au groupe. Conseils sur l’amélioration du processus R&D
du groupe.
1996
Projet de fin d'études (6 mois) dans la société Covalence (92), spécialisée en
méthodologies d'aide à la conception et en gestion de projet. Principaux clients : Valeo,
GDF, Moulinex, Air France...
Séjours à l’étranger
1995
Semestre d'études à Montréal, Ecole de Design Industriel (CANADA).
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ACTIVITES DE RECHERCHE
Thématique de recherche
Le domaine d’application de nos activités de recherche est la conception de produits et
de systèmes manufacturés.
Dans ce domaine, nos axes de recherche ont pour objectif de faciliter les prises de
décisions en entreprise. Pour cela, nos apports se situent à trois niveaux :
• Au niveau opérationnel : apports sur les prises de décisions techniques
concernant la conception des produits et des services par la capitalisation et la
gestion des connaissances ;
• Au niveau tactique : apports sur les prises de décisions relatives au montage et
au suivi des projets de conception et plus particulièrement sur le choix d’acteurs
d’une part et les décisions collaboratives d’autre part ;
• Au niveau stratégique : apports sur les décisions d’organisation d’entreprises par
la modélisation d’entreprise et l’approche systémique.
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La figure 1 représente les thèmes sur lesquels nous travaillons depuis plus de dix ans
ainsi qu’un ordre de grandeur de leur importance en termes d’investissement en temps.
Ces différents thèmes seront détaillés dans la partie 2.
Nous tenons à ce que les modèles élaborés en recherche soient validés et enrichis par
une application dans le monde industriel (dans de nombreux domaines et secteurs).
Collaborations internationales
depuis 2009
Collaboration scientifique de recherche avec Penn State University, USA sur la
thématique Génie industriel et Santé avec Harriet BLACK NEMBHARD, associate professor
of Industrial Engineering.
depuis 2006
Membre du Scientific Advisory Board de la conférence internationale Design 2006,
2008, 2010.
2006
Sélectionnée par le Ministère des Affaires Etrangères Français pour faire partie de la
délégation de 100 jeunes scientifiques pour un échange France-Chine.
depuis 2005
Membre de la Design Society.
depuis 2000
Participation sur l’aspect développement de produit au colloque IPD (Integrated Product
Development) organisé tous les deux ans par le Professeur Sandor VAJNA à
Magdeburg, Allemagne.
2000-2001
Participation à la mise en place du centre d’accueil du Chapitre PMI-Ile de France
(Project Management Institute) au sein de l’ECP.
Membre du Project Management Institute
Membre du Knowledge Board
Collaborations nationales
depuis 2008
Marraine du groupe Génie Industriel et Santé de l’Ecole Centrale Paris (groupe de
jeunes chercheurs réunis autour d’une problématique commune : faire profiter le monde
de la santé des méthodes déployées en génie industriel). Volonté de mettre en commun
nos recherches appliquées au monde de la santé et d’être leader dans ce domaine.
depuis 2007
Membre de l’axe Management de Projet du laboratoire Génie Industriel
Responsable et animatrice du Groupe de travail « Humain », traitant des aspects
humains dans les projets.
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Rédaction d’un Cahier d’Etudes et de Recherche sur la Complexité dans les projets en
entreprise [CER 09-04].
Responsable et animatrice du Groupe de travail « REX et Projets », traitant du retour
d’expériences dans les projets.
depuis 2004
Collaboration avec Jean-Louis ERMINE de l’INT d’Evry sur la thématique du
management des connaissances avec notamment le co-encadrement de la thèse d’Abir
FATHALLAH sur les systèmes d’entreprise.
2003-2006
Co-animatrice de l’axe connaissance du GdRMACS C2EI (Modélisation et pilotage des
systèmes de Connaissances et de Compétences dans les Entreprises Industrielles)
animé par Emmanuel CAILLAUD.
Membre du GdRMACS IS3C (Ingénierie des Systèmes de Conception et Conduite du
Cycle de vie produit) animé par Michel BIGAND ET Philippe GIRARD.
2000-2003
Marraine du groupe CIRCARE (groupe de jeunes chercheurs, thésards, étudiants en DEA,
en relation étroite avec l'industrie et réunis autour d'une problématique commune : la
Gestion des Connaissances). Incubateur d'idées, profitant de sa position centrale entre
les expériences industrielles d'application de la démarche de Knowledge Management
et des réflexions de recherche théoriques sur la question, CIRCARE met l'accent sur la
confrontation de points de vues et l'échange entre disciplines pour faciliter la
compréhension des problèmes suscités par la mise en œuvre de cette nouvelle
démarche.
Espace d'échange et de réflexions, CIRCARE est aussi de fait une structure de veille sur
les méthodes, les outils et les implications des démarches de Knowledge Management.
2002
Participation aux journées du Club de Montréal pour Airbus, Toulouse sur le thème :
maturité du produit dans les grands projets (satisfaction du client, sécurité-fiabilité, coût
de la maintenance). Ce club compte vingt et un membres parmi lesquels des praticiens
de la conduite de projets, des dirigeants d'entreprise, des chercheurs, des professeurs
et des consultants ; ils travaillent ensemble sur le mode de l'auto-apprentissage et
livrent les leçons qu'ils ont tirées de leurs expériences vécues.
Contrats industriels
depuis 2009
BPI : Aide au montage de l’activité « Management de Projets Complexes » et formation
en clientèle (15 k€).
2006-2007
Signature et réalisation d’un contrat de formation/conseil avec la société Vallourec :
"Integration of project management tools in a multicultural environment" (12 k€).
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2004
Contrat CEA sur l’analyse comparative des moyens de stockage de l’hydrogène :
proposition en cours de ratification démarrant en 2004 avec un élève de MASTER
Recherche qui continue maintenant en thèse au laboratoire Génie Industriel.
2000-2003
Action de formation/conseil chez Vallourec : Etudes des dysfonctionnements projet et
mise en place d’une méthodologie générique de management de projet (20 k€).
Contrats institutionnels
2005
Participation au dossier FAQSV (Fonds d’Aide à la Qualité des Soins de Ville d’Ile de
France) déposé au premier trimestre 2005 sur l’hospitalisation à domicile (HAD) :
collaboration avec le monde hospitalier pour résoudre la problématique des projets
thérapeutiques dans la coordination des soins complexes au domicile pour les
personnes âgées. La mise en œuvre des solutions développées concerne une partie de
la population âgée de l’Est parisien (HAD de La Croix Saint Simon et Réseau AGEP). Le
financement de cette mise en œuvre s’intégre dans un projet court terme de création de
réseau en gérontologie. Notre intervention consiste, ici, à aider à utiliser des méthodes
d’ingénierie projet, issues du génie industriel, dans le domaine hospitalier.
2005
Participation à l’appel d’offre de l'Assistance Publique – Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP) :
Prestations de conseil et de formation / action à la méthodologie de pilotage et de suivi
de projet pour les besoins de la mission de coordination des projets du plan équilibre de
l'AP-HP.
Organisation de colloques
mai 2009
2ème Conférence Francophone « Gestion des Connaissances, Société et
Organisations » organisée par BEM Bordeaux Management School et l’Institut de
Cognitique (Université Bordeaux II) en collaboration avec TELECOM Ecole de
Management et le groupe ESC Troyes.
Organisation d’une session spéciale : Modélisation d'entreprise et gestion des
connaissances (Organisateurs : Julie STAL-LE CARDINAL et Bruno VALLESPIR).
Membre du comité scientifique.
août 2007
Membre du comité d’organisation du congrès international ICED Paris 2007
(International Conference on Engineering Design).
Membre du comité scientifique.
600 personnes, 42 pays.
mars 2005
Co-organisation d’une journée Connaissances liée au GdR Mac C2EI.
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Relecture d’articles et chairman
Relecture d’articles de revue internationale :
• Concurrent Engineering Research and Applications Journal :
2006
Conférences invitées
IPD 2000
Invitée par le Professeur Sandor VAJNA à présenter mes travaux de thèse lors d’un
workshop pendant le congrès IPD.
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PUBLICATIONS ET ENCADREMENTS
Résumé
Publications Nombre
A - Revues Spécialisées avec comité de lecture 8 acceptés
B - Ouvrages de synthèse 3
C - Conférences internationales avec actes et comité de 33
lecture
D - Colloques avec actes à diffusion restreinte 11
CER - Cahier d’Etudes et de Recherche 4
E - Diffusion de l’information scientifique et technique 1
F - Brevet (enveloppe Soleau) 1
La figure 2 représente le nombre de publications classées par type sur la période 1999-
2009.
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B
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Figure 2 : Nombre et type de publications pour la période 1999-2009
Encadrements de Thèses
Damaris GALVAN-MONTIEL
Modélisation du processus de conception : proposition d’un processus élémentaire.
Thèse effectuée par Damaris GALVAN MONTIEL que nous avons encadrée à 50%.
L’objectif est d’obtenir un système d'aide pour l'organisation, la spécification, la
définition, la planification, la réalisation et la gestion d'indicateurs des flux d'information,
de décision et d'action en phase de conception d'un produit nouveau. Ce travail s’est
consacré aux relations entre les sous-systèmes physique, d'information et de décision
pour la gestion d'indicateurs en phase de conception d'un produit nouveau.
Thèse académique soutenue le 15 décembre 2003 (bourse Sphère).
Composition du jury :
Emmanuel CAILLAUD : Professeur Universite Louis Pasteur Strasbourg (Rapporteur).
Patrick TRUCHOT : Professeur ENSGI-INPL (Rapporteur).
Yves CARTONNET : Professeur ENS CACHAN.
Jean-Claude BOCQUET : Professeur ECP (Co-Directeur de thèse).
Julie STAL-LE CARDINAL : Chef des Travaux ECP (Co-Directeur de thèse).
Barthélémy LONGUEVILLE
Capitalisation des processus de décision dans les projets d’innovation : Application à
l’automobile.
Thèse effectuée par Barthélémy LONGUEVILLE que nous avons encadré à 50%.
Il s’agit dans un premier temps de caractériser et d’expliciter le processus de décision
support de l’activité d’innovation et en particulier d’expliciter ses liens avec
l’environnement. Le travail scientifique se concentre sur la modélisation des processus
de décision, la structuration systémique des critères de choix et de l’environnement et
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l’expression des lois de comportement des systèmes identifiés. Dans un second temps
il s’agit de construire une méthode de capitalisation des connaissances liées au
système de décision dans une optique de réutilisation. Les applications se font au sein
des projets d’innovation de la Direction de la Recherche et de l’Innovation Automobile
de PSA PEUGEOT CITROËN.
Thèse CIFRE soutenue le 17 décembre 2003 (contrat de recherche 45 k€).
Composition du jury :
Daniel BRISSAUD : Professeur INPG (Rapporteur).
Guy DOUMEIGNTS : Professeur UNIVERSITE DE BORDEAUX 1 (Rapporteur).
Jean-Louis ERMINE : Professeur INT.
Pascal DANAUD : PSA PEUGEOT CITRÖEN.
Jean-Claude BOCQUET : Professeur ECP (Co-Directeur de thèse).
Julie STAL-LE CARDINAL : Chef des Travaux ECP (Co-Directeur de thèse).
Alexandre TISSOT
Vers un système de management des connaissances : étude et caractérisation dans le
cadre d’une entreprise à structure décentralisée.
Thèse effectuée par Alexandre TISSOT que nous avons encadré à 50%.
Ce travail de thèse se base sur la notion de gestion des connaissances dans le cadre
de travail en groupe d’experts. Il s’agit, d’une part, d’identifier les compétences juste
nécessaires à capitaliser et, d’autre part, de proposer une solution de partage des
informations pour faciliter les décisions. Les modèles développés ont été implémentés
chez Vallourec.
Thèse CIFRE soutenue le 04 février 2005 (contrat de recherche 45 k€).
Composition du jury :
Emmanuel CAILLAUD : Professeur Université Louis Pasteur Strasbourg (Rapporteur).
Nada MATTA : Maître de conférences, UTT (Rapporteur).
Jean-Louis ERMINE : Professeur INT.
Alain HONNART : Directeur industriel Groupe Vallourec.
Raymond SECQ : Directeur des Systèmes d’information, Groupe Vallourec.
Jean-Claude BOCQUET : Professeur ECP (Co-Directeur de thèse).
Julie STAL-LE CARDINAL : Chef des Travaux ECP (Co-Directeur de thèse).
Caroline VERZAT : Maître de conférences EC Lille (Co-Directeur de thèse).
Marija JANKOVIC
Prise de décisions collaboratives dans le processus de conception de nouveaux
produits. Application à l’automobile.
Thèse effectuée par Marija JANKOVIC que nous avons encadrée à 50%.
Les décisions prises dans la phase de préconception d’un produit influencent le futur de
l’entreprise car cette phase est caractérisée par de nombreux risques et incertitudes.
Structurer le processus de décision dans cette phase peut aider à mieux la gérer.
Thèse académique soutenue le 11 décembre 2006 (statut assistant).
Composition du jury :
Alain BERNARD : Directeur de la recherche, EC Nantes (Rapporteur).
Jean-François BOUJUT : Professeur INPG (Rapporteur).
Benoit W EIL : Professeur Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris.
Pascale ZARATE : HdR IRIT – INPT.
Jean-Marc BAVOUX : PSA PEUGEOT CITROËN.
Jean-Claude BOCQUET : Professeur ECP (Co-Directeur de thèse).
Julie STAL-LE CARDINAL : Chef des Travaux ECP (Co-Directeur de thèse).
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Corinna HORNIG-FLÖCK
Systematic and Integrated Approach for the Generation of Car Cockpit Design
Requirements for Aged Drivers.
Thèse effectuée par Corinna HORNIG-FLÖCK, étudiante allemande, que nous encadrons
à 50%.
Date prévue de fin de thèse : courant 2010 (contrat européen 250 k€).
Marinita SCHUMACHER
Competence Management Methodology for Virtual Team Building.
Thèse effectuée par Marinita SCHUMACHER, étudiante allemande, que nous encadrons à
50%.
Date prévue de fin de thèse : courant 2010 (contrat européen 175 k€).
Abir FATHALLAH
Modélisation des entreprises de production de biens et de services par les flux
d’information, de connaissances et de valeur.
Thèse effectuée par Abir FATHALLAH, que nous encadrons à 40%, en collaboration avec
Jean-Louis ERMINE, directeur de la recherche de Telecom Ecole de Management.
Date prévue de fin de thèse : courant 2010 (bourse du Ministère).
Benjamin ZIMMER
Création d’un réseau de compétences pour le montage de projets afin de faciliter la vie
des personnes âgées, travail en collaboration avec l’ARESA et l’hôpital Charles Foix.
Thèse CIFRE effectuée par Benjamin ZIMMER, que nous encadrons à 50%.
Date prévue de fin de thèse : courant 2011 (contrat de recherche 35 k€).
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H-06-2 Re-engineering des attractions les plus populaires du parc Disneyland
Resort Paris, Julien SALVIA, 2006
Encadrement : 100%
H-06-1 Analyse comparative de stockage d’hydrogène avec le CEA, Ludovic-
Alexandre VIDAL, 2006
Encadrement : 70%
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A - Revues spécialisées avec comité de lecture
A-09-8 M. JANKOVIC, J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, J.-C. BOCQUET, Collaborative Decision
in Design Project Management. A Particular Focus on Automotive Industry.
Journal of Decision System. A paraître fin 2009.
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B - Ouvrages de synthèse
B-08-3 A.F.CUTTING-DECELLE, R.I.M. YOUNG, B.P. DAS, C.J. ANUMBA, J. STAL-LE
CARDINAL, Standards-Based Approaches to Interoperability in Supply
Chain Management: Overview and Case Study Using the ISO 18629 PSL
Standard, Construction Supply Chain Management Handbook, Taylor &
Francis, chapter 18, 2008.
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C-06-26 M. JANKOVIC, J.-C. BOCQUET, J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, J.-M. BAVOUX, Integral
Collaborative Decision Model in order to Support Project Definition Phase
Management, International Design Conference, Design 2006, Dubrovnik,
Croatia
C-05-22 J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, J.-C. BOCQUET, Design Process for Decision Making
concerning the Establishment of the (Objective, Actor) Couple in Project
Management Organization, ICED 2005, Melbourne, Australia
C-04-18 T. NGUYEN VAN, J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, J.-C. BOCQUET, Coupling Actor and
Goal in Project Management, IDMME 2004 (Integrated Design and
Manufacturing in Mechanical Engineering), Bath, England
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management des connaissances, GI 2003, 5ème Congrès International de
Génie Industriel, Québec, Canada
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ECEC (European Concurrent Engineering Conference), April 21-23
1999, Erlangen-Nüremberg, Germany
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D-02-3 J.-C. BOCQUET, J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, A French Approach to Teaching
Project Management: Tools, Practices and Realisation, IPD Workshop
2002, Madgeburg, Germany.
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ACTIVITES PEDAGOGIQUES ET D’ENSEIGNEMENT
Résumé
Etablissement : Ecole Centrale Paris
Discipline : Génie Industriel
180h de cours équivalent TD par an
125h d’encadrement de projets par an
Notre goût pour l’enseignement est concrétisé par des cours dispensés depuis 1996 sur
les trois années du cycle ingénieur de l’Ecole Centrale Paris.
L’obtention du monitorat (poste alloué par le Rectorat de Versailles de 1997 à 2000)
nous a permis, dès le début de la thèse, d’être en contact avec les étudiants de l’ECP et
de leur exposer nos problématiques de recherche.
Nous avons retenu et assuré des enseignements dans le domaine de nos activités de
recherche. Les enseignements de méthodes d’analyse et de conception, de conception
de produit ainsi que de management de projets sont alimentés et illustrés par une
activité de recherche en lien direct avec une activité en entreprise.
Entre 1997 et 2000, nos activités d’enseignement ont été effectuées dans le cadre d’un
chapeau de monitorat pendant trois ans à l’Ecole Centrale Paris (ECP) et étaient
centrées sur la thématique projet. Depuis 2000, elles concernent des thématiques telles
que l’innovation et la créativité, le retour d’expérience et la performance d’entreprise, le
management de projets. Nos activités d’enseignement sont synthétisées
chronologiquement dans le tableau suivant, puis l’ensemble de nos enseignements
principaux sont détaillés.
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Activités d’enseignement passées
Type
Année Intitulé Public
d’intervention
Introduction au génie
2002 - 2008 Cours et TD 1ère et 2ème années
industriel
2002 - 2008 Management de projet Cours et TD 2ème année
3ème année filière
Conception
2000 - 2003 Conception de produit Cours et TD
Développement
Recherche
Cours sur une méthode de
gestion et de
DEA
1999 - 2003 représentation des Cours
3ème année
informations
bibliographiques
Analyse fonctionnelle et
1997 - 2002 Cours et TD 2ème et 3ème année
analyse de la valeur
DEA
1997 - 2001 Management de projet Cours
3ème année
Méthodologies de
conception et
1997 - 2001 TD 3ème année option GI
d’industrialisation de
produits et de systèmes
Tableau 1 : Détail des enseignements principaux
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Encadrements de projets de 1ère, 2ème et 3ème année
7 stages de fin d’étude : 20h par an
3 projets d’option de 3ème année : 40h par an
Encadrements de projets de 2ème année : 40h par an
Encadrements de projets de 1ère année : 25h par an
Accompagnement méthodologique pour les projets qui le souhaitent
Interventions à l’international
depuis 2007
Relations pédagogiques avec Cornell University, NY, USA :
Professeur invitée pour un cours sur la créativité et l’innovation : montage du cours
et enseignement en juin 2009 à Cornell, séminaire d’une semaine.
Organisation d’un projet de 3ème année en commun avec deux équipes d’étudiants
(ECP et Cornell) travaillant ensemble à distance sur un projet industriel pour le
groupe Casino.
Interventions extérieures
2001, 2002, 2004
Membre du jury TIPE (Travaux d’Initiative Personnelle Encadrés) en sciences
industrielles
2004
Strate College Designers : membre du jury de diplôme de l’école supérieure de design.
2001
Ecole des Mines de Douai : cours de management de projet
Vulgarisation scientifique
A l’interface entre l’enseignement et la recherche, nous présentons nos travaux de
recherche aux étudiants, lors de cours ou de séminaires :
« Méthodologie projet simplifiée » : proposée de la méthodologie projet adoptée par
le groupe Vallourec aux élèves de deuxième année dans le cadre de leur projet
depuis 2004.
« Les dysfonctionnements dans la prise de décision », aux élèves de Master
Recherche Génie Industriel depuis 2004 ;
« Prise de décision et management de projet, témoignage », aux élèves ingénieurs
depuis 2003 ;
« Capitalisation des connaissances en conception de produits », aux élèves
ingénieurs et master recherche, depuis 2001.
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RESPONSABILITES ADMINISTRATIVES ACTUELLES
depuis 2007
Responsable d’un atelier Ariane de 1ère et 2ème année : ingénierie pédagogique et
animation de séminaires (7 séminaires de 2,5 jours par an, 40 élèves).
depuis 2007
Elue au conseil d’Administration de l’ECP.
depuis 2006
Nommée par la Direction de la Recherche comme Pilote de l’axe transversal, Système
d’Entreprise, qui concerne l’analyse des nouveaux agencements organisationnels
(ensemble de technologies, de compétences, de systèmes d’information…) et de leurs
enjeux (stratégiques, organisationnels, techniques) liés au développement des
organisations. Les 5 axes transversaux proposés par la Direction de la Recherche ont
pour principal objectif de structurer la recherche de l’ECP en transversal, et aussi de
communiquer vers l’extérieur, de valoriser la recherche de l’ECP vers ses partenaires
industriels et académiques, de piloter le développement de la recherche et d’interagir
avec la formation initiale.
depuis 2005
Responsable adjointe du Département d’enseignement Sciences de l'Entreprise. Le rôle
d’un département d’enseignement est d’œuvrer pour une meilleure pédagogie, une plus
grande implication et une meilleure coordination de tous les enseignants.
depuis 2004
Responsable adjointe de l’option de Génie Industriel (60 étudiants, 18 parrains
industriels) : sélection des candidats (90 demandes pour 60 places) sur dossiers et
entretiens individuels, responsable notamment des relations enseignants et élèves.
Travail en collaboration avec Jean-Claude Bocquet, responsable de l’option Génie
Industriel.
Responsable adjointe du partenariat de l’option Génie Industriel et en particulier
d’assurer les contacts avec les potentiels nouveaux parrains de l’option (300 k€).
depuis 2004
Responsable adjointe du mastère spécialisé, mention mécanique, énergétique, génie
industriel, rattaché à l’option GI.
2006 - 2007
Membre du projet ARIANE, réforme de l’enseignement à l’ECP :
Responsable du chantier Benchmark et de l’enquête concernant les autres
institutions.
Responsable d’une équipe de 5 enseignants chercheurs.
- 33 -
2004 - 2007
Membre élu au Conseil du Collège du Corps Enseignant (CCCE), association
représentant les enseignants auprès de la direction de l’ECP.
2004 - 2007
Membre élu du conseil de la formation.
2003 - 2004
Membre du « groupe de travail emploi du temps Tronc Commun »
Réflexion sur l’emploi du temps de tronc commun à l’Ecole Centrale Paris (rôle de
support méthodologie projet et représentante du corps enseignant)
2002 - 2008
Responsable de la Cellule outils projet de deuxième année.
Le rôle de cette cellule est de fournir aux élèves des outils adaptés pour les aider à
mener à bien leurs projets et de proposer aux encadrants de projets des séminaires de
formation à la méthodologie de management de projet.
2001 - 2007
Membre de la Cellule de coordination projet.
Cette cellule a pour objectif d’assurer la cohérence de l’ensemble des projets de
deuxième année de l’ECP, d’organiser les différents jalons qui structurent le
déroulement de ces projets pendant l’année (notamment les soutenances de fin de
projet et autres rendus intermédiaires) et d’organiser une commission de validation des
sujets de projets. Cette cellule coordonne entre 100 et 120 projets par an.
2000 - 2002
Membre du projet de réforme de la pédagogie à l’Ecole Centrale Paris :
Responsable du comité de parrainage industriel de la nouvelle option de troisième
année (Génie Industriel).
Participation à la création de la filière Management de Projet.
Participation à la création de la filière Production Logistique.
2000 - 2004
Membre du chantier « outils de formation pour le management de projet » et formation
de pilotes méthodologiques au sein de l’école.
2000 - 2001
Membre du groupe de réflexion sur le Génie Industriel dans le cadre de l’intergroupe
des Ecoles Centrales.
Les quatre Ecoles Centrales ont, entre autres, une voie de recherche en commun : le
Génie Industriel. Il s’agit de définir les axes de recherche communs et de déterminer les
collaborations possibles entre les quatre Ecoles, aussi bien au niveau de la pédagogie
que de la recherche.
- 34 -
DEUXIEME PARTIE : SYNTHESE DES TRAVAUX DE RECHERCHE MENES
- 35 -
- 36 -
INTRODUCTION
Notre thématique générale de recherche est centrée sur les processus de prise de
décision, principalement dans le domaine de la conception de produits et de
services, et a pour objectif principal l’amélioration de leur efficacité.
Sur la figure 3, l’ensemble des publications que nous avons écrites est positionné sur
nos thèmes de recherche.
- 37 -
Figure 3 : Positionnement de nos publications sur nos thèmes de recherche
- 38 -
Cette présentation des activités de recherche fait référence à des publications dans des
revues à comité de lecture et à des communications avec actes édités auxquelles nous
avons contribué. La liste complète des publications et communications est incluse dans
ce mémoire et les publications principales sont jointes en annexe.
Les perspectives à plus long terme et le programme de recherche, que nous souhaitons
développer, sont présentés en fin de partie dans un chapitre à part.
- 39 -
1. MODELISATION DU PROCESSUS DE PRISE DE DECISION
Une définition sous forme d’un schéma global (Ligne de Vie de la Décision ou Decision
Time Line, DTL) est proposée avec des étapes suffisamment génériques et exhaustives
pour décrire toute décision à tout niveau.
Les publications de référence, que l’on peut trouver dans la littérature sont les
suivantes :
Clemen [Clemen, 1952] fait une distinction importante entre la décision et le
résultat. Une bonne décision est faite en ayant compris la totalité du problème et
en considérant avec soin les principaux résultats possibles. Les résultats, eux,
dépendent du hasard, sont indépendants de la qualité du processus de décision.
D’autre part, les décisions peuvent être difficiles parce que complexes, parce que
- 40 -
remplies d’incertitudes, parce que devant remplir des objectifs multiples ou
encore parce que deux choix différents entraînent des conséquences différentes.
Pour Sfez [Sfez, 1992], la décision est un processus complexe d’interactions
entre différents sous-systèmes, ce n’est pas un phénomène spécifique, elle est
diluée dans l’ensemble du système social. La décision n’est donc pas isolée et
fragmentée, elle renvoie à toutes les autres décisions et il est difficile d’en saisir
le commencement et la fin.
Pour Mezher [Mezher, 1998], la décision est un processus qui permet de générer
et d’évaluer des alternatives et de faire des choix parmi celles-ci. Le résultat de
ces décisions se reflète dans le bilan annuel de l’entreprise, dans le bien-être de
ses employés et dans la santé économique de la communauté et du pays. Par
nature même, les êtres humains ne sont pas des décideurs optimaux, la nature
humaine a des imperfections qui peuvent négativement influencer le jugement
d’un décideur.
Le modèle de processus de décision que nous présentons par la suite (DTL) s’inscrit
dans la logique des auteurs présentés précédemment.
- 41 -
4. La synthèse est l’évaluation des résultats des tâches décrites lors de l’identification.
En sortie de la synthèse, la réponse à la question est disponible.
5. La capitalisation concerne à la fois la nature de la réponse, mais aussi l’historique, la
justification de cette réponse.
6. La transmission consiste pour le décideur à transmettre au demandeur le résultat de
la décision. La transmission a lieu lorsque le demandeur a compris la réponse et
l’accepte. Dans le cas contraire, il est alors nécessaire de renégocier la question et
ses objectifs.
La DTL se veut suffisamment générique pour pouvoir s’appliquer à tout type et à tout
niveau de prise de décision. Ainsi une décision stratégique d’investissements et une
décision tactique sur le choix d’une personne suivent, dans ce modèle, un processus
identique.
Appliquées au projet, les étapes de la DTL sont :
• prise en compte du besoin à satisfaire ;
• identification du besoin et réalisation du cahier des charges ;
• négociation des objectifs du cahier des charges ;
• recherche de différents principes de résolution possibles et réalisation ;
• capitalisation ;
• présentation du résultat.
Guider les acteurs dans les prises de décision permet de limiter les erreurs et
d’améliorer le processus de décision.
- 42 -
1.3. INtegrated Decision makInG mOdel (INDIGO)
INDIGO s’appuie sur la DTL et particulièrement pour la caractérisation des activités de
décision et de leur enchaînement dans les projets d’innovation. Notre objectif ici est de
proposer une représentation des flux de décision entre les activités et l’objet qui est
décidé [C-04-19].
B D C D
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A EC C
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CB FC B AF D
Pour chaque étape de la DTL, INDIGO donne une vision du résultat attendu, de l’état
d’avancement de l’étape concernée dans le processus de décision, des interactions
possibles avec d’autres décisions et des personnes impliquées dans cette décision.
- 43 -
Les concepts proposés ont été enrichis par des observations faites pendant près de
deux ans au sein d’un projet d’innovation du groupe PSA Peugeot Citroën par
Barthélémy Longueville dans le cadre de sa thèse. Ces concepts ont été représentés à
l’aide du langage de modélisation objet UML. Cette modélisation a permis de réaliser
une maquette informatique qui a servi de plate-forme de validation.
Plus que l’intégration de plusieurs points de vue, le modèle proposé apporte également
des contributions aux modèles existants. Il intègre et couvre la complexité des
processus de décision en projet, pour cela il s’appuie sur quatre vues complémentaires,
il permet de représenter l’ensemble des processus de décision, quel que soit le niveau
de détail, il est applicable et compris aisément par les acteurs des projets et il s’intègre
facilement dans un contexte industriel comme l’a montré la validation.
INDIGO intègre de nouveaux concepts et un nouveau principe de décomposition de
l’espace de décision permettant de représenter des situations de décision complexes
[C-04-19]. Il enrichit ainsi les modèles de design rational. Le design rational est
l’explication des raisons pour lesquelles un artefact est conçu tel qu’il est [Regli, 2000].
Cela concerne en particulier la connaissance des décisions prises lors de la conception,
les raisons et les compromis qui les justifient.
INDIGO propose une typologie d’activités dans le domaine de l’innovation et la définition
des flux de décision reliant ces activités. Il complète alors les modèles issus des
approches processus, telles qu’IBIS (travaux de Rittel en 1970) ou QOC [Buckingham,
1997], qui sont structurées en fonction des différentes étapes identifiées d’un processus
de décision.
Il apporte également, la définition des notions de contexte et d’objectifs associées aux
processus.
Enfin, il propose une représentation de l’organisation des acteurs impliqués dans la
décision qui permet d’identifier les rôles tenus par les différentes parties prenantes de la
décision.
L’étape de validation a mis en évidence une limitation non résolue ici. Elle concerne le
niveau de détail de l’information représentée dans le modèle. En effet, INDIGO permet
de représenter l’ensemble des décisions d’un projet, quelle que soit leur granularité. Les
informations décisionnelles peuvent atteindre un niveau de détail très fin. Dans ce
cadre, l’effort à fournir pour modéliser une décision est très important. Notre travail de
recherche n’apporte pas de contribution permettant d’identifier quelle décision il faut
représenter. Nous nous appuyons ici sur l’expérience des acteurs des projets pour
identifier quelles décisions sont pertinentes, mais cela peut poser des problèmes de
biais de jugement [C-03-12].
- 44 -
1.5. Principales publications sur le thème
C-05-21 J.-C. BOCQUET, J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, Definitions and Temporal Positioning
of the Concepts linked to Decision Making in Industrial Project Design -
DIKCORAC, ICED 2005, Melbourne, Australia
- 45 -
2. AU NIVEAU OPERATIONNEL : CAPITALISATION DES CONNAISSANCES
POUR LES DECISIONS TECHNIQUES
- 46 -
L’objectif de la gestion des connaissances est de tendre à l’optimisation des flux de
connaissances entre les différents acteurs et systèmes de l’entreprise. Il s’agit de la
préservation, du partage, de la création de nouvelles connaissances et même de la
destruction de connaissances obsolètes.
- L’approche organisationnelle :
Nonaka [Nonaka, 1995] illustre la prise en compte des savoirs dans le changement des
entreprises, et met en évidence les mécanismes de transmission et d’évolution des
connaissances dans les organisations. Il s’agit d’une approche dont le but, plutôt que de
chercher à formaliser, modéliser des savoirs et savoir-faire, est de permettre aux
différents détenteurs et experts de les partager, les transmettre. Cette distinction est
reprise dans [Currie, 2003]. Cette approche coopérative de l’apprentissage
organisationnel se retrouve dans [Leclerc, 1996] : « l’efficience supérieure relative des
firmes japonaises en matière de développement de produits nouveaux résulte de
l’existence de routines de coopération bien établies, routines favorisant un
apprentissage par interaction continue ».
Les approches identifiées dans l’état de l’art se focalisent essentiellement sur les
aspects organisationnels de la gestion des connaissances, en particulier dans le
domaine de l’innovation. Beaucoup d’auteurs ont dressé un constat d’échec concernant
les outils de type ingénierie des connaissances dans ce contexte.
Peu d’approches se focalisent sur la conception d’outils support au partage et à la
capitalisation de connaissances tacites. Nous cherchons donc à développer des
recherches dans ce sens. Nous proposons un nouveau paradigme de gestion des
connaissances, dont le principe ne repose pas sur la représentation, mais sur la
création et l’utilisation de connaissances associées à des processus cognitifs tels que
l’échange de bonnes pratiques ou la décision.
- 47 -
2.1.2. Approche adoptée
Nous avons choisi de traiter le problème de la capitalisation au sein du processus de
conception. Dans un premier temps, nous avons travaillé sur sa modélisation en vue de
mesurer sa performance.
Dans la thèse de Damaris Galvan Montiel, nous avons proposé la définition suivante du
processus de conception, qui est une synthèse des définitions de Le Moigne [Le
Moigne, 1986], Forest [Forest, 1996] et Couffin [Couffin, 1997] :
« Le processus de conception consiste à identifier, en tant que système, le produit ou le
service à concevoir, à identifier l’ensemble des composants qui font partie du système,
ainsi que l’ensemble des relations entre ces composants, afin de réaliser un produit ou
un service pour satisfaire les besoins d’un client ou utilisateur, en respectant les
spécifications données et les ressources disponibles. »
Dans la littérature les quatre modèles les plus souvent utilisés sont ([Breuker, 1994],
[Maher, 1995]) :
• La conception par décomposition ;
• La conception par transformation ;
• La conception à base de cas ;
• La conception à base de modèles.
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- 48 -
Dans la figure 6, on peut identifier trois blocs d’activité appelés phases. Ces trois
phases existent dans l’interaction entre les fonctions :
• Phase d’estimation : objectifs à atteindre ;
• Phase d’engagement : compétences, ressources et/ou actions ;
• Phase de réalisation : élaboration, action.
Notre première posture de recherche a été de réaliser une analyse systémique des
systèmes de gestion des connaissances (thèse d’Alexandre Tissot).
Ce premier résultat obtenu a ensuite été enrichi par l’étude de ces systèmes dans le
processus de conception des projets d’innovation avec une application industrielle chez
PSA Peugeot Citroën (thèse de Barthélémy Longueville).
En remontant le processus de conception à sa source, nous sommes désormais en
cours d’analyse du partage des connaissances dans le cadre de la constitution d’un
cahier des charges pour un nouveau produit (thèse de Corinna Hornig-Flöck) [C-08-30].
- 49 -
Les propriétés principales d’un système sont les interactions, la globalité et
l’autorégulation :
• Dans un système, les interactions entre les éléments sont aussi importantes que
les éléments du système.
• Le système a des propriétés qu’aucun de ses éléments n’a. Pour Durand
[Durand, 1979], « von Bertalanffy [1968-1973] a été le premier à montrer qu’un
système est un tout non réductible à la somme de ses parties. »
• Enfin, la stabilité apparente des systèmes naturels, ceux qui existent sans
l’intervention consciente de l’homme, et la capacité de ces derniers à s’adapter à
leur environnement, provient de l’équilibre entre les interactions des éléments du
système. Les outils de la dynamique des systèmes, mis au point par Jay
Forrester [Forrester, 1961] dans les années 1960, ont permis de modéliser de
nombreux équilibres biologiques ou économique et de reproduire voire de prévoir
comme les systèmes s’adaptent à des variations faibles de leur environnement.
Ces propriétés ont été observées dans toutes sortes de systèmes, en particulier dans
des systèmes biologiques par Piaget [Piaget, 1968], économiques par Forrester et
sociaux par Crozier [Crozier, 1977].
Notre recherche concerne les systèmes de gestion des connaissances, dans leur
appréhension et leur caractérisation c’est-à-dire leur définition, leur implantation et le
suivi de leur vie sur un terrain industriel. Nous souhaitons appréhender l’ensemble du
système de gestion des connaissances dans son cycle de vie, afin de permettre de
mieux comprendre l’intérêt de ces systèmes et d’aider les entreprises dans leur choix et
leur mise en œuvre [C-03-13].
L’analyse systémique [Le Moigne, 1995] nous a permis de prendre le problème de
façon différente d’une analyse centrée sur les objets connaissances ou compétences :
nous avons pris en compte l’action dans l’entreprise et de ce fait, les flux plutôt que les
objets.
Notre démarche s’est fondée sur la mise en place d’une grille de lecture de ces
systèmes autour :
- D’une représentation fonctionnelle, qui répond à la question « cela sert à quoi ? » ;
- D’une représentation ontologique, qui répond à la question « qu’est-ce que
c’est ? » ;
- D’une représentation génétique, qui répond à la question « comment cela évolue-t-
il ? » ;
- D’une représentation téléologique qui répond à la question « quel est l’objectif et la
motivation du système ? ». Pour cet aspect, nous répondons ici de façon générale,
les systèmes de gestion des connaissances ont pour but d’améliorer les prises de
décisions et donc la performance de l’entreprise.
Cette grille de lecture a été déployée auprès du groupe Vallourec pour la gestion des
connaissances achats et R&D et a fait l’objet des travaux de thèse d’Alexandre Tissot.
Notre point de vue n’est donc pas de modéliser la gestion des compétences ou des
connaissances, mais de modéliser l’installation de flux pérennes dans les organisations
et dans les communautés autour de ces objets. Notre recherche ne porte pas sur une
dynamique d’archivage ou de gestion de contenus, mais sur la mise en place de liens
pérennes entre le patrimoine de connaissances et les activités de l’entreprise, son
système opérant.
- 50 -
2.2.2. Représentation fonctionnelle du système
Nous avons différencié deux voies d’étude pour le système de gestion des
connaissances, ces deux voies représentent l’intégralité des activités d’une entreprise
[C-03-14] :
• Les métiers : regroupant des éléments techniques et permettant la production
des produits de l’entreprise (par exemple : le soudage, le traitement thermique) ;
• Les fonctions : définissant un cadre de travail et un ensemble de méthodologies
pour l’entreprise (par exemple : les achats, la qualité, la production).
Cette distinction permet de canaliser des connaissances liées à des univers produits ou
techniques différents et des univers méthodologiques ou organisationnels différents.
Grundstein [Grundstein, 2000] a défini les cinq fonctions principales d’un système de
gestion des connaissances : Manager, Repérer, Préserver, Valoriser, Actualiser.
Il présente les quatre dernières au travers de la notion de connaissance cruciale, c’est-
à-dire « les savoirs et les savoir-faire qui sont nécessaires aux processus de décision et
au déroulement des processus essentiels qui constituent le cœur des activités de
l’entreprise ». Il souligne l’importance des notions d’activité et de processus, et le fait
que la gestion des connaissances est un support à l’activité globale de l’entreprise.
La première fonction proposée concerne les interactions. Pour Grundstein, « c’est là
que se positionne le management des activités et des processus destinés à amplifier
l’utilisation et la création des connaissances dans l’organisation ».
- 51 -
A l’issue d’une analyse fonctionnelle du système de gestion des connaissances, nous
avons défini les huit besoins que se doit de satisfaire un tel système dans le cadre d’une
entreprise composée de différentes sociétés dans plusieurs sites géographiques.
Pour la capitalisation verticale (pour un besoin immédiat) :
• Échanger entre les sites : mettre en place de réels flux d’informations entre sites
de différentes sociétés ;
• Profiter des bonnes pratiques : utiliser la décentralisation comme un atout en
favorisant la diffusion des nouveautés et leur application lorsqu’elles améliorent
la performance ;
• Contacter un réseau d’experts : sur des sujets où aucun expert n’est identifié par
l’organisation, profiter de la connaissance répartie au travers des individus ;
• Favoriser la génération d’idée : permettre par les réactions, les compléments de
chacun de faire émerger des concepts innovants dans l’organisation.
Besoins
La figure 8 présente vis-à-vis des besoins, la priorité donnée à une fonction dans un
contexte donné. Pour chacun des besoins immédiats ou futurs correspond une fonction
principale. Les liens proposés sur la figure 8 sont les connexions principales entre les
- 52 -
besoins et les fonctions pour le groupe Vallourec. Il est du ressort de chaque entreprise de
définir les fonctions principales suivant ses besoins.
Ayant caractérisé les fonctions du système, nous présentons sa nature, ce qu’il est.
- 53 -
Le système de gestion des connaissances peut donc être défini au travers de trois
concepts : l’organisation, le système d’information et la communauté d’utilisateurs. Le
système de gestion des connaissances réside dans ces trois composantes et
également dans les liens qui s’établissent entre elles :
• L’organisation rend performante l’activité de l’entreprise (métier ou fonction) ;
• La communauté met en place des mécanismes de socialisation et d’entretien du
patrimoine des connaissances ;
• Le système d’information permet l’échange entre les processus.
Après avoir défini les différents composants et fonctions du système de gestion des
connaissances, ainsi que leurs interactions, notre recherche s’est portée sur la dernière
représentation systémique, l’évolution de ce système.
- 54 -
fertile et habitué au changement et à l’échange acceptera davantage un tel système),
individuel (la spécificité des profils des dirigeants : leur caractère entrepreneur et
novateur, leur implication dans la dynamique notamment informatique, mais aussi la
spécificité des profils de l’utilisateur, par son rapport aux technologies de l’information,
sa vision de l’utilité du système de gestion des connaissances), technologique (lié à
l’utilisation d’un outil informatique particulier) et informationnel (le statut de la
connaissance et sa caractérisation dans le système de gestion des connaissances,
fiabilité, contenu, structuration).
Le facteur organisationnel se divise en quatre spécificités : environnementale (nature
turbulente de l’organisation), structurelle (structure organisationnelle et importance de la
décentralisation de la décision), culturelle (esprit d’ouverture, communication de la
structure) et organisationnelle (activités organisées en terme de communication).
La projection des facteurs d’adhésion sur les composants du système de gestion des
connaissances est réalisée par le tableau 3.
- 55 -
Croiser les composants du système avec les facteurs d’adhésion permet de se fixer des
objectifs à atteindre pour chaque composant concernant chacun des facteurs. Par
exemple, la communauté d’utilisateurs peut se fixer comme objectif informationnel de se
focaliser sur les bonnes pratiques et leurs synthèses (tableau 3).
En remplissant une telle grille, une entreprise aura une vision plus précise des
évolutions qu’elle souhaite concernant son système de gestion de connaissances.
Notre approche se focalise sur les connaissances associées aux processus de décision,
identifiées comme critiques dans ces projets [C-03-11]. Les contributions de ce travail
de recherche sont centrées sur la compréhension des mécanismes de décision au sein
des projets d’innovation et le support à leur bon déroulement. Un modèle de gestion des
connaissances, appelé MEYDIAM (MEmorY of DecIsion for Analysis and Management)
présenté dans le tableau 4, a été développé. Il permet la création et la réutilisation de
connaissances liées à la décision. MEYDIAM est principalement constitué d’une
- 56 -
mémoire de projet. Ce modèle, au moyen d’interfaces appelées objets de
connaissances, permet de capturer, au fil de l’eau, les informations associées aux
processus de décision et de les réutiliser.
La création et la réutilisation de connaissances sont alors matérialisées respectivement
par des processus de représentation et de recontextualisation des informations liées à
la décision [C-03-12, C-03-10].
Axe Description
Ce modèle a pour objectif d’améliorer la performance des projets
d’innovation. Cela se traduit par :
Objectifs
• Améliorer les processus de décision des projets d’innovation
• Pallier les déficiences de l’organisation par projet
• Type : connaissances collectives et individuelles
Connaissances • Nature : connaissances tacites
manipulées • Utilisation : connaissances exploitées
• Lieu : dans l’entreprise durant l’activité des projets
• Créer des connaissances
Fonctions • Utiliser des connaissances
• Conserver des connaissances
La structure du modèle de gestion des connaissances se décompose
en trois éléments :
• Un outil : une mémoire de projet
Structure
• Une organisation et des processus : un pilote utilisateur et
l’intégration dans les pratiques des projets
• Une communauté d’utilisateurs
Les individus concernés :
• Les acteurs des projets d’innovation (chefs de projet,
responsables de lots, ingénieurs)
Communauté
• Les fonctions de support qualité
d’utilisateurs
• Les instances de pilotage des projets (responsables de
domaine, chefs de service, commissions)
• Les projets de développement
Tableau 4 : Définition du modèle de gestion de connaissances
pour les projets d’innovation
- 57 -
Le système de gestion des connaissances MEYDIAM répond aux besoins identifiés :
- Il améliore les processus d’innovation par un meilleur accès à la connaissance en
dépassant les modes naturels de transmission.
- Il pallie les déficiences de l’organisation par projet, il favorise la réutilisation des
connaissances acquises.
En effet, les processus de capture des informations décisionnelles permettent aux
acteurs des projets de partager leurs connaissances associées à la décision. Par
ailleurs, les processus de réutilisation permettent de donner accès à des connaissances
passées par la recontextualisation d’information.
AB C D CCEB EC
A B B C
"
D BA E DC B F
1 $"
CE C B 1 "
$ $" .+*
$ ! &
* " "
4 $5 # " C" $
Grâce à une recherche qui s’articule à la fois sur le management des connaissances et
sur la représentation des processus de décision INDIGO, nous avons pu ainsi proposer
un modèle qui permet d’améliorer les processus de décision en projet d’innovation [C-
02-6]. En effet, MEYDIAM [C-03-10] permet de :
- Réduire l’incertitude en s’appuyant sur les connaissances passées ou issues de
projets en simultané : par navigation et recherche, l’utilisateur a accès à
l’expérience des projets passés ;
- Elargir le contexte d’une décision donnée : MEYDIAM permet de confronter la
réflexion concernant une décision actuelle à l’ensemble des décisions similaires
capitalisées, prises dans d’autres contextes ;
- Profiter de l’expérience accumulée : les processus de réutilisation permettent de
réutiliser les informations issues des processus de décision passées ;
- Intégrer et maîtriser les aspects collectifs : MEYDIAM permet de diffuser et de
partager des informations décisionnelles qui n’étaient pas représentées
auparavant ;
- Réduire l’irréversibilité des processus d’innovation : MEYDIAM permet de
retrouver les alternatives rejetées et de les évaluer dans un nouveau contexte.
- 58 -
Le modèle a été validé par une maquette informatique testée dans le cadre des projets
innovations du groupe PSA Peugeot Citroën et a mis en évidence que l’approche
proposée permet :
Un support à la création de connaissances associées à la décision ;
Une réponse au besoin de traçabilité des décisions ;
Un support méthodologique qui améliore la prise de décision ;
Un partage des informations et connaissances liées à la décision.
L’entreprise peut ainsi, d’une part, conserver les raisons pour lesquelles une idée
d’innovation a été ou non retenue pour être implémentée sur un projet véhicule. D’autre
part, pour un nouveau projet véhicule, l’entreprise peut revoir les idées d’innovation
développées qui non encore jamais été implantées, étudier les raisons pour lesquelles
elles n’ont pas été retenues et suivant les modifications du contexte, voir si il serait
maintenant judicieux de les intégrer dans le lancement d’un nouveau véhicule.
- 59 -
C-03-10 B. LONGUEVILLE, J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, J.-C. BOCQUET, MEYDIAM, a Project
Memory for Innovative Product Design, IAMOT 2003, 12th International
Conference on Management of Technology, T. KHALIL, L. MOREL-
GUIMARAES and Y. A. HOSNI editor, Nancy, France
- 60 -
3. AU NIVEAU TACTIQUE : MODELISATION DES DECISIONS DE
MANAGEMENT DE PROJET
- 61 -
3.1.1. Positionnement de nos travaux
Etudier les processus de prise de décision nécessite de considérer les acteurs qui
prennent les décisions. Ainsi, dans cette recherche, seuls les êtres humains qui peuvent
prendre une décision sont considérés comme acteur : un acteur décide. Les autres, qui
ne font qu’exécuter, sont assimilés à des ressources et caractérisés, comme celles-ci,
par une capacité d’exécution de tâche.
Dans nos travaux de thèse, nous avons proposé la définition suivante pour l’acteur :
« Un acteur est un être humain qui fait partie des moyens de l’entreprise ». Ainsi dans le
réseau qui constitue l’entreprise, les acteurs :
ont des compétences, quantifiées par un niveau ;
peuvent prendre des décisions ;
sont capables de caractériser a priori l’effet de leurs actions ;
peuvent exécuter des tâches pour atteindre un but ;
travaillent avec d’autres acteurs (en partenariat, en déléguant, en équipe).
Le concept d’acteur est central dans notre recherche : d’une part, les acteurs prennent
des décisions, sans acteur il n’y aurait aucune relation, d’autre part, l’ensemble des
compétences de l’entreprise est détenu par l’ensemble des acteurs.
Pour Giget [Giget, 1998], « les compétences d’entreprise s’appuient sur des
connaissances, technologies ou savoir-faire maîtrisés par un groupe de personnes
ayant à leur disposition les équipements qui leur permettent d’exercer collectivement
ces compétences au sein de l’entreprise ». Cette définition classique restreint les
compétences à des connaissances techniques approfondies. On parle ici des
compétences de l’entreprise, d’un groupe de personnes, et non des compétences d’un
acteur identifié.
Nos travaux se positionnent sur la définition de compétences issue de la psychologie du
travail, proposée par Lévy-Leboyer [Lévy-Leboyer, 1996] et approfondie par Durand
[Durand, 2006] :
« Les compétences sont des répertoires de comportements que certaines personnes
maîtrisent mieux que d’autres, ce qui les rend efficaces dans une situation donnée. Ces
comportements sont observables dans la réalité quotidienne du travail, et, également,
dans les situations-tests. Ils mettent en œuvre, de manière intégrée des aptitudes, des
traits de personnalité, des connaissances acquises. Les compétences représentent
donc un trait d’union entre les caractéristiques individuelles et les qualités requises pour
mener à bien des missions professionnelles précises ».
- 62 -
savoir pourquoi
savoir
savoir quoi
comportement
savoir qui
technologies
volonté savoir-faire
techniques
savoir-être
identité
tours de main
Figure 10 : Une explicitation des trois catégories principales
de la compétence selon Durand
Nous utilisons cette représentation des compétences pour proposer une classification
des dysfonctionnements dans la prise de décision de choix d’acteur.
Dans nos travaux sur les dysfonctionnements dans la prise de décision, nous faisons un
parallèle entre le domaine de la maintenance préventive et celui de la prise de décision.
En effet, la maintenance préventive entretient les machines pour garder le matériel
technique en état de fonctionnement. Boucly [Boucly, 1988] donne la définition AFNOR
d’une défaillance :
« Une défaillance est une cessation aléatoire de l’aptitude d’une entité à accomplir une
fonction requise ». Pour Villemeur [Villemeur, 1988], « après l’apparition d’une
défaillance, on considère que l’entité est en panne : une panne résulte toujours d’une
défaillance. »
Nous cherchons, pour le domaine de la prise de décision, à construire un modèle
d’évitement des dysfonctionnements pour assurer le bon déroulement des projets. Le
but de notre modèle est également d’agir en curatif, en utilisant le savoir-faire capitalisé.
- 63 -
Par analogie avec les défaillances en maintenance, nous qualifions le
dysfonctionnement de phénomène stochastique, et proposons la définition suivante :
« Un dysfonctionnement est la cessation stochastique de l’aptitude d’un acteur à
prendre une décision, à accomplir une action ».
L’étude des dysfonctionnements [A-05-1] est menée sur les décisions de choix
d’acteurs, dans lesquelles un acteur, le décideur, choisit un autre acteur pour réaliser
une action.
Nous nous sommes ensuite intéressés aux décisions collaboratives, qui impliquent
plusieurs acteurs.
Finalement, nous proposons une Analyse Préliminaire des Risques appliquée à la DTL
qui aboutit à des listes de dysfonctionnements possibles sur ce processus.
L’aide à la prise de décision apportée par la méthode SACADO, développée dans nos
travaux de thèse, se déploie sur deux volets : un processus cible (figure 11) à suivre
pour éviter les dysfonctionnements, une fiche de choix d’acteur aidant à s’approcher du
processus cible et permettant une capitalisation des processus et de la décision prise
[A-05-1], [B-02-2].
Identifier les
compétences nécessaires
Evaluer les
compétences potentielles
Choisir le
meilleur compromis
Elaborer un processus
de contrôle des risques
- 64 -
Les grandes étapes du processus cible correspondent aux six questions suivantes :
1. Quelles sont les tâches à effectuer par l’acteur à choisir et dans quel
environnement ?
2. Quelles sont les compétences nécessaires ?
3. Quelles sont les compétences disponibles ?
4. Quel est le meilleur compromis en termes de qualité, de coût et de délai ?
5. Quels sont les risques que la personne choisie pourrait faire courir au projet ?
6. Existe-t-il un processus de contrôle de la personne choisie par rapport à ces risques
ou un plan d’actions d’éradication des risques à mettre en place ?
Pour aider un décideur à suivre le processus cible, une fiche générique d’aide au choix
d’acteur a été réalisée, illustrée sur la figure 12.
La fiche suit les différentes étapes de la DTL. En effet, le contexte du projet correspond
à la saisie, les tâches à réaliser sont propres à l’identification ainsi que la quantification
des objectifs qui peut également faire appel à l’étape de négociation. L’évaluation des
risques concernant la solution choisie est relative à la synthèse et les préconisations
doivent être capitalisées et transmises. Remplir une telle fiche pour un choix d’acteur
permet de minimiser des risques d’erreur. Les capitaliser permet d’avoir une mémoire,
de réaliser une caractérisation des dysfonctionnements concernant les choix d’acteurs
et de prendre des décisions d’organisation (comme nous le verrons dans le chapitre 4).
- 65 -
Fiche choix d’acteur réf A-Projet-n°x
Contexte
Objectifs
Tâches à réaliser Qualité Coût Délai
Compétences requises
Savoir Savoir-faire Savoir-être
Plan d’actions
Evaluation des risques Quoi Qui Quand
Ecarts
Résultat Qualité Coût Délai
Préconisations
- 66 -
3.3. Modélisation des décisions collaboratives au sein d’un
projet
Nos contributions sont focalisées ici sur la compréhension des décisions collaboratives
dans le processus de conception de nouveaux produits, ainsi que la gestion de leur
processus dans le cadre du management de projet. Nous nous sommes focalisés sur la
phase de définition des objectifs du projet, qui est, par essence, une phase où différents
secteurs de l’entreprise (études, achats, industrialisation, marketing, production) doivent
prendre des décisions collaboratives.
L’objectif de notre recherche est double : identifier les éléments relatifs à l’aide à la
décision mais aussi aider au management des processus de prise de décisions.
- 67 -
• décision de chercher plus d’informations concernant le problème ;
• décision de renégocier les objectifs.
Les opérations de préparation et d’implémentation de la décision collaborative sont
prises en compte dans la vue « transformation » [A-09-8].
Ce modèle a été utilisé pour développer un outil de management de projet chez PSA
Peugeot Citroën pour la première phase du projet, la phase de définition des objectifs.
La mission de l’équipe projet dans cette phase est de définir les objectifs du projet tout
en incorporant différentes contraintes de l’entreprise et du marché [A-09-5].
Processus de prise de
Processus de prise de décision collaborative de
décision collaborative projet
Niveau décisionnel
Processus globaux de prise de décision
Prise de décision 13 processus de prise de décision collaborative au niveau du projet
collaborative collaborative différents aspects du
projet dans la définition des objectifs
Décisions collaboratives
Décision collaborative Acteurs
Objectifs
Niveau flux 73 décisions
d’information collaboratives dans la
phase de définition du
projet
Cet outil, présenté dans la figure 13, est organisé en trois niveaux : le niveau des
processus de décisions collaboratives, le niveau d’informations et le niveau des
processus opérationnels [C-06-24, C-06-23].
- 68 -
Les processus de décision collaborative contribuent à la définition progressive des
objectifs du projet. Au niveau décisionnel, 13 différents processus ont été identifiés chez
PSA Peugeot Citroën.
Le niveau des flux d’information des décisions collaboratives a été élaboré en utilisant le
modèle conceptuel de prise de décision collaborative. Les informations sont classées
selon les 4 vues de ce modèle dans une fiche « Décision collaborative ».
La première partie de cette fiche, vue « environnement », renseigne sur les acteurs de
la prise de décision collaborative (pilote du processus de prise de décision,
contributeurs, décideurs).
La seconde partie, vue « objectifs », permet de préciser les objectifs de la décision
collaborative.
La troisième partie, vue « transformation », contient les informations correspondantes
des processus opérationnels contributeurs à la prise de décision collaborative. Il s’agit
des données d’entrée et de sortie de la décision.
La vue « processus » est contenue dans le fait même de renseigner et d’utiliser la fiche.
73 fiches de décisions collaboratives ont été construites pour l’entreprise.
- 69 -
bibliographique des méthodes d’analyse des risques (travail de Nadia Benhila, master
recherche, [H-08-7]) a permis de faire une comparaison entre ces méthodes et d’en
déduire la plus pertinente pour être appliquée au processus de décision. L’Analyse
Préliminaire des Risques (APR) a été déroulée sur la Decision Time Line (présentée au
chapitre 1) appliquée au choix d’acteurs dans les projets. Le but de cette analyse est de
déterminer les éléments vulnérables dans le processus de décision qui sont exposés
aux dangers, de caractériser ces dangers et de déterminer les différents scénarios
d’accidents possibles qu’ils peuvent engendrer.
- 70 -
La maîtrise du processus de décision, en tant que capacité de ses acteurs à prendre la
bonne décision, est étroitement liée à leurs compétences.
Nous utilisons la représentation des compétences de [Durand ,1998] pour la
classification et la cartographie des dangers génériques dans la prise de décision. Ainsi
les événements redoutés que nous considérons sont tout événement indésirable
associé à une défaillance dans l’un des axes des compétences du décideur ou de
l’acteur choisi.
Le tableau 5 représente les classes de dangers génériques, de dangers spécifiques et
les événements redoutés génériques qui peuvent menacer le bon déroulement du
processus de décision de choix d’acteur.
La méthodologie de l’APR préconise ensuite la cotation des événements redoutés selon
leur vraisemblance d’occurrence et leur gravité afin d’en déduire une criticité. Dans le
tableau 6, nous avons donné un exemple d’échelle de vraisemblance d’occurrence des
événements redoutés identifiés dans la première étape. Il appartient ensuite à chacun
pour chaque prise de décision d’effectuer la cotation selon cette échelle et le contexte
de la décision.
- 71 -
Notons que les gravités G1, G2, G3 concernent les conséquences qui ont un impact sur
les performances du processus de décision et qui sont le fait d’aboutir à une décision
qui n’entre pas dans le cadre du triptyque qualité, coût et délai défini par le demandeur.
Pour les gravités G4, G5, les conséquences de ces classes affectent directement le
processus de décision qui a généré le résultat.
Gravité
1 2 3 4 5
5 C2 C2 C3 C3 C3
Vraisemblance 4 C1 C2 C3 C3 C3
de 3 C1 C2 C2 C3 C3
l’occurrence 2 C1 C1 C1 C2 C3
1 C1 C1 C1 C2 C2
Tableau 9 : Exemple de matrice de criticité
Pour un choix d’acteur prenant en compte les risques potentiels, le décideur peut
prendre notre liste générique d’événements redoutés, la compléter éventuellement.
Ensuite, il cote chaque risque en vraisemblance d’occurrence et en gravité selon le
contexte dans lequel est prise la décision. Puis, selon la criticité des événements
redoutés, il met en place un plan d’actions pour maîtriser les risques majeurs [A-09-7].
- 72 -
3.6. Principales publications sur le thème
A-09-8 M. JANKOVIC, J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, J.-C. BOCQUET, Collaborative Decision
in Design Project Management. A Particular Focus on Automotive Industry.
Journal of Decision System, Special Issue "Emerging approaches, models
and tools for managing Design and New Product Development in a
collaborative environment". Accepté avec corrections mineures. A paraître
fin 2009.
- 73 -
C-05-20 M. JANKOVIC, J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, J.-C. BOCQUET, Conceptual Context of
Collaborative Decision Making and the Application of the Systems
Approach Modelling, 6ème Congrès International de Génie Industriel, June
2005, Besançon, France
C-05-22 J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, J.-C. BOCQUET, Design Process for Decision Making
concerning the Establishment of the (Objective, Actor) Couple in Project
Management Organization, ICED 2005, Melbourne, Australia
C-04-18 T. NGUYEN VAN, J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, J.-C. BOCQUET, Coupling Actor and
Goal in Project Management, IDMME 2004 (Integrated Design and
Manufacturing in Mechanical Engineering), Bath, England
- 74 -
4. AU NIVEAU STRATEGIQUE : DECISIONS D’ORGANISATION
D’ENTREPRISE
Travailler sur le déploiement d’un nouveau mode d’organisation dans une entreprise a
orienté notre recherche vers la modélisation des entreprises et vers l’articulation entre
différents modèles (ce qui fait l’objet d’une autre partie de ce chapitre).
Au sein du laboratoire Génie Industriel, nous considérons l’entreprise, ses projets et ses
processus comme des systèmes, qui ont un environnement, qui ont une finalité autour
de laquelle va s’installer un système de prise de décisions et qui mettent en jeu des
hommes, des matériaux, des équipements et de l’énergie.
Nous utilisons, pour les modéliser, la description systémique en 4 pôles dérivée de
l’ouvrage de Jean-Louis Le Moigne, la théorie du système général [Le Moigne, 1977-
1990] : « un système industriel se représente par ce qu’il est (des hommes avec leur
- 75 -
rôle et leurs compétences, des moyens matériels, informationnels, énergétiques et
financiers) [représentation ontologique], par ce qu’il fait (des processus et des activités)
[représentation fonctionnelle], par ce qu’il devient (son cycle de vie, ses phases)
[représentation génétique], et par ses finalités (générer des valeurs ajoutées pour
satisfaire les clients, les actionnaires, les employés et l’humanité en général) dans son
environnement (son marché, ses fournisseurs, des concurrents et le reste de
l’humanité) [représentation téléologique]. » [Bocquet, 2003]
Cette partie présente nos apports de recherche sur la structure organisationnelle et les
réseaux de relations entre les compétences.
- 76 -
La volonté de Vallourec était d’aboutir au déploiement d’une démarche projet la plus
simple possible, afin que la majorité des chefs de projets se l’approprient, dans toutes
les usines du groupe et au niveau international.
Pour finir, voici quelques verbatims recueillis lors d’un bilan avec les chefs de projets :
• « La démarche projet est une démarche très volontaire qui permet de poser les
bases dès le départ, le coaching, lui, apporte la rigueur et le respect de la
démarche. »
• « Je n’ai, jusqu’alors, jamais su clôturer un projet car je n’ai jamais eu d’objectifs
très clairs au départ, c’est la première fois que je peux comparer mes objectifs de
départ au résultat final et clôturer le projet. »
• « La démarche projet apporte une structuration globale, une cohérence de
l’organisation, très utile quand le chef de projet est détaché du quotidien. »
• « On voit la différence de comportement dans l’équipe entre avant et après la
formation projet, la formation devrait être le point de départ du projet. »
- 77 -
4.3. Modélisation d’entreprise et vue système
- 78 -
• en second lieu d’en percevoir les différents aspects qui permettent d’en assurer
la maîtrise au niveau du management et au niveau opérationnel, ainsi que
d’éviter que ces systèmes soient gérés indépendamment les uns des autres,
risquant ainsi de voir apparaître des silos très spécifiques.
Dans l’entreprise classique, les recherches en gestion et en génie industriel ont proposé
des modèles qui résolvaient peu ou prou ces difficultés, en fournissant des outils
conceptuels de compréhension et de maîtrise des systèmes complexes. Ces modèles,
après des dizaines d’années de recherches, sont maintenant acquis et reposent sur des
fondements solides.
L’apparition constante de nouveaux types de systèmes positionne désormais la
problématique à un autre niveau. Les premières expériences montrent qu’une
modélisation donnée pour un système bien établi ne se transpose pas aussi facilement
à des systèmes nouveaux. Il ne s’agit plus d’avoir un modèle validé pour un système
donné, mais d’avoir une théorie, une méthodologie, voire une épistémologie de la
modélisation, qui englobe celles qui existent déjà, mais permet de s’appliquer à tout
nouveau système qui est perceptible dans l’organisation.
Nos objectifs sur ce thème sont les suivants :
• Fournir une base théorique, une méthodologie de modélisation, une démarche
de validation pour tout système d'entreprise ;
• Valider ce corpus théorique sur au moins deux études de cas en entreprise ;
• Fournir des éléments pour la coordination et la synergie des systèmes.
Les quatre systèmes étudiés ici sont les systèmes qui gèrent :
• Des flux logistiques (Supply Chain Management) ;
• Des flux d’information de conception produit/process (Product Lifecycle
Management) ;
• Des connaissances et des savoirs (Knowledge Management) ;
• Des informations de gestion (Entreprise Resource Planning, Customer
Relationship Management).
Le but de notre recherche en cours (avec la thèse d’Abir Fathallah) [C-08-31] est de
présenter un modèle systémique unifie des systèmes d’entreprise permettant
l’amélioration de la création, de la mise en place, du partage et de la pérennisation des
connaissances au sein de l’entreprise. L’enjeu ici est de contribuer à une théorie de la
modélisation qui dépasse les modélisations quantitative, mathématique ou statistique,
c’est-à-dire, de contribuer à une nouvelle épistémologie pour la modélisation de
système d’entreprise.
- 79 -
Notre objectif est de proposer une méthode d’aide au montage d’équipes virtuelles.
Pour cela nous avons réalisé une analyse fonctionnelle et nous avons fait ressortir les
besoins principaux qu’une telle méthode doit satisfaire. Les principaux besoins ont été
retenus pour réaliser le Quality Function Deployement (QFD), ce qui nous a permis de
valider le fait que peu de méthodes existent actuellement et aucune n’est suffisamment
générique pour s’adapter à des contextes particuliers propres aux équipes virtuelles.
Nous pouvons cependant retenir deux méthodes principales dans l’état de l’art :
• CRAI (Competency Resource Aspect Individual), méthode qui donne une vision
de l’adéquation d’un individu à un poste donné en comparant les compétences
individuelles acquises aux compétences requises à ce poste. Pour ce faire, cette
méthode offre une représentation formelle des compétences à un niveau
générique [Berio, 2007], [Harzallah, 2002] ;
• Product Development 2.0, méthode qui fournit un environnement collaboratif et
qui modifie la structure des interactions et des collaborations dans une équipe.
Nous passons ainsi d’un « système push », où l’information est donnée à un
« système pull », où l’intéressé vient chercher l’information [Marion, 2008],
[Marion 2009].
Les méthodes retenues dans l’état de l’art sont, soit des méthodes issues du
management des compétences, soit des méthodes propres au travail collaboratif virtuel.
A ce jour, nous n’avons pas décelé l’existence de méthodes de management de
compétences pour la constitution d’équipe virtuelle [C-08-32, C-08-28].
Les deux principaux livrables attendus dans ce travail de recherche en cours sont :
- 80 -
Le Réseau est un nouveau maillon de la chaîne de valeur, de l’accompagnement de
projets innovants. Proposer une organisation propre à ce type de réseau, permettra :
- 81 -
C-08-29 M. SCHUMACHER, J. STAL-LE CARDINAL, M. MEKHILEF, A Competence
Management Methodology for Virtual Teams – A Systemic Approach to
Support Innovation Processes in SME’s. International Design conference –
DESIGN 2008, Dubrovnik, May 2008
- 82 -
CONCLUSION
Nous avons présenté dans cette partie une synthèse des travaux les plus significatifs
que nous avons menés, en ayant le souci de rappeler le contexte de ces travaux et de
situer notre contribution aux recherches faites dans le domaine.
Ce travail de synthèse est une opportunité de faire le point sur dix années de recherche
et de formaliser le cheminement de nos thématiques de recherche. Initialement dans le
prolongement direct de nos travaux de thèse, elles ont évolué progressivement selon
les opportunités et aspirations personnelles.
- 83 -
PERSPECTIVES DE RECHERCHE
Je vais approfondir l’analyse préliminaire des risques menée sur des décisions de choix
d’acteurs afin d’aboutir, pour chaque risque de la liste générique d’événements
redoutés, à des préconisations d’action. Ainsi je serais en mesure de proposer ce
résultat aux chefs de projet, pour les aider à gérer les risques liés aux décisions de
choix d’acteurs.
Je compte également développer, sur le modèle d’aide au choix d’acteur, une méthode
d’aide à la décision générique qui pourrait être appliquée à l’ensemble des décisions
prises au niveau opérationnel, tactique et stratégique du projet. Ainsi, les membres de
l’équipe projet pourraient se positionner et voir les causes et conséquences de leurs
actions.
- 84 -
1.2. Humain, culture et projets
Dans le cadre de l’axe de recherche en management de projet au laboratoire Génie
Industriel de l’ECP, j’ai animé un groupe de recherche sur la culture nationale et la
culture d’entreprise dans les projets. Nous avons collaboré avec Angela Minzoni-
Déroche. Conseiller de synthèse, anthropologue, docteur en sciences humaines (Paris
X et EHESS), Angela Minzoni-Déroche a été chef de projet au Proche-Orient avant de
mettre son expérience d’ensemblier multiculturel au service des organisations qui
souhaitent renouveler le sens de leurs innovations. Directrice de Re-Création, elle
accompagne ainsi les dirigeants dans l’élaboration de la stratégie, dans la prise en
compte du facteur humain et dans l’identification des données d’avenir, pour analyser
les différences de perception de ces types de cultures entre des managers hommes et
femmes. Cette recherche faite en commun a été présentée lors du dernier congrès
international ICED à Stanford en août 2009 [C-09-33].
- 85 -
virtuelles sont des bases, dans ce cas, pour optimiser les processus de décisions
qui devront être prises par différents métiers et à distance.
• Une collaboration a été initiée avec Penn State University sur le thème
« Healthcare and Industrial Engineering ». Penn State est la première université
américaine dont l’objectif est de faire un centre pour « Healthcare studies ». Je
travaille avec Harriet Black Nembhard, associate Professor, dont la mission est
d’atteindre cet objectif. Mon approche est complémentaire de celle de Penn State
Université. L’équipe d’Harriet Black Nembhard considère un modèle « Patient –
Population – Team – Organization – Network – Environment (PPTONE model) ».
Pour un élément du modèle (par exemple le patient) avec une caractéristique
(par exemple, l’hypertension), ils appliquent alors la dynamique des systèmes
pour visualiser les interrelations entre les différentes parties de PPTONE dans ce
cas. J’apporte une vision systémique, dans laquelle la chaine PPTONE est vue
comme un ensemble en évolution. Cette collaboration est prometteuse et permet
la mise en commun de deux approches différentes sur des sujets
complémentaires, avec des échelles différentes et complémentaires.
- 86 -
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- 91 -
ANNEXES
- 92 -
RAPPORT HDR JULIE STAL - LE CARDINAL - ANNEXES
ANNEXE 1
ANNEXE 2
ANNEXE 3
ANNEXE 4
ANNEXE 5
and optimisation of project processes. She has an MSc of Ecole Centrale Paris
(1997) and a Master of Engineering in mechanical engineering-industrial
design (University of Technology of Compiègne, France).
1 Introduction
The first phase of New Product and Process Development (NPPD) is a phase where
different project members collaboratively decide the project objectives. This first phase
of NPPD is specific because it is a collaborative decision-making phase. Different actors
in this process make strategic decision concerning the project in this phase. Whelton
et al. (2002) indicates that in the early phases almost 80% of the product and industrial
process are specified. Bellut (1990) in his work exposes that any decision in the
engineering phase will have nine times greater financial consequence than the ones made
in the manufacturing phase. Therefore, we can underline the importance if this phase
for the project success.
As this phase is a phase of project definition, the classic project management tools are
not sufficient. Further in this paper, we expose the context of this phase and the reasons
of insufficiency of existing project management tools. Here we propose a conceptual
project management framework for this early phase based upon the capitalisation of
information in the collaborative decision-making. Therefore, this phase is managed by
decisions and using collaborative decision-making information identified as necessary
for the definition of the project objectives.
The structure of this paper is organised in four parts. The first part is related to the
project management issues in the early stage of product and process development. In this
paper, we expose some concrete aspects of this phase identified during our field research.
Based upon the conclusions of our research field we propose a management framework
for the project management tool that we developed in order to cover some of the issues
that were identified. In this second part we develop the structure of this framework and its
implementation. In the third part, we discuss the collaborative decision-making model
used as a basis for the development of the proposed framework. In the end we discuss
some of our conclusions and possible perspectives for the future research.
New Product and Process Development is one of the crucial areas of company
competences and is contributing positively to the company success (Harmsen et al.,
2000). The beginning of this process is the definition of the clients needs resulting from
the market research phase. The project definition phase, as it is called, is the first phase
of the NPPD process in PSA Peugeot Citroen., for instance.
Proposition of the project management framework 111
Figure 1 Project management framework (decisional level, informational level and operational
level) (see online version for colours)
114 M. Jankovic, J.L. Cardinal and J-C. Bocquet
essential for quality decision-making on time. If they are not available when the project
team has to decide the project objectives, the degree of uncertainty can be endangering
project success. That is also, why we have connected this part to risk management.
For every input, output or activity to be performed, the concept of criticality is defined
and integrated in the Individual File. The criticality is a notion of the risk of obtaining the
information on time. It is calculated accordingly to risk management methodology
applied in PSA Peugeot Citroen. The quality manager evaluates and includes these risks
in the risk database specially designed for risk management.
In this part, we also wanted to exhibit eventual conflicts in the collaborative decision-
making. We are based upon the hypothesis that exposing eventual points where conflicts
can outbreak will diminish them (Harrington et al., 1995). Therefore, we insist on the
transparency of individual objectives of every actor. These objectives are highlighted
in this part of Individual File along with the activities of each actor. The aim was to give
the project manager an overview of possible objective incoherence and out breaking
conflicts. The conflicts related to objectives’ incoherence is just one of possible conflict
types in collaborative decision-making.
The operational level concerns the activity network of the NPPD process. We have
not worked directly on the construction and organisation of this level. Nevertheless,
the developments of the decisional level and the collaborative decision-making modelling
have triggered the internal enterprise reflection related to its organisation.
The operational level organisation is influenced by the adopted product breakdown
structure, which is very standard in the project management methodology. But due to the
project complexity, the project team has pointed out the necessity to work by ‘process’.
Therefore, in this level, ten operational processes were identified. Their definition is
based upon the enterprise know-how.
Decision-making tends to be more and more multi-actor. In his work, Shim et al. (2002)
exposes the transfer from individual decision-making to collective decision-making.
Zaraté (2005) adds that all organisational processes are mutating. “Organisational
processes evolve and tend to a greater participation of actors in decision-making:
responsibilities and initiatives are more and more distributed.”
The collaborative decision-making is one type of collective decisions (Zaraté and
Soubie, 2004). The decision-making actors in this decision are experts for one domain
of product development. Therefore, their objectives in the decision-making emanate from
this domain. This fact results in the existence of different preferences and judgement
values concerning the same problem. The actors are also evaluated upon their realisation
of given objectives.
The collaborative decision-making process in the development project is also a
very important and efficient way for opinion and information exchange. This aspect of
collaborative decision-making represents its real strength. Opinion divergence and
differences in problem definition influence the diversity and richness of generated
alternatives and therefore the decision quality. This advantage of collaborative decision is
at the same time a source of main difficulties in decision-making process. Some of these
difficulties are as follows (Jankovic et al., 2006):
116 M. Jankovic, J.L. Cardinal and J-C. Bocquet
Decision System
Information
System
Operational
Operational System
System
Proposition of the project management framework 117
The following definition of the system given by Le Moigne (1990) represents a base for
complex phenomenon modelling. He gives it in a mnemonic way.
General system is a representation of an active phenomenon comprehended as
identifiable by his project in an active environment, in which it functions and transforms
teleologically (see Figure 3).
We used this definition of the system in order to identify the intrinsic elements and
information necessary for good and quality decision-making. Therefore, our conceptual
model of collaborative decision-making has four views (Jankovic et al., 2003). These
views are not to be taken separately into account. There are links between them that are
important for the whole model.
Transformations
Process
The Objectives view concerns different objectives that influence the collaborative
decision-making. These objectives represent ‘what the system is to attain’. This view
considers different objectives (Stal-Le Cardinal, 2000), influence of actor’s preferences
(Panzarasa et al., 2002) and collaborative decision-making objectives.
Environment is a complex surrounding system (Jacqueson, 2002), living (actors) and
non-living (context), having multiple relationships with the observed object and thus
influencing object’s behaviour. Three different environments influence collaborative
decisions in NPPD: decision environment, project environment and enterprise
environment. We identified these three environments with regard to the influences of
different systems in the NPPD process observed on the field. Each of these environments
is identified by its context (Hasher and Zack, 1984; Brézillon, 1999a; Brézillon, 1999b;
Pomerol and Brezillon, 2001; Longueville and Gardoni, 2003; Pomerol and Brezillon,
2003), determining the influencing factors of collaborative decision-making, and
different actors relevant for collaborative decision-making with clearly defined roles
(Castelfranchi and Falcone, 1998; Makaras, 2003).
The Process view represents the process of the collaborative decision-making.
This view is developed upon the definition of the general decision-making process given
by Simon (1977) and Le Moigne (1990). Furthermore, it is refined with the information
of actual collaborative decision-making on the field. Collaborative decision-making is a
complex human-interaction and human-cognition process. There are several specificities
of this process as follows:
118 M. Jankovic, J.L. Cardinal and J-C. Bocquet
5 Conclusions
In this paper, we have discussed some of the issues observed in the project definition
phase, notably in the field of project management. As this phase is a phase of definition
of project objectives, the existing tools have shown some limits: difficulty to plan and
organise the phase, the control is not established (control points were identified at the end
of the phase) and complexity of the developed project management tools and activities’
relationships (more than 800 macro-activities).
In order to deal with some of these issues, in this paper, we propose a project
management framework implemented in the early stage of NPPD. The framework
consists of three levels: decisional, information and operational level. The
implementation of our framework was done in MS Project. The feedback given by some
of the users have underlined some advantages:
Proposition of the project management framework 119
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CONCURRENT ENGINEERING: Research and Applications
Abstract: Managing modularity and commonality in product development more and more needs modularity and commonality in the production
process, with the objectives of reducing manufacturing costs, time to market and improving quality. A critical issue is the way of managing data,
information and knowledge: data most of the time structured according to data models, often using proprietary formats, leading to consistency
problems for the exchanges. The use of international standards is a good way of improving quality of the information systems used in
production management, since they facilitate interoperability of the software tools used. They also contribute to the integration of the production
process in a product life cycle management-based approach. This study presents the ISO 15531 MANDATE standard for the exchanges of
industrial manufacturing management data. In terms of industrial maturity, MANDATE is a new standard, whose development is based on
research work done by the authors and whose parts have not reached the IS status (necessary for sake of stability) at the same time. For this
reason, the different models proposed by the standard have not been implemented altogether at the same time. Indeed numerous standards do
exist in the domain of production information management, however the information models proposed are not always compatible in between
them, the vocabulary used is not defined in the same way even though the terms used are the same: ontology-based approaches are
sometimes necessary to find the common ‘essence’ of the information handled, but they can be integrated in software interfaces, thus making
easier to convey a higher level of semantics in the exchanges. This study presents one of those approaches, defined in the INTEROP NoE EC
funded project.
Key Words: manufacturing management, ontologies, information models, modules, international standard, knowledge management.
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46 A. F. CUTTING-DECELLE ET AL.
system was finished, the requirements had changed. ‘essence’ of the information handled, they also provide
Newer systems development methodologies are based on powerful interfacing tools since they can be integrated in
rapid, concurrent prototyping with frequent feedback to software interfaces, thus making easier to convey a
validate the requirements. For Frankovic et al. [1], higher level of semantics in the exchanges. This study
realization of such approach requires parallel coordina- presents one of those approaches, defined in the
tion, rapid obtaining and treating the information, and INTEROP EC funded project.
also rapid communication. This study proposes a way of managing modularity in
The concept of modularization has attracted an production management systems through the use of
increasing attention in the last few years. The meanings standardized information models. In the first section,
and purposes of modularization in industry vary a modular approach to production management is
between regions and companies [2]. There is no clear- proposed; this modularity comes here from the separate
cut definition of the term shared by the whole industry. processing of the concepts of ‘product’, ‘process’, and
Yet, there does exist a feature relatively common across ‘resources’. This modularity is a fundamental aspect of
various practices of modularization in the industry. It the ISO 15531 MANDATE standard, in the domain of
entails having larger units in subassembly and also often manufacturing management, presented in the next
involves outsourcing these subassemblies to suppliers (as sections. Industrial applications of the standard are
most frequently observed in the European auto indus- then suggested, on the basis of previous work providing
try). This fact suggests that there are at least three facets a partial validation of the standard. This standard
in the phenomenon called ‘modularization’: (1) ‘mod- defines a new emerging paradigm in terms of manufac-
ularization in product architecture’ (modularization in turing management information, taken as a whole and
design) which has been discussed quite often in the field integrated as such through a systemic approach con-
of the management of technology; (2) ‘modularization in sidering at the same time product, process, and resource
production;’ and (3) ‘modularization in inter-firm concepts. Since the standard has recently reached the IS
system’ (outsourcing subsystems in larger units to (International Standard) level, few applications have
outside suppliers). These three facets have often been been developed till now, and only at a partial
mixed up, causing confusion in discussing modulariza- implementation level.
tion. The objective of this study is to present the theoretical
Managing modularity and commonality in product approaches, based on research work developed by the
development more and more needs modularity and authors of this study, underpinning the principles
commonality in the production process, with the main followed in the development of the standard. Another
objectives of reducing manufacturing costs, improving objective is to present the contribution the standard
quality of the products, and reducing time to market. brings in production management.
A critical issue in managing modularity is the way of
managing all the data, information, and knowledge
circulating during the production process: those data are 2. A modular approach to production management
most of the time structured according to given data
models, most the time using proprietary formats. This section deals with some fundamental issues in the
Further, this structure is not consistent throughout the way of managing manufacturing related information
production process, the semantics embedded is often and knowledge. This information is grouped into three
poor and the exchanges among the tools made neither categories, product-, process- and resource-related
straightforward nor easy to automate. The approaches information, thus defining a basis of the modules
to information exchanges are often syntactic rather than developed in the standard. The diversity in the defini-
semantic-based, whence problems in knowledge sharing tions of those concepts is presented in a synthesis table.
and re-use – and important problems in terms of A modular approach to production management is then
interoperability of the software tools used. proposed. A product-process-resource representation,
The use of international standards is a good way of issued from an ontology-based analysis is also presented
improving quality of the information systems used in in this section.
production management, since they facilitate interoper-
ability of the software tools used, also because they 2.1 Terminology issues in manufacturing
contribute to the integration of the production process management information
in a product life cycle management-based (PLM)
approach. However, the information models commonly Manufacturing businesses are becoming more and
proposed in the literature are rarely compatible, the more globally disseminated and companies are becom-
vocabulary used is not defined in the same way even ing more willing to work closely together in order to
though the terms used are the same: ontology-based remain competitive. It is therefore essential that
approaches are sometimes necessary to find the common information and knowledge sharing systems are able to
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Managing Modularity in Production Management 47
support the global nature of business interactions, as its core. The issue then is how to structure the databases
mentioned in [3]. product life cycle management (PLM) at the heart of PLM in order to ensure all users have
and enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems offer access to effective information support. The importance
effective support for communication, but for substantial of product models has long been recognized in providing
additional benefit to be gained, there is a need to share a core of product information to support decisions
information at a level where computational sharing is as mentioned in [6]. However, given the design,
possible. The resolution of this issue requires an manufacture, operation, and disposal aspects of
improved definition of the information and knowledge the life cycle, it is also important to support decisions
thus enabling a better computational sharing. with non product specific information focused on
The range of information to be shared is not only each of these areas of the life cycle. For example, the
wide, but needs to be viewed from different, multiple, manufacturing area of the life cycle should be able
perspectives. This is because each team member is likely to offer support on manufacturing process capability
to be interested in different aspects of the information, and information on suppliers with resources capable
such that the significant attributes involved will be of meeting specific capability requirements. This leads
different and have different levels of significance. to the concept of a product model at the heart of a data/
Similarly, the need for a location fit in a mechanical knowledge based environment, with further bases of
product has implications for the assembly dimensions data and knowledge to support each of the life
and tolerances, which in turn will have implications for cycle phases.
the manufacture of the components required. In This top level framework for information and knowl-
addition to viewpoint dependency, there is also a time edge can then be used as a basis to develop formal
dependency on information. The existence, and rele- information and knowledge classifications for each of
vance, of particular information will vary with time the life cycle phases, see [7]. Figure 2 illustrates the
through the design process. framework at the heart of a product life cycle
Perhaps one of the best known efforts to provide representation. It highlights in particular two unified
common models defining a basis for data exchange and modeling language (UML) class structures which start
sharing has been done through the work of the ISO in to provide contexts for manufacturing knowledge
the ISO TC 184/SC4 committee. This has been in sharing:
progress for over two decades now, has made some
significant progress, but still has much work to do. It is . The first is for manufacturing capability models
interesting to note that the early work focused on which can be used to build representation of an
geometry sharing, an area where the meaning of the enterprise’s manufacturing ability;
terminology is shared and clearly understood by the . The second is a product model representation which
experts involved. However, as one progresses towards goes beyond typical representations of product
areas of information where the terminology is less characteristics, such as geometry and product archi-
rigorously defined in product design and manufacture tecture, to include other key class relating to product
one starts to face problems related to the definition of purpose and views which enable life cycle contexts to
the terms used. Either common terms are used to mean be captured.
different things or different terms are used to mean the
same thing which leads to potentially substantial Those two class structures can be seen as modules of
interoperability problems, see [4]. The set of terms the production system, one dealing with information
listed in Figure 1, see [5] illustrates a sub-set of about manufacturing and resources capabilities, the
definitions drawn from international standards which other related to product information.
provide definitions for ‘process’, ‘product’ and Modularization has been the subject of many research
‘resource’. It is interesting to note that when comparing studies, particularly in the domain of conceptual frame-
these definitions, it is not easy to find out commonalities works, a mandatory stage towards the re-structuring of
among the terms! the enterprises engaged in this process. Among those
This problem highlights the need for precise defini- studies, Takeishi and Fujimoto [2] analyze practices of
tions of the terms used – this will clearly appear in the modularization implemented in the automotive indus-
content of the different information models presented in try. Their purpose is to discuss the concepts of
this study. ‘modularization in product system,’ ‘modularization in
production system,’ and ‘modularization in inter-firm
2.2 Need for a modular approach system’ within the same framework, and to identify the
differences and linkages between them. This framework
While PLM offers a range of tools to support the is based on the concept of ‘multiple hierarchies.’ It sees
business including the ability to manage workflows, the development-production activities for automobiles as
heart of an effective PLM system is the database at multiple, interlinked hierarchies. It contends that the
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48 A. F. CUTTING-DECELLE ET AL.
126 PROCESS
126.1 PROCESS (ISO/CEN 19439)
Partially ordered set of activities that can be executed to achieve some desired end-result in pursuit of a given objective.
126.2 PROCESS (ISO 15531-1;ISO 18629-1)
Structured set of activities involving various enterprise entities, that is designed and organised for a given purpose.
126.3 PROCESS (ISO 10303-49)
A particular procedure for doing something involving one or more steps or operations. The process may produce a product, a property of a product, or an aspect
of a product.
127 PRODUCT
127.1 PRODUCT (ISO 10303-1; ISO 15531-1; ISO 18629-1)
A thing or substance produced by a natural or artificial process.
127.2 PRODUCT DATA (ISO 10303-1)
A representation of information about a product in a formal manner suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human beings or by
computers.
139 RESOURCE
139.1 RESOURCE (ISO/CEN 19439; ISO/CEN 19440)
Enterprise entity that provides some or all of the capabilities required to execute an enterprise activity.
139.2 RESOURCE (ISO 15704)
An enterprise entity that provides some or all of the capabilities required by the execution of an enterprise activity and/or business process.
139.3 RESOURCE (ISO 15745-1)
Device, communication network, equipment, human or material used in a process.
139.4 RESOURCE (IEC 62264-1)
Enterprise entity that provides some or all of the capabilities required by the execution of an enterprise activity and/or business process (in the context of this
standard, a collection of personnel, equipment, and/or material).
hierarchies in product, production, and inter-firm ‘functional independence’ of each subsystem (i.e., the
systems make up one complex system where the three degree to which a function of the product is achieved by
systems are related to each other. Their analysis about a single subsystem), while the latter is made up for
‘modularity in production’, is illustrated in Figure 3. It is ‘structural cohesiveness’ (i.e., the degree to which a
comprised of the ‘product structure hierarchy’ (right collection of parts can be physically handled as one
rectangle) and the ‘product process hierarchy’ (left). In unit). The latter hierarchy is intended to contribute to
order to simplify the explanation, among the whole ‘structurally cohesive modules’ which are easy to
manufacturing processes, the authors focus here only on manage material handling and quality control. The
assembly work in the ‘product process hierarchy.’ It is difference between those two hierarchies can be under-
important to note that the ‘product structure hierarchy’ stood by observing the parts list for the product design
in this figure, as part of ‘multiple hierarchies of product which is not same as the one for production manage-
structure and production processes,’ and its counterpart ment.
in the previous ‘multiple hierarchies of product function Another modular approach is the ontology built
and product structure’ might have different hierarchical within the framework of the OZONE project. The main
patterns. The former hierarchy is built up in pursuit of basic concepts are: activity, product, resource, demand,
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Managing Modularity in Production Management 49
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50 A. F. CUTTING-DECELLE ET AL.
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Managing Modularity in Production Management 51
3.1 The ISO TC 184/SC4 standardization context standardized software tools able to represent these
three sets of data.
The work of the SC4 standardization committee The standard is organized as a series of parts, each
includes all the industrial data related to discrete published separately. The parts belong to the following
products including, but not limited to: geometric series:
design and tolerance data, material and functional (IS: International Standard, WD: Working Draft)
specifications, product differentiation and configura-
tion, process design data, production data (including . Manufacturing resources usage management data
cost), product support and logistics, life cycle data, (3x series):
quality data, and disposal planning data [9]. It also – ISO IS 15531-31: Resource Information Model:
includes organizational data, such as the relationship Basic Concepts [10];
between enterprises or the relationship between – ISO IS 15531-32: Conceptual Model for Resources
components of a single enterprise for the purposes of Usage Management Data [11].
supplier identification. It includes personnel data to the . Manufacturing flow management data (4x series):
extent of identification of approvals. Specifically – ISO IS 15531-42: Time Model [12];
excluded are business planning data, such as profit – ISO IS 15531-43: Data Model for Manufacturing
projections, cash flow, etc., and any other personnel Flow Management [13];
data or organizational data. The goal of SC4 is the – ISO WD 15531-44: Shop Floor data for
creation and maintenance of standards that enable the Manufacturing Management.
capture of information comprising a computerized
product model in a neutral form without loss of MANDATE Part 1 [14] provides a general overview,
completeness and integrity throughout the life cycle of specifying the functions of the various series of parts of
the product. the standard and the relationships among them. It also
specifies the relations between the standard and other
3.2 Main features and structure of the standard related standards. All the MANDATE parts are written
using the EXPRESS language (10303-11) [15].
A manufacturing management system manages
the flow of materials and products through the whole 3.3 The Resource Information Model
production chain, from suppliers, through manufac- (ISO 15531-32)
turers, assemblers, to distributors, and sometimes
customers. The relations among those partners may The conceptual information model for resources
be identified and structured in an electronic form usage management data is structured into six logical
with a view to facilitate electronic exchanges. Then, modules, which are: resource hierarchy (generic, specific,
information handled during these exchanges have individual resource), resource characteristics (set of
to be identified, modeled, and represented in such information about a resource), resource administration
a way that they may be shared by a maximum of (administrative information), resource status (avail-
partners. From this analysis, three main categories ability or not of the resource), resource view (specific
of data related to manufacturing management can aggregation of resources), resource representation (phy-
be distinguished: sical values), resource configuration, see [11] for a
detailed representation of the resource usage manage-
. information related to the management of the time; ment schema.
. information related to the management of the A resource is the basic element for resource manage-
resources used during the manufacturing processes; ment. Each further detailed description, classification or
. information related to the management of the configuration of resources relates to resource. A
manufacturing flows. resource can be generic, specific, or individual and
may in turn be made of a number of other resources.
MANDATE is an International Standard for the Each resource has characteristics and can also be
computer-interpretable representation and exchange of considered from different viewpoints. It is important
industrial manufacturing management data. The nature to notice that a resource is not a priori related to any
of the description makes it suitable not only for neutral given activity. It exists and may be managed before any
file exchange, but also as a basis for implementing appointment to any activity. That is typically the case
and sharing manufacturing management databases for human resources.
and archiving. The standard is focused on discrete Resource properties are defined by references
manufacturing, but not limited to it. The purpose is to external modules, or catalogues, structured
to facilitate the integration between the numerous by means of the ISO 13584 P-LIB (Part Library)
industrial applications by means of common, standard [16].
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52 A. F. CUTTING-DECELLE ET AL.
3.4 Data Model for Manufacturing Flow duration is given by the type of value of point or interval
Management (ISO 15531-43) of time entity. The concept of frequency of events
is an important feature of this model, since it enables
This part addresses the modeling of data for the the characterization of the intervals of time separating
management of manufacturing flows as well as flow event occurrences. Transformation rules between two
controls in a shop floor or in a factory. This time domains are provided through the entity time
manufacturing flow model is provided in the context domain relation. These rules can be expressed either
of various processes that run simultaneously and/or in terms of time unit or in terms of change of origin
sequentially, providing one or more products and/or (translation).
components and involving numerous resources. This Time is defined by a time domain containing a
part (see [13] for a detailed representation) provides a sequence of points in time. A point in time is defined by
way to model the data needed to manage the multiple a selected location on the time axis, through the use of a
complex flows that have to be taken into account time unit. A time unit is used to measure the duration in
between the different manufacturing processes in a the related time domain. A time domain is defined as
factory. That includes products, components, or raw follows:
material flows as well as services flows, such as
information flows [17]. The main entities of the ðT, Þ with T ¼ set of points in time,
schema are: ¼ complete order relation on T:
The time model is made of two ‘schemas’, with the In terms of industrial maturity, MANDATE is a
meaning of the EXPRESS representation: the domain ‘young’ standard, whose development started recently
property schema, providing a generic topological and whose parts have not reached the IS status
structure applicable to any one-dimensional domain, (necessary for sake of stability) at the same time. For
and the time domain schema, instanciation of the this reason, the different models proposed by the
previous generic structure to the time. The time standard have not been implemented at the same time.
domain schema is presented here. In this section, the implementation of the resource
The time schema provides the definition of concepts information model is discussed, alone, then alongside
related to the time representation, needed by software with the other models in a MRPII structure. Then the
applications mainly dealing with scheduling and manu- manufacturing scenario developed within the framework
facturing management operations. It enables multiple of the project is presented.
representations of time domains, intervals of time,
points in time, and time units. The time domain 4.1. Modularity and genericity of the standard
schema is represented in Figure 7.
For the management of industrial manufacturing The standard can be considered as providing two
systems, an assignment of a point in time to an event levels of modularity: on the one hand, it is modular since
occurrence is necessary to enable the observation and each part is independent from the other ones. On the
comparison of points in time characteristic of the other hand, its modularity comes from the fact that all
system. the references to given products, resources, processes
Since the time domain and all its related sub- are made external, and thus are not pre-defined in
categories only define different categories of sets of the standard: this standard is thus more generic
points, another entity is needed to enable the considera- and independent from any specific kind of product,
tion of the length, the duration of a period in time: this resource, and process. However, it is easy to specialize to
concept is provided by the entity interval of time, whose a specific usage.
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Managing Modularity in Production Management 53
– Modularity in terms of products targeted by production process libraries. Those libraries generally exist within
management systems (PMS): MANDATE does not the companies, however they are most of the time
apply to a specific ‘product’. The standard makes use implicit, the knowledge embedded is not often
as far as possible of product models defined by the explicitely formalized nor expressed under a specific
ISO 10303 STEP standard. This concept of ‘product’, (electronic) format – they can also be partially
as it is defined in ISO 10303-1 [18] is a powerful and developed and implemented, often in that case closely
original feature of the standard, compared to other related to a specific software tool devoted to a specific
exchange standards. The objective is to provide a task, thus, and most of the time represented using a
mechanism capable of describing product data, proprietary format not transferable. This knowledge
throughout the life cycle of a product, independent contains the history, the know-how of the enterprise,
from any particular system and applicable to any kind also the added value and the skill of the company. The
of product. ISO 10303 STEP takes a product-oriented development of such P-LIB based libraries, expressed
view of manufacturing, while MANDATE deals with and stored independently from any particular soft-
the data defining the processes, within the overall ware tool, is a powerful way to record and to structure
entreprise. their know-how, their activity, their skill. It is also a
– Modularity in terms of processes and resources needed way to make this knowledge modular, thus more
by the PMS: As for products, MANDATE does not adaptable to new situations companies may face in the
target specific processes and resources, either indus- future. It is also a way to improve interoperability
trial or not. All information, characteristics, features, among the different software applications used
catalogue data related to processes and resources are throughout the different departments and/or plants
considered as external to the standard; they are of the companies.
provided by the ISO 13584 Parts Library representa-
tion: whose purpose is to specify a form for the The modular structure of the MANDATE standard
unambiguous representation and exchange of compu- enables its use in different contexts of a manufacturing
ter-interpretable parts library information by group- enterprise. In the section below, the resource informa-
ing the common features of the parts. This form is tion model is applied to the management of a machining
independent of any particular computer system, cell. Beyond the environment of the shop floor, at a
allows for any kind of part representation category, larger scale, a manufacturing resource planning
and enables consistent implementations across multi- (MRPII) approach makes use of all the models
ple applications and systems. The standard permits proposed by the standard.
different implementation technologies to be used for
storing, accessing, transferring, and archiving parts 4.2 Resource Information Model
library data.
– Use of ISO 13584 (P-LIB) libraries: in the domain of Machine tools, fixtures, cutting tools, manufacturing
component libraries, the P-LIB (ISO 13584) standard personnel, pallets, transfer devices, coolant, etc. can all
separates the information about the structure of a be considered as being manufacturing resources [11].
parts library, from the information about each part or The combination of a range of such resources provides a
family of parts that belongs to the parts library. As manufacturing capability which can be assessed in terms
such, the standard is well suited to the management of of its usage. Resource information can be combined in
the commonalities of the parts. P-LIB also makes use many different ways dependent on the purpose for
of the EXPRESS language to specify the information which it is needed.
about the structure of a parts library. It allows the Many combinations of resource can be considered.
information about each part, or each family of parts Another example is provided by an assembly shop with
belonging to a parts library to be specified by different a range of assembly machines each of which can perform
standards. The conformance testing of the implemen- different assembly operations. The combination of these
tations will use the same methodology and framework machines and the characteristics of each influence the
as defined in the ISO 10303 standard. overall potential usage of the shop. The shop itself can
– Genericity of the standard: MANDATE provides a be considered to be a resource with a set of character-
generic approach of some of the main concepts used istics as can each of the cells within the shop and each of
in production management systems. As such, the the machine stations within each cell.
standard cannot be used alone, but specialized The machine in the shop is an example of a specific
through the instanciation of constructs written in resource. It has a set of characteristics, such as capacity
terms of resources, flows, and time developed in the and capability. However if one considers it to be a
parts 32, 42, and 43. This instanciation is made machine supplier’s machine it is therefore not an actual
through links provided by the standard to external resource which exists within the business. This illustrates
component libraries: resource libraries, flow libraries, the difference between a specific resource and an
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54 A. F. CUTTING-DECELLE ET AL.
individual resource. An individual resource can be Ideally, it addresses operational planning in units,
considered as a resource occurrence which will have financial planning in dollars, and has a simulation
some status at some point in time. capability to answer what-if questions. It is made up of a
The resource characteristic is the means by which sets variety of processes, each linked together: business
of values are assigned to resources. Each resource is planning, production planning (sales and operations
defined by a set of characteristics and each characteristic planning), master production scheduling, material
has a representation and a grouping. The representation requirements planning, capacity requirements planning,
of the characteristic simply relates to quantitative or and the execution support systems for capacity and
qualitative values. However, the representation is also material. Output from these systems is integrated
classified in terms of whether the value is a proposed with financial reports such as the business plan,
value, a required value, or a value which has been purchase commitment report, shipping budget,
realized. It is recognized that additional classifications and inventory projections in dollars. Manufacturing
may be required and this can be achieved through the resource planning is a direct outgrowth and extension of
link from library properties. The grouping of the closed-loop MRP’.
resource characteristic is effectively another classifica- Figure 5 makes appear the main functions of the
tion of the characteristic in terms of whether it is MRPII approach: the MANDATE models can be used
concerned with the administration of the resource, the to structure the information and the data exchanged at
capacity, or capability of the resource or the constitution the interfaces between the different functions (or ‘boxes’)
of the resource. of the schema. The time model does not explicitly
While the recursive resource definition enables flexible appear on this schema, its role is implicit since it
resource groups to be defined a resource may be viewed provides the mandatory sequencing of all the activities
from a number of different perspectives. For example, a of the production cycle.
factory may be considered to be a resource which can be
broken down into shops, cells, and stations. However, 4.4 Manufacturing scenario
views of the personnel within the factory could be
defined; views of a particular set of machine types could A manufacturing scenario has been developed within
be defined; views of the tooling for tool management the framework of the MANDATE project. The objec-
purposes could be defined. tive of the scenario was, through a complete description
The resource view allows views of resources to be of the information related to the manufacturing
defined either as a user-defined view or following the management of an industrial product, to show a way
DIN 4000-1 [19] approach of specifying resources by a of using and relating together the different parts of the
tabular layout of article characteristics. standard. However, at the time of completion of the
scenario, the part 43 about process and flow manage-
4.3 Use of the different MANDATE models ment was not yet finalized, and it has been decided to
focus the scenario mainly on the use of the resource
Globalization has left many manufacturing and information model. Another objective was to show the
service-oriented companies with the option of pursuing possible links with other standards, along with the
world’s best practices or perish. Many companies now connection points and the roles of these links. The
realize the need for the development of world class example was based on a real manufacturing test case of
systems and methodologies, as well as acquiring the a commonly used industrial product. For each function
‘productivity tool’ that will let them be in a commercial of the production process described, the scenario
position to offer competitive manufacturing resource provides the structure of the data sets corresponding
planning that assures customers of quality goods and to the inputs, outputs, constraints (if needed) of the
services and compliance with international quality function. The product selected is a particular type of
requirements on different industry fields [20]. In the gear wheel, called gw_1-c. The product of the example is
competitive business environment of the twenty-first defined by a set of engineering and manufacturing data,
century, the development of a manufacturing strategy, described in the following files:
as ‘a collective pattern of decisions that acts upon the *PROD_ITEM file: information related to products as
formulation and deployment of manufacturing items: main file for all items, products, whether
resources’ (APICS Dictionary, see [21]), becomes more purchased, manufactured, managed in stock;
and more important. * PROD_STRUCT file: product structures, used mainly
In this context, the MANDATE models bring an for planning and product costing. The result is a product
important contribution to the MRPII information structure containing necessary information for planning,
modeling approach. The APICS Dictionary (APICS) costing, and manufacturing;
defines MRPII as ‘a method for the effective planning * PROD_ROUTE file: information necessary for
of all resources of a manufacturing company. routing, bill of labor.
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Managing Modularity in Production Management 55
PURCHASES
CONTROL
- PRODUCTION FOLLOW-UP
SUPPLIERS
MONITORING FOLLOW-UP
- RESOURCES FOLLOW-UP
GOOD RECEIVING
QUALITY CONTROL
SCHEDULING STORAGE
WORKSHOPS
STORAGE STORAGE
- MATERIALS - MATERIALS
ASSEMBLY WORKSHOP
- COMPONENTS - COMPONENTS
PARTS MANUFACTURING - SUB-ASSEMBLIES - SUB-ASSEMBLIES
MATERIAL FLOW
Table 1. Excerpt of the PROD_ROUTE table: information The parsing of the example coming from the
necessary for routing, for the bill of labor. manufacturing scenario on the MANDATE models
Field_num Field_name Text was very interesting, since it provided the opportunity to
test the models against the case of a real product given
1 prodro_com Company
with its definition and the necessary manufacturing
2 prodro_facil Facility
3 prodro_num Product number capabilities, capacities, and constraints. The first step of
4 prodro_ str_type Product structure type the work was to identify the set of data relevant to the
5 prodro_oper_num Operation number resource information model and to the time model: this
6 prodro_sequ_num Sequence number task was not a trivial one, since the data were provided
7 prodro_fro_date From date
into three files (tables) related to the product taken as an
8 prodro_to_date To date
9 prodro_work-center Work center item (47 fields in the table), the structure of the product
(area, or technical group) (36 fields), the route of the product (36 fields). Those
10 prodro_oper_descr Operation description tables were generated by the production management
application of the company. As they were provided, it
Table 1 shows an excerpt of the prod_route file. was not easy to identify the different attributes, key and
The objective of the scenario was to map the concepts non-key and to highlight the dependencies between the
from the industrial example to the entities of the attributes and with the tables. Since the tables contained
resource information model: the correspondences both information relevant to product management and
between the content of the gear wheel example file and to manufacturing management, the second stage was to
the RIM names (ISO 15531-32 part); input to the ISO put apart information related to product, in order to
115531-42 time model part are also mentioned. An focus on manufacturing management information:
excerpt of the result is represented in Table 2. example: from the product_structure table: product
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56 A. F. CUTTING-DECELLE ET AL.
Table 2. Correspondences between the content of the gear wheel example file and the RIM.
Num Field_name Text RIM corresp. Name or other
number, product structure type, product text can be which: ISO 10303 STEP, ISO 15531 MANDATE, ISO
provided by external references to corresponding attri- 13584 PLIB), enterprise models and architecture, com-
butes of the entity ‘product’ from the ISO 10303 STEP munication, interfaces, and translation. The main
standard. Another point discovered in the example was features of those standards are:
the fact that sometimes, elements of information were
put into attributes when it was possible to calculate this . For STEP (ISO 10303): product data modeling, based
information (e.g., weight of a sub-assembly, number of on a specific modeling language EXPRESS (ISO
operations). Sometimes also, the meaning of the 10303-11) and on ‘integrated resources’ (parts
attributes, and the format used were ambiguous. 4x series), application protocols make use of inte-
Of course, one of the big difficulties met was to be grated resources for specific area.
able to separate the ‘corporate’ information, specific to . For PLIB (ISO 13584): design and provision of parts
the company, from the common information needed by library and components, implemented (particularly in
production management systems, in order to translate Japan), well suited to e-business, now at the stage of
only the information relevant to manufacturing manage- development of specific standardized catalogues
ment into elements of the MANDATE models. This (fastener, cutting tools, measurement devices) often
problem will disappear as the external libraries, contain- in joint collaboration with IEC, used by other
ing all this information are made available. standards to specify constructs or partial models
As a matter of result, once restricted to manufacturing (MANDATE).
management information, a good correlation was found
between the needs in terms of information coming from Standardization committees are more and more
the real test case and the entities of the models: both for oriented towards the standardization of the semantics,
the resource information model and the time model. considered as a basic need to share and exchange
However, the difficulties experimented came out from information, data, and knowledge. On the other hand,
the lack of available external references, since no product data engineering is now mature and the users in
catalogues were available for the different properties the enterprise are more and more interested in the
and features about products, resources, and flows. standardization of their systems and architectures.
This problem is discussed in the last section. However, a question remains about the coverage of
the different standards, through their models, their
4.5 Discussion – problems arising representations and, first of all, the vocabulary used: the
authors presented in Section 2 of this study the result of
Standards basically developed for manufacturing the analysis of the terms ‘product’, ‘process’, and
integration and able to capture the enterprise semantics ‘resource’ made by Michel [5], entitled ‘terminology
apply to the following domains: data integration (among extracted from some manufacturing and modeling
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Managing Modularity in Production Management 57
related standards’, where he compares the meaning of The integration will be achieved by the end of the
the main terms used in manufacturing management. It is three-year project duration. Meanwhile, INTEROP
easy to see that the meaning, the semantic embedded spreading of excellence activities should ensure the
into those definitions is not the same . . . although all of fertilization of the largest research community as well
them refer to the same ‘concept’. However, in terms of as IT providers and users, to provide a durable virtual
interoperability among software tools, inconsistencies, lab on interoperability beyond the EU-funded period.
gaps, appear, thus making the translation impossible, or The objective of the INTEROP portal is to increase
at least of poor quality. awareness on interoperability, to keep informed on the
How to solve this problem Several approaches are research results developed within the consortium but
possible. Among them, the use of translation languages also to share experiences on collective methods of work.
based on ontological representations of the concepts It has been designed to provide a single point of access
(such as the ISO 18629 PSL language [22]), and the use to all relevant information and applications, functioning
of transformation methods is worth mentioning. In the as an access to this interoperability communities of
following section, model transformation methods are interest and practice.
presented, as they have been studied within the frame- The following sections focus on the work done by the
work of the INTEROP project. Task Group 2 (TG2: MDI – model driven interoper-
ability), since some of the authors of this study, within
the framework of this project, have particularly worked
5. Model integration: need for model on model transformation methods.
transformation methods
5.2 Model Driven Interoperability
Enterprises today face many challenges related to the
lack of interoperability. Enterprise applications and The aim of the work is to analyze the current
software systems need to be interoperable in order to situation and to bring solutions in the domain of
achieve seamless business across organizational model driven interoperability (MDI). The approach
boundaries and thus realize virtual networked organiza- combines results coming from three domains: enter-
tions [23]. Model-driven development (MDD), and prise modeling, ontology and architecture and plat-
in particular OMG’s model-driven architectureÕ form – together with the domain of enterprise
(MDAÕ 1) [24], is emerging as the state of practice for software applications (ESA).
developing modern enterprise applications and software The need for interoperability between ESA appears in
systems. The MDD paradigm provides a better way of various situations:
addressing and solving interoperability issues compared
to earlier non-modeling approaches. However, develop- . introduction of a new type of ESA in the enterprise
ing correct and useful models to address interoperability and connection to the existing one,
is not an easy task! . connection of ESA between several enterprises,
In this section, some results are presented from the merging of enterprises and integration of legacy
INTEROP EC project in defining an interoperability software, and similar situations.
framework for model-driven development of enterprise
applications and software systems. The framework In the model driven architecture (MDA) methodol-
provides a foundation, consisting of a set of reference ogy, modeling is made according to three points of view
models, describing how to apply MDD in software corresponding to three conceptual levels:
engineering disciplines in order to support the business
interoperability needs of an enterprise. . Computation Independent Model (CIM): representing
system requirements in the environment in which it is
5.1 Presentation of the INTEROP Project going to operate, for business models with a holistic
point of view about the enterprise.
INTEROP (IST-508 011) is a network of excellence . Platform Independent Model (PIM): modeling system
(NoE) supported by the European Commission for a functionality but without defining how and on
three and a half year period, starting from 2003. which platform it will be implemented, focused
INTEROP is aimed at creating conditions of an on information and seen from a computational
innovative and competitive research in the domain point of view.
of interoperability for enterprise applications and . Platform Specific Model (PSM): PIM is transformed
software [25]. into a platform specific model according to a
1
Model Driven ArchitectureÕ and MDAÕ are registered trademarks of the Object Management Group.
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58 A. F. CUTTING-DECELLE ET AL.
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Managing Modularity in Production Management 59
rule Book2Publication {
from
b : Book!Book (
Book
+title :String
b.getNbPages() > 2
)
Publication
to +title :String
out : Publication!Publication ( +nbPages :Integer
+authors :String
* + chapter title <−b.title,
Chapter
authors <−b.getAuthors(),
+nbPages :Integer nbPages <−b.getNbPages()
+title :String
+author :String )
}
. to build transformations between different levels the diversity of the information models available, one
(CIM, PIM, and PSM). can see here a strong indication of the potential for MDA
approaches to provide improved support for semantic
To perform a transformation with the ATL tool, four interoperability. Investigations are being made by the
elements are needed (see Figure 7): source (meta)-model, authors to apply model driven methods to this area.
target (meta)-model, mapping between source and target
expressed in ATL, and input model which instantiated
the source (meta)-model. 6. Discussion – issues
The transformation can then be performed to get the
target model, instance of the target (meta)-model. In this study the authors have discussed a way of
Mappings between formalisms have to be defined at managing modularity in production management
the meta-modeling level. If the mapping is not a one- systems through the use of international standards.
to-one mapping between one source concept and one The first section presented a modular approach to
target concept but a one-to-many mapping, the trans- production management, the modularity being here
formation needs additional semantic annotations or based on a separate processing of the concepts of
semantic support to produce the target concepts. These ‘product’, ‘process’ and ‘resources’. The OZONE
annotations must provide information about the target ontology was also presented, since the project proposes
concept that has been chosen. For instance, within the an interesting focus on scheduling management
UML modeling domain, these annotations can be seen from this point of view. This modularity is a
provided by tagged values or stereotyped notes attached fundamental feature of the MANDATE standard
to modeling elements. presented in the following sections. MANDATE is a
Those transformation principles have been applied to new emerging standard in the domain of manufacturing
the transformation from GRAI to UML at the management, the physical implementation of the con-
computation independent model (CIM) level. The full cepts proposed is just starting and a manufacturing
transformation process is presented in the deliverable scenario is presented.
TG2.1 of the INTEROP Project [32]. Numerous standards do exist at the different levels
In the domain of manufacturing engineering, and of the production management systems, but their joint
given the terminology issues represented in Figure 1 and use highlights some problems, among which: the lack of
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60 A. F. CUTTING-DECELLE ET AL.
compatibility of the information models, the vocabulary The expected results coming out from the integration
used is not defined in the same way even though the process are:
terms used are the same: ontology-based approaches are
sometimes necessary to find the common ‘essence’ of the . In the case of full integration (e.g., proprietary
information handled, further they can be integrated in software) the standard is the software itself;
software interfaces, making easier to convey a higher . In the case of unification (e.g., Windows, Office,
level of semantics in the exchanges. This study presented Unix) the integration makes use of standardized
one of those approaches, proposed by the INTEROP components (constructs, partial models) and stan-
EC funded project. dardized interfaces;
It is interesting to analyze the trends and the role of . In the case of federation (e.g., legacy software built
international standards for intelligent collaboration around various products) the impact of standardiza-
and integration in manufacturing. The needs: to tion is very poor. Some standardized interfaces and
improve productivity and efficiency and to reduce communication standards may be used as well as
the manufacturing and the time to market life cycles. standardized translators.
To achieve that it is necessary to avoid failures
in communication flows, to improve accuracy of Standards appear as particularly useful in the
data processing and associated manufacturing processes, integration by unification, since, when they are used
then to share and to exchange manufacturing data together, they provide standardized components (enter-
and models inside the enterprise as well as with prise models, partial models, constructs) that are
its environment in an accurate way [33]. shareable, re-usable, and interoperable. They also
Semantic versus technological integration: to share convey and preserve the common part of the semantics
or to exchange data and models between application A included in the various enterprise (and inter-enterprise)
and B two conditions are required: the semantics applications. It is the reason why it is possible to
carried out by data and models of the applications A say that the industrial use of MANDATE standard
and B must have a least a part in common; the will develop as the physical instanciation of P-LIB
technological tools used to exchange this common catalogues will progress further. This can take time,
semantics and/or to share it must be compatible or however the return on investment (ROI) will be
interoperable. substantial, provided that all the information about
Technological tools include: data management and products, resources, and flows is under an electronic
data access tools (DBMS, programming languages, format. Today, MANDATE provides the integration
query languages . . .), communication tools (LAN, methodology applicable to production management
WAN, EDI, etc.). Are of course included WWW systems.
technologies and services (HTML, XML, OWL, etc). The methods for integration can be grouped into three
Technology is always evolving and new standards or categories, which are:
new editions of standards appear every time. The main
evolutions are more and more linked to the number and . Data integration (integration through data models).
diversity of new technological tools appearing about the This form of integration is addressed by the standards
web and the e-business. developed in ISO TC184/SC4 (industrial data);
In this domain, the main trend is the recent and . Organization integration (integration based on enter-
permanent growing of standards that enable the prise models, process models, decisional models):
enterprise to preserve and re-use the semantics included mainly addressed by standards developed in ISO
in its applications. TC184/SC5 (systems architecture and commu-
Intelligent collaboration and integration in manufac- nications);
turing are characterized by: . Communication integration (integration based on
network communication models and tools): also
. The level of integration (physical, application, addressed by standards developed in ISO TC184/
business); SC5 but IEC SC65 also addresses the same domain
. The way of integration (top-down or bottom-up with another point of view.
approach);
. The expected results (full integration, unification, As a matter of conclusion to this work, a recent US
federation): study, made by NIST, highlighted that the use of the
. The tools and methods implemented (enterprise ISO 10303 STEP standard presently saves more than
organization integration, data integration, commu- 120 million US per year and will save 900 million US per
nication integration, integration through interfaces year in 2010 in the US aerospace, automotive and ship-
and translations). building industry [34,35].
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
PROJECT
MANAGEMENT
International Journal of Project Management 24 (2006) 226–233
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijproman
Industrial Engineering Department/Laboratoire Génie Industriel, Ecole Centrale Paris, Grande voie des Vignes, 92295 Châtenay-Malabry, France
Received 19 October 2004; received in revised form 22 March 2005; accepted 7 October 2005
Abstract
This paper proposes a definition process of the project structure which should be constructed in order to reach the objectives and to
deliver the final results.
The first part of the paper specifically describes this process, with its inputs, tools and methods and outputs. The inputs of this process,
initial situation, objectives and environment, are described in part 2, with research proposals on environment management. Other
research proposals about tools and methods are presented in part 3, focused on the topics of scope and activity definition and resource
assignment. Concrete propositions stemming from research works and from their application at VALLOUREC and PSA PEUGEOT
CITROEN will be presented all along the paper.
Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd and IPMA. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction objectives and to deliver the results. Its output is the project
plan, which means the project structure, deliverables, activ-
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to reach ities and resources, estimated on time, cost and quality
some objectives and to deliver some results. The project is dimensions.
then a change vector in companies, markets and society. It According to a survey executed by the Standish Group
consists of a start, an initial situation, and of a finish, with International in 2000 [26], 80% of project successes or fail-
results that change the companyÕs situation, in terms of ures may be linked to planning, like bad scope definition,
internal performance, product offer, communication tools, bad stakeholder analysis, bad activity decomposition and
and so on. bad resource assignment.
Project management consists of the whole concepts, The planning process is then very important and not
methods and tools, in order to bring the project from start under control. Very important, because the decisions made
to finish, which means in order to reach the objectives and upstream in planning phase have much bigger conse-
to deliver the results of the project. quences in the downstream execution phase: failing to plan
The project lifecycle can be described in several ways, is planning to fail. Not under control because it is impossi-
for instance with the PMIÒ processes: initiating, planning, ble to predict the future, we can just make forecasts and
executing and controlling, closing. The planning process estimations. But as the available information is not sure,
consists of identifying, estimating and preparing the whole and as the context is very complex, uncertain and changing,
activities that have to be executed in order to reach the the plan is always not reliable.
The scope of the paper is about the process from the
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 1 41131568/33 613061415; fax: +33
idea, the objectives to the project structure (planning),
141131272. and not from the structure to the results (the execution).
E-mail address: franck.marle@ecp.fr (F. Marle). We call it the project structure definition process.
2. Project structure definition The transformation from initial to final situation can be
made by planning and executing some project activities,
A project is a transformation process, from an initial to using project resources and organizing in a logical way. It
an expected final situation, evolving in an often complex may include product-oriented activities, human manage-
and changing environment. ment activities, and quality or procurement activities. This
The initial situation is composed of: transformation is what is called project structure in this
paper. It is possible to use tools and methods to make this
The companyÕs corporate strategy. structure definition. Examples of tools and methods are
Historic and standards: global or specific to the Work Breakdown Structure, Gantt charts, resource assign-
company. ment matrix and project baselines (performance, cost).
Initial resources available in the company: human The focus of the paper is about project structure defini-
resources, skills, knowledge, material resources, and tion. Fig. 1 gives illustration of the project structure defini-
money. tion process, and its location in the global project lifecycle.
Constraints and assumptions. The focus of the paper is only to study the local structure
definition process. It may be implemented in any of the
The description of the final situation gives the project existing standards about project management and project
objectives. Project objectives may result from or be consis- lifecycle, like PMIÒ, IPMA, six-sigma for example.
tent with the corporate strategy, and may be a response to The initial situation, objectives and environment are
a constraint (legal, social, ecological) or an opportunity/ described as the inputs of the project structure definition
risk (technological or financial for instance). They can be process, in part 2 ‘‘Inputs of the process’’, with a research
expressed with customer requirements analysis like func- focus on environment management. The research propos-
tional analysis for product development. Therefore, to als about tools and methods are in part 3 ‘‘Tools and meth-
develop a new product, for instance, the beginning of the ods’’, focused on the topics of scope and activity definition,
project consists in defining the expected functions, the and resource assignment.
expected delivery time and the budget. In Fig. 1, the pro- Everything is uncertain and may change during the pro-
cess is displayed with a loop, in order to show the existence ject lifecycle: objectives, environment, resources, con-
of the project objectives at the beginning, and their com- straints and assumptions, and so should the structure
parison with project results after execution. change. It is not in the scope of this paper to see when
The project environment is composed with the whole and on which conditions the structure must change.
stakeholders involved in the project lifecycle.
3. Inputs of the process
De
and their consequences. For the last one, the project envi-
liv
ery
or sponsor, if the project manager is not yet assigned, to A dysfunction can be characterized by a difference
clarify and refine this need in order to describe the project between the expected action and the realized action and
stakes, the justification of the project, and elaborate the thus a non-achievement of the objectives [25]. The objec-
first detailed specifications. tives can be not SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achiev-
As the project manager is part of the description of the able, Realistic, Time-related), as proposed by Drucker
initial situation, an assignment dysfunction may involve [7], which reveals a dysfunction.
dysfunctions for the project. For example, a project man- According to the Standish Group survey [26], the influ-
ager assigned too late or unofficially, or assigned to a pro- ence of objectives definition is important on project success
ject he does not have the skills for, may involves delays, or failure. People have declared this as a cause for 21% of
under-quality and non satisfaction of the project objectives the successes and 32% of the failures, decomposed into
and of the customer. complete (or not), realistic (or not) and stable (or not)
Moreover, if the company does not have any high specifications.
level indicator to know (in terms of performance, compe- The main dysfunction here is a difference between the
tencies, procedures, and quality) where it is, it will be project specifications and the customer needs and expecta-
difficult then to know if means are well-planned with tions, for instance if one forgets one need, or puts a speci-
regard to the objectives, to the initial situation and to fication not needed by the customer.
the environment.
3.2.3. Proposals
3.1.3. Proposals The list of dysfunctions and their consequences is in
There is no proposal to better control the definition of itself one proposal, but no other solution is introduced.
any initial situation in this paper. The assumption is that Proposals about objectives definition and control are not
the company has made the decision to launch a project, in the scope of the paper.
taking into account its own situation and the need. The
company is then ready to give resources and expects results 3.3. Environment: to know what is around us
of the project.
According to a Standish Group survey [26], the influ-
3.2. Objectives: to know where we want to go ence of environment is important on project success or fail-
ure. People have declared environment as a cause for 30%
3.2.1. Description of the success and 28% of the failures. This part details
Objectives are defined here as the expected end of the some facts about complexity of interactions inside a project
project, the goals that need to be reached. To define objec- and outside the project, with its environment. Some pro-
tives involves delimiting the scope of the project, including posals are made about interactions description, using a
its frontiers. What is not in the scope is not in the project, project interactions model [14].
and reciprocally.
Objectives may be clearly defined with a project 3.3.1. Description
requirements definition, or a project specification. It is In a project, there are a lot of exchange flows, of
a formal document where may be detailed: the context information, decisions and material or financial items,
and stakes of the project, the goals, the major delivera- which make the project complex, as described by Bacca-
bles, the customer(s), the frontiers, the global cost and rini [4] or Williams [31]. For example, with N persons,
deadline and the organization type (project manager, there are N(N 1)/2 possibilities of communication
matrix or functional or project team, sponsor, etc.). It flows. These persons, or organizational structures, have
may be more or less detailed, and it may include func- different interests and different influence capacities, posi-
tional or technical specifications. The most important tive or negative, and these interests and influences may
thing is that it should correspond to the customer needs change during the project. The influence between two
and expectations. persons may be in only one way, or reciprocal. The
action of identifying the environment of a project, in
3.2.2. Dysfunctions and consequences order to anticipate what influences, positive or negative,
Dysfunctions and consequences are relative to the defi- may affect the project or may be affected by the project,
nition of perimeter, the existence of specifications of the is called stakeholder management.
project and the determination of available resources.
Approaching the limits of the project, knowing what we 3.3.2. Dysfunctions and consequences
do and what we do not do in the project is often an impor- If only one stakeholder is not taken into account, for-
tant moment of negotiation. It allows to enrich or to gotten or neglected, the risks of the project are increased.
decrease the expected objectives. A project can be initiated, modified or stopped by influence
The earlier on a project we approach this clarification of of only one stakeholder.
the objectives, the less danger we have of skidding and not For some stakeholders, below is an example of possible
achieving them [9]. dysfunction and its potential consequence:
J. Stal-Le Cardinal, F. Marle / International Journal of Project Management 24 (2006) 226–233 229
The customer/user: if not taken into account, the cus- ten, the structure will be different. If the importance
tomer may not validate the project, or may not pay, given to one stakeholder is different, the structure will
or may not want to work with us any more. be different. The proposal is then to integrate environ-
Executive management, project sponsors, program ment during the project structure definition process, in
director, steering committee and executive committee: order to perform right stakeholder management during
they have the power to modify or to stop the project, the rest of the project. Our model helps to identify, char-
and they may do it if they do not have proper and peri- acterize and visualize interactions, as detailed in [14], and
odic reporting about the project and its stakes. a software prototype was performed and tested in PSA
Other projects: a project shares priorities and resources Peugeot Citroën, on some projects of their progress plan.
with other projects. Not to be aware of the other pro- It was a 250-projects plan consisting of the whole actions
jects, and not anticipating our own resource needs in of internal improvement, transformation, what we can
regard to other projects needs may conduct to a global call support. The test showed the complexity of this pro-
constraint impossible to solve. ject network, and demonstrated the difficulty to manage
Other items, like departments, suppliers, sub contrac- this properly. It had an impact on project structure def-
tors, partners, etc. inition, but also on multi-project management. Now,
there are much fewer and much bigger internal projects
in this company to limit complexity in the management
3.3.3. Proposals of such a project network.
3.3.3.1. The project interactions model. The most known tool
is the stakeholder analysis. We have elaborated, in collabo- 4. Tools and methods
ration with PSA Peugeot Citroën, a model describing the
interactions existing inside a project, and between the pro- We have first defined the project structure concept, then
ject and its environment. This model is detailed in [14], the inputs of the process that leads to this structure. We are
and is standard wherever we are in the project hierarchy. now going to propose tools and methods to help building
It has been built in order to complete stakeholder analysis, the structure of a project. The definition process of any
and to be applicable at each level, sub-project or work pack- project structure is a decision process made of two main
age, and not only at the project level. It is composed of seven sub-processes: the decomposition of the project and the
types of interactions, and of some objects, like project, resource assignment. In this chapter, each sub-process is
objective, deliverable, activity, process and actor: described, then examples of dysfunctions are analyzed
and our propositions of improvement are presented and
The hierarchical link: exists in WBS and PBS for justified. A last point not developed in this paper is about
example. risk management, which consists of identifying, assessing
The sequential link: exists in every project schedule, and and responding to the whole potential events, positive or
shows time dependency. negative, that may affect the project, because the project
The contribution link: a result of object O1 (a project) structure will be modified, enriched and refined.
may contribute to the result of object O2 (an objective,
or another project). 4.1. Decomposition process
The influence link: O1 (sponsor) may modify O2 (pro-
ject), or the result of O1 (project) may impact O2 (users). 4.1.1. Description
The resource link: two objects share the same critical Decomposition is a cognitive and complex problem-
resource. solving process. A non-human tool can not make decom-
The proximity link: O1 looks like O2, which may give an position, except by repeating previous projects or by using
opportunity to reuse experience and best practices. standard templates. It is the operation of expressing an
The exchange link: is only an exchange of information object into several smaller ones. Some examples of decom-
and data. position are the Work Breakdown Structure or Product
Breakdown Structure. The major deliverables of the pro-
ject or the main components of the product are decom-
3.3.3.2. The integration of external constraints. In concur- posed into smaller, more manageable items. It allows
rent engineering, the goal is to integrate downstream con- better managing and controlling of each lowest-level ele-
straints in the upstream activities, in order to avoid ment, called work package for WBS. It allows assigning
rework and waste. The goal is exactly the same in identify- each work package to one organizational and financial
ing the six other types of interactions: we shall integrate the unit.
whole constraints of the environment before to endure The input is often called ‘‘father’’ and the outputs
them, because the consequence of a mistake in planning ‘‘sons’’. The outputs are not unique; it may be several
is multiplied by 10 or 100 in execution. decomposition possibilities. So, decomposition is also a
A last key point of this part is that environment influ- decision-making process, a choice between decomposition
ences the project structure. If one stakeholder is forgot- alternatives.
230 J. Stal-Le Cardinal, F. Marle / International Journal of Project Management 24 (2006) 226–233
The aim of this evaluation is to assess if the decomposed tion, (. . .) as an agency for assigning resources to the man-
structure has a chance or not to reach the project objec- agement of change within the functional organization’’.
tives. In order to realize this assessment, a list of questions
has been developed, split in seven main questions. The 4.2.1. Description
complete list is detailed in [14]: In a company, projects are the translation of the strate-
gic axes into actions. At the strategic level of a company,
Is the decomposition complete? decision-makers have to choose people/actor to be project
Is the decomposition homogeneous? managers and then, a project manager has to build up his
Does the number of sons lie between three and seven? project team, he can choose actors from the company or
Is the decomposition innovating or was it already tested external people. An example is the choice of contractors
in preceding projects? during the procurement phase [22]. We define an actor as
Is the decomposition consistent among the complete a human being among company means. Material
project? resources, software, hardware, people are part of the means
What are the additional links generated with the hierar- in a company. What distinguishes an actor from the other
chical link? means is that an actor has competencies quantified by a
What is the flexibility of the decomposition? Its level, can make decisions and is able to characterize the
robustness? impact of his action in advance [2].
So as to take part in a project, people/actors have to be
The problem with standard decomposition is that it does chosen as responsible for some actions. The success of the
not take into account additional interactions, it is not eval- project depends among others on the choice of the actors in
uated, and it does not allow the team members to be crea- the project [5]. The ‘‘choice of actor’’ is a decision made by
tive in the construction of their own decomposition. It a decision-maker that consists in selecting, evaluating and
should be used only as a basis for inspiring decomposition, choosing a person to accomplish an action [1,15,24,30].
not as a rigid tool [18]. Standardization should not be at Mezher [16] considers the decision as ‘‘a process which gen-
the scale of the company but more at a project scale. Payne erates and evaluates alternatives and which makes choices
[21] proposes, for instance, the planning and control of among them.’’
programs of projects of different type.
4.2.2. Dysfunctions & consequences
The Standish Group survey already introduced before
4.1.3.5. Synthesis: tips for a right decomposition. This is gives some statistics about the importance of human
developed in [13] and [14], and was implemented in a sim- resources in projects: sufficient and competent resources
plified manner in PSA Peugeot Citroën as a procedure represent more than 10% of successes and failures of the
included in project planning: studied projects [26]. We propose here an analogy with
the maintenance area [3] where ‘‘a failure is the stochastic
Try to do homogeneous decompositions. cessation of an entity aptitude to accomplish a required
Always evaluate the chance of the decomposed structure function.’’ According to Villemeur [29], ‘‘after a failure
to succeed. By comparison if there are several alterna- identification, the entity is considered out of order. A
tives, but it is not necessary. breakdown is always due to a failure.’’ By analogy, we con-
Identify the additional links generated by the sider an actor in a company as an entity whose function is
decomposition. to decide. Reginato and Ibbs [23] consider a project actor
Take into account the parameters, which may influence as someone who can make decisions including the whole
the decomposition result of the decomposition process, parameters of the project, managerial and technical. If
like the context of the project, the pressure on the pro- the decision-maker is not able to make his decision, then
ject manager, the liberty and autonomy, the innovation there is a dysfunction, because he is not able to realize
degree, and the existing standards. his function.
We, therefore, propose the following definition of a dys-
function in a decision process: a dysfunction is a stochastic
4.2. Assignment process cessation of an actorÕs aptitude to make a decision. If the
action expected to be accomplished has not been realized,
Our work and proposals about the assignment process is then there is a dysfunction. The gap between the effective
based upon a study we have made within the Vallourec result and the negotiated objective to be reached is called
Group. During this collaboration, we have worked with the dysfunction value.
two units and more than 20 projects during 2 years. The Dysfunctions are decomposed in elementary dysfunc-
purpose was to help in project management and more spe- tions and represented along the DTL (Decision Time Line,
cifically to help in the choice of people as project manager or [25]). Each elementary dysfunction is related to a DTL
member of a project team. This is a key stake [11,12], and step, independent from each others and cannot be studied
Turner [28] describes a ‘‘project as a temporary organiza- as a combination of dysfunctions. The gap due to a dys-
232 J. Stal-Le Cardinal, F. Marle / International Journal of Project Management 24 (2006) 226–233
function is then evaluated. Using our model, it is possible can give an early warning to a decision-maker when an
to give a temporal characterization of dysfunctions as well action or decision-making strategy is likely to lead to a
as a functional characterization that allows classification of known dysfunction and consequently a problem in quality,
various dysfunction types. Concerning actorsÕ choice, we cost, or delay.
make the hypothesis that the reasons of the dysfunctions The capitalization database can also be used to conduct
result from problems of competence. Competences concern a statistical study of dysfunctions within the firm: what are
the decision-maker or the chosen actor. We suggest classi- the risky steps in the decision-making process, what are the
fying these types of dysfunctions on a model of compe- main sources of dysfunctions, what are the main effects,
tence. Other models exist, like [6,8,19], or selection etc.
criteria definition, like [17]: As far as Vallourec is concerned, statistics have been
made to detect the risky steps in the decision-making pro-
Knowledge: know-who, know-why, know-what. cess concerning a particular type of project. The risky steps
Know-how: technology, techniques, knacks. are indeed different from a product development project to
Attitude: behavior, will, identity. a human resources project, for instance.
5. Conclusion
4.2.3. Proposals
4.2.3.1. The target process. The target process is a process The aim of this paper is to help in the definition of a pro-
to follow for a specific type of decision, choice of actor, ject structure that will correspond to the expected delivera-
and which helps to avoid dysfunctions, as illustrated in bles for a given project.
Fig. 2. But even if the different steps are properly followed, The main message is that building a correct project
risks of dysfunctions still exist, nothing can completely structure is achievable and gives more guarantee for suc-
erase them. cess. On contrary, a bad structure is a guarantee for failure:
failing to plan is planning to fail. We, then, show the feasi-
4.2.3.2. How to avoid dysfunctions? The decision card. The bility of formalizing and managing the project structure
previous target process becomes a reality in an index card definition process, by using innovating concepts and tools,
performed by the project managers which serves for discov- in the area of interactions management, decomposition
ering the risks a priori (context and quantification of tasks process and resource assignment process.
to perform), for estimating the decisions a posteriori (steps This work is relevant for two reasons:
2–6 of the target process) and for preserving the informa-
tion with the aim of statistics, for example (result analysis, Some recent statistics show the importance of projects
recommendations, and capitalization). and project management in companies and societies,
Once such a card is completed, project managers, in the and the importance of the planning phase on the rest
Vallourec Group, are able to analyze the reasons of the of the project.
dysfunctions. With a consequent number of cards, it is pos- The implication of two big companies as VALLOUREC
sible then to study the general trend for a given company to and PSA PEUGEOT CITROEN in this research work,
cope with dysfunctions. with their concern about the efficiency of their actions,
The capitalization database provides a means for dys- shows that this topic is in their current preoccupations.
function prediction, by capturing the firmÕs experience
from prior decision-making tasks. Software accessing the Practically, the concepts presented here have been trans-
capitalization database and the decision-making model formed into industrial tools, like procedures and software
modules. The reader could then gain advantage by using [14] Marle F. Information model and methods in order to help decision-
concrete templates, communication modules, and deci- making in project management. Ph.D. Thesis, Ecole Centrale Paris;
2002.
sion-making tools. [15] Medcof J, Hauschildt J, Keim G. Realistic criteria for project
The ideas of future developments are about: manager selection and development. Project Management Journal,
PMI, September; 2000.
Evaluation of the impact of the structure on the project [16] Mezher T, Abdul-Malak MA, Maarouf B. Embedding critics in
success (evaluation ‘‘a priori’’). decision-making environments to reduce human errors. Knowledge-
Based Syst 1998(11):229–37.
Periodic re-estimation of the probability of success with [17] Midler C. LÕauto qui nÕexistait pas, management des projets et
the current structure (continuous evaluation). transformation de lÕentreprise. InterEditions; 1993.
A procedure for correcting a structure with a low suc- [18] Mulenburg G. Report of research examining the character-
cess probability and implementation of the corrections istics of managers of complex contemporary projects in the
in an ongoing project (corrective actions). NASA. In: Proceedings of PMI research conference, PMI;
2000.
[19] Nakatani M, Nishida S, Hosono Y, Yamaoka T. Coordinated
interfaces for real-time decision making in hierarchical structures.
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Technovation 25 (2005) 407–420
www.elsevier.com/locate/technovation
Abstract
The aim of this article is to present the results of our recent work in the field of development projects management. The issue that we have
raised is to determine the dysfunction profile of a company. From an approach developed in maintenance, we propound on one hand a generic
plan of the decision-making process, and on the other, we recapitulate work connected with competence management, to offer a
representation frame of dysfunction sources. This double entry has the advantage of supplying views that take into account the human being,
and thus, which are more realistic. Then, on an operational level, we set out an information index card summing up the two previous plans
that helps the documentation of decision processes. We apply the associated methodology called SACADO to the case of a company, and
finally, we report and examine the results.
q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Project management; Dysfunction analysis; Decision-making; Competence management
(both internal and external, aiming at recognition, under- The organizational structure, work and evaluation
standing and thus, efficiency) and innovation (linked with methods and tools, corporate culture, competence and
the company’s creativity and capacity of evolution, and company memory are considered as means that evolve
therefore with everlastingness). with time. This evolution depends on the company, the
Resources, competence and communication needs are nature of the means and on external factors such as the
regarded as necessary for the functioning of any company. appearance of new technologies, close to the knowledge of
This definition certainly allows one to establish how these the company.
functions collaborate, but it does not account for the
relations at the actor’s level. Indeed, when quality functions
connect with manufacturing ones, it induces interaction 3. Related works
between several actors belonging to each of these functions.
Such a general view of the company can be given by There are plenty of papers that focus on decision-making,
Cantzler’s (1997) definition of an organizational system. and yet the subset of dysfunction analysis is rather poor. In
our review, we have selected a set of papers that were
“An organizational system is a complex set structured by helpful and significant for our developments. We have
means in evolution. The organizational system is the enlarged explicitly the research area in order to include the
result of a successful combination of faculties, finalities main work from other disciplines, in the hope of enriching
and ambitions meant, with experience and in an our mechanistic approach.
environment, to reach a shared finality”. Kushniruk and Patel (1998), from the McGill University
Center for Medical Education, state that a focus on process
This definition gathers all the aspects stated separately in in medical informatics evaluations can add considerable
the previous definitions to create the system constituted by value above and beyond traditional approaches for assessing
the company. The main functions of the company, information systems in health care. Subjects’ interactions
formulated by Giget (1998), are represented by Cantzler with the system were video recorded. To examine the effects
(1997) under the shape of “a complex set structured by of the introduction of medical information technology, e.g.
means”. Any company is structured by main functions, the decision support systems and computerized patient records,
stones of the building. There are many possible links they conducted studies of health care workers over time,
between its functions, that make the structure complex. while they were learning how to use such systems. This
Furthermore, the company’s successes, for Thévenot process was followed in order to include the analysis of
(1998), or the shared objectives, for Cantzler (1997), are decision-making and reasoning as a basis for system
reached only by the combination of faculties, objectives and selection and design. The study of basic psychological
ambitions. But most of all, the definition of the organiz- processes can provide both a sound basis for the evaluation
ational system insists on the fact that the means of a and analysis of system use, and improve our understanding
company evolve and can harmonize. Different people of health care workers’ cognitive needs and decision-
constitute the R&D department of a company and each making.
one has his or her own technical knowledge, in particular In order to reduce the incapacity of a decision maker to
competence, experience and personality. Therefore, the make a precise and significant statement, Feng, (1995)
wealth and performance of a company’s R&D consist of suggests a multi-criteria decision-making based on approxi-
synergy, knowledge cooperation and not merely in the mate reasoning. He contends that this kind of approach is
gathering of particular knowledge. This clearly shows that more flexible and adaptable and, most of all, more in
knowledge and competence, in such a system, such a harmony with the thinking process of a human being. From
network, are not the sum of its constituents: knowledge and the same point of view, we can point out the paper by
competence. Kaung-hwa Chen and Hsin-Hui Lin (Chen and Lin, 1997)
To work on the propagation of decisions within an where the notion of interaction among group members for
actor’s network, we have selected the following criteria to decision-making is addressed. They measure the influence
characterize a company: of these interactions on the individual preference. This
approach has a great benefit for real-world decision
† an organizational structure, modeling since it considers the human aspect rather than a
† methods and working tools, static evaluation of the preferences. From a practical point
† methods and evaluation tools, of view, they use fuzzy theory to build an evaluation
† a culture which engenders, for these constituents, the function. While it is interesting as an approach, we still need
notion of belonging to a group, a more general evaluation that deals with more than a couple
† competence to a certain extent, of individuals.
† a network of relations within this competence, Yamashita (1997) studied the case of career decision-
† a company memory, preserved by a capitalization making. He focused on the use of fuzzy theory to develop an
system. efficient support system for students. While the use of this
M. Mekhilef, J.S. Le Cardinal / Technovation 25 (2005) 407–420 409
technique may be very helpful to describe a non-rational 4. The decision time line
context, his modelling takes no buckling into account,
confining itself to a context of limited rationality. In the sense of the decision theory and the game theory
Nutt (2000) introduces the context concept for the (Roy, 1985; Abdul, 1997), decision is a strategy, a choice of
analysis of the outcomes of decision-making processes. He behaviour according to available information. In every
used contextual factors such as importance, urgency etc. to company, the actors who take part in the realization of a
qualify tactical success, indicating the conditions under project are compelled to make a choice, to make decisions
which each evaluation tactic could be profitably used. in order to carry out projects with fixed objectives: who
The main idea that McGregor et al., (2001) have brought should this task be given to? Who should be called to give
is the description of a range of modelling approaches that such information? In which previous project will relevant
have been used to represent micro-level decision-making. information be found? Which technologies should be used
The authors argue that because of the integrated nature of to satisfy this need? Which technical principle should be
the relationship between the decision-making unit, the chosen for an optimal reliability, while respecting the cost
system under study and the environment, using more than objective?
one methodology can make progress. According to this idea, The goal is to define a process that represents the
one has to develop a decision-making process that can be necessary progress for any decision, be it a product design
used in different contexts at different levels. A more formal decision (such as technological choices) or a project
approach of this problem has also been treated by Siamak management decision (such as resources allocation). A
Rajabi (Rajabi et al., 1998). He uses an analytical approach definition that takes the form of a global plan is produced,
based on the measure of existence and amount of with enough generic and exhaustive stages to describe any
interdependence between two sets of projects. decision at any level.
In order to increase the set of possible solutions for
decision-making at late stages, Krishnan (1998) introduces 4.1. The different stages
the concept of quality loss. He shows that the order in which
product development decisions are made has a significant The DTL contains six stages (Fig. 1). The capture of the
effect on the designed product. This kind of questioning is demand, and the transmission of the answer to the applicant
not dealt with in our study; however, it would be a good idea are binary stages. One can say that they have been achieved
to see whether introducing this concept would help to or not, while the other stages spread out on longer periods
reduce the dysfunction. From Haag and Kaupenjohann and can have intermediate states of achievement.
(2001), we learn that modeling complex systems raises
epistemological questions. Considering that modelling for 4.2. Capture
theoretical scientific purpose and modelling for decision-
making may follow separate paths, they highlight the fact Capture is the only initiatory stage of the DTL. The
that choosing parameters leads to the need to describe the capture happens when the information that the applicant
functional or structural relationship between these par- wants to send in the shape of a question is considered as
ameters. Although, these parameters are conceived as an such by the decision-maker. The capture has taken place
objective-real entity or factor. From this point of view, that when the decision-maker, having understood the question
we consider as crucial, it is straightforward that an and its objectives, accepts to answer it.
analytical approach may lead to an inadequate solution in From capture, the decision-maker can directly go
the daily-work processes. Such approaches have been through identification, if the objectives seem appropriate
provided by many authors, among them Bryson and to him or, on the contrary, negotiate new objectives with the
Mobolurin (1995), Keping et al. (2001), Kim and Choi applicant. The question asked can be capitalized either by
(2001) and Hoffman et al. (2000). the applicant or the decision-maker.
Fig. 1. The decision time line: Based on six phases, it represents the main stakes of a decision making process.
410 M. Mekhilef, J.S. Le Cardinal / Technovation 25 (2005) 407–420
The identification stage allows to split an objective into Capitalization, according to Lewkowicz and Zacklad
sub-objectives and to allocate resources/actors to it. The aim is (1998), concerns at once the nature of the answer and, most
to define the strategy to resolve the question, without, of all, the chronological account the justification of that
however, answering it yet. A negotiation of objectives can answer. Therefore, capitalization is equal to the transform-
be necessary before the identification, if the objectives do not ation of the four previous stages, the capture, identification,
seem coherent. One can also go back to the identification phase negotiation and synthesis, into a reusable shape, to their
if, at the end of the synthesis, objectives have not been reached documentary or software materializing and their sharing,
because they were badly defined, badly split, technically not under different forms (such as conditions of contract or
realizable or because one does not find the solution of the design guide), with other actors.
problem. These items are measurable dysfunctions.
The identification stage squares with the set of following
operations: 4.7. Transmission
† Identification of the question’s environment. The stage of transmission, for the decision-maker,
† Translation of the question into an objective. consists of giving the applicant the result of the decision,
† Splitting of the question into sub-questions. as well as possibly the choice criteria and the resolution
† Translation of sub-questions into sub-objectives. strategy. Transmission has taken place when the applicant
† Consultation, reuse of a know-how, upgrade by increase has understood the answer and accepted it. Should the
or competence purchase. opposite occur, it is then necessary to renegotiate the
† Definition of resolution strategies, list of tasks to be done question and its objectives.
in order to answer the question.
† Definition of the necessary means to answer the question.
† Allocation of resources/actors to sub-objectives. 5. Competency model
a subcontractor or a supplier, the determination of a target develop a methodology of analysis of a base of dysfunc-
clientele, the choice of a partner for a project. tions, capitalized to deduce from them some recommen-
To reach the objectives in terms of quality, cost and delay dations to improve the functioning of the organization.
of the project for which he is responsible, a project manager
must be able to choose good interlocutors. Indeed, the 6.3. Decision-making support concerning the
choice of various actors can trigger a much more important choices of actors
dispersal around the objective than that of the potential
actions of a single actor. Once the actor has been chosen, Decision-making support has two facets:
dispersal from the target to attain is lesser. However, this
dispersal still exists and can be important. Therefore, the A target process to follow in order to avoid dysfunctions.
decision-maker must take into account the risk of dispersal An index card of choices of actors helping to approach the
of the actor’s actions to make sure of a final result. target process and allowing a capitalization of processes and
Any decision process being a set of imbricate sub- of the decision taken.
decisions, the question is not to indicate the good decision to
take, but the process that will lead to a decision, while 6.4. Target process
minimizing the risks of dysfunctions. It consists of
recommending a set of conditions to be satisfied in order The process of target decision is illustrated with the
to have the maximum chances to make the good choice of SADT formalism in Fig. 4.
competence. The major stages of the target process correspond to the
six following questions:
6.2. Objectives of the SACADO methodology
† What are the tasks to be done by the actor who will be
SACADO is aimed at project managers, as well as at chosen, and in which environment (at this stage the
everyone who has to use a third party to realize an action. objective must have been decomposed into sub-objec-
SACADO is based on a systematic approach of the choice of tives)?
an actor. “Choosing an actor” is considered as a separate and † What are the necessary competences?
whole system, in (Fig. 3). It undergoes and generates some † What are the available competences?
constraints. It has to take into account input data, to produce † What is the best compromise in terms of quality, cost and
output data and lean on certain methods, methodologies and delay (for the choice of actor)?
know-how. † What are the risks that the chosen person could bring to
Industrial projects put more and more actors in connec- the project?
tion with constraints of quality, cost and delay. Choices of † Is there a control process of the person chosen with
actors are frequent and must be fast, but well prepared. regard to these risks or an action plan of risk eradication
SACADO answers the following three objectives to: that must be drawn?
develop a methodology which allows avoiding dysfunctions 6.5. Determination of the tasks to be done and
in the decision-making of choices of actors without of the environment
generating a complex process, that is not compatible with
the project’s objectives, The decision-maker must choose one or more actors to
develop a methodology of analysis of dysfunctions in the do some tasks. The decision-maker knows these actions but
processes of choosing an actor, has not necessarily the competence, the time, or the role to
do them. It falls to the decision-maker to quantify the † Technology: being endowed with good economic plan-
actions to be done under the shape of objectives to achieve ning and organization, good written and oral expression.
in terms of quality, cost and delay. These objectives will † Technique and dexterity: possessing the technical and
then be presented to the actor and may be the object professional knowledge relative to the company’s
of a negotiation. The way of quantifying the objectives to trade.
achieve depends on the company, the project and the
decision-maker. Finally, know-being, in this system, is estimated as
It is the first operation of the identification stage from the follows:
various DTL stages. It is of cardinal importance: one will
correctly answer only a correctly formulated question. † Identity: being practical, rational, abstract, persevering,
having an artistic sense, some psychology, being a
6.6. Determination of the necessary competence traditionalist, looking for variety, innovating, concerned
for a task with details, foreseeing.
† Will: being critical, optimistic, vulnerable, worried, having
Here, one takes competence in its broad sense, decom- control of oneself, having a competitive spirit, ambition
posed into knowledge, know-how and know-being. By resources, being decisive, relaxed, coherent, active.
knowledge, one means knowing who, knowing what, and † Behaviour: persuading, leading/commanding, being inde-
knowing why. By know-how, one means technique, pendent, extrovert, needing relations, having social ease,
technology and dexterity. By know-being, one must under- being interested in others, being democratic, modest.
stand identity, behaviour and will. For a particular company,
each of these nine categories can itself be decomposed. One This keynote, which is not exhaustive and not applicable
can take the following example, inspired by a competence to any company, can help the decision-maker to list the
evaluation system. competence necessary for the realization of the actions that
Knowledge is estimated in terms of: he has quantified.
Know-who, decomposed into: knowing oneself, recogniz- 6.7. Evaluation of available competence
ing the competence of one’s co-workers, being full of
resources, easily inserting oneself in competence networks. Any evaluation requires first establishing the criteria of
Know-what: being aware of one’s role, showing sound evaluation and to balance them. One can also imagine that
judgement, supporting one’s organization’s standards and to compare the various potential actors, the decision-maker
values, representing it outside, will meet them during individual interviews. If there are
Know-why: being able to draw lessons and analyse the many potential actors, an iterative selection can be used in
organization’s problems, being open-minded, having stra- the following way:
tegic prospects and business acumen.
† Choice among all the possible competence (in the
As regards know-how, in this system of evaluation, one company, outside the company).
distinguishes: † Choice among the available competence.
414 M. Mekhilef, J.S. Le Cardinal / Technovation 25 (2005) 407–420
† Choice among competence with reasonable cost (accord- recommendations and apply them within the framework of
ing to their rate schedule). an action plan.
† Choice among the competence that have the required That is the final operation of the synthesis stage, in which
level. the decision-maker sets up the means to limit as much as
possible the potential negative consequences of his decision
That is the second operation of the synthesis, which on the project.
begins with identifying the potential solutions to the
problem set, and then estimates the competence profiles of 6.9.1. Presentation of the index cards of the choice of actors
the selected actors. To help a decision-maker to follow the target process,
some index cards supporting the choice of actors were
6.8. Determination of the best compromise realized on the basis of the model presented in (Fig. 5).
From the index cards of the choice of actors (Fig. 5), one
Among the possible competencies, the decision-maker will derive some key data that characterize a project:
chooses, on one hand, the actors according to their profile,
which must be as close as possible to the requested profile † The context,
and, on the other, he chooses those that he regards as able to † who is asking (at which date) and who is choosing (at
take on their responsibilities for the decisions that they take which date)?
and their competencies. The decision-maker is free to † the tasks to be done, quantified in terms of quality, cost
balance the axes of competence. He can, if he thinks that this and delay of the objectives,
competence is a priority, apply a strong coefficient to the † the required competence (knowledge, know-how and
person’s will. know-being) for these tasks,
That is the third operation of the synthesis stage, in which
the decision-maker makes his decision.
† the potential actors and the actor chosen with the reason R&D at VALLOUREC represents about 360 people, an
for that choice, annual budget of USD 30,000,000 and 25 factories. Every
† risk evaluation, taking into account the chosen actor’s site is characterized by the hues of steel used as raw
competence compared to the required competence and to materials, by its production processes, the products that it
the tasks to be done. If one opts for an action plan, it will makes and the market that it satisfies. The industrial
be set up here. The actor responsible and the date of application presented here has concerned the R&D projects
realization are clarified for every risk and every action, of two of the group’s factories, in Aulnoye (France) and
† a quantified balance of the results, with the quality, cost Hautmont (France). The two sites studied differ from one
and delay deviations of the various actions done. another in the nature of their markets, hence in their
products, their processes and raw materials also.
These index cards also allow one to analyse a dysfunc- Aulnoye’s site belongs to the petroleum and gas branch,
tion that has appeared in an earlier decision. and we have dealt mainly with the projects of wiredrawn
The index card follows the various stages of the DTL. connections.
Indeed, the context of the project amounts to the capture; Hautmont’s site belongs to the car industry and produces
the tasks to be done belong to the identification as well tubes for cars’ steering wheels as well as for fuel tanks’
as to the quantification of the objectives, which can also down pipes.
call for the negotiation stage. The evaluation of the risks The fact of having been able to work on such different
concerning the chosen solution is linked to the synthesis, sites allowed us to apply the models to diversified activities
and recommendations must be capitalized and trans- within the same company.
mitted. The establishment of action plans for every risk
illustrates the process of filiations and amounts to the 7.2. Projects studied by SACADO
stage of identification of a newborn DTL. Therefore,
such an index card should be filled according to the The projects studied are varied:
chronological order of a project, an order that is, by the
way, respected by the DTL. † development projects of new tube connections for oil
drilling,
† development projects of tubes for oil drilling,
7. Some experiments † investment projects (purchase of new machines),
† development projects of car tubes (tubes for seats,
The objectives of the industrial application are to confirm headrests, tanks’ down pipes).
the relevance of the suggested models, to justify their
industrial advantage and to adapt the theory’s parts that All in all, 22 decision-making for the choice of actors
eventually appear as unfit or irrelevant. It is necessary to were studied in these projects. Every project presents some
base one’s argument on the needs of the final users, who are characteristics that distinguish it from the others:
the manufacturers, to clarify the service done by the sacado
methodology and answer the real need as well as possible. † International project or not,
The final goal is to bring a useful tool, used in decision- † project developed on several sites or on a single one,
making by the manufacturers. † project led by a project manager calling in experts,
Within the framework of the VALLOUREC experience, † project bringing in subcontractors,
the objective was to check that such a tool was useful for the † innovative project requiring new technologies or more
company, to understand how and in which shape it would be “ordinary” project.
fit for use, and to finalize its design by confronting it with
the needs of R&D projects. 7.3. Global balance for Aulnoye’s site
Fig. 6. Localisation of the dysfunctions at Aulnoye. 7.4. Global balance for Hautmont’s site
Fig. 10. The main dysfunction causes from the Haumont site.
7.5. Recommendations for development projects at Aulnoye † Draw action plans as detailed as possible. It allows to
avoid forgetting things and having to get them back
During the identification phase, one must: afterwards, to inform early the co-workers of the project
and to get back their suggestions.
† Determine, for the fields in which one is not competent: † Go to the partners to check that the tests are realized in
relevant interlocutors, the nature of the relations with the fixed conditions.
them (partnership, competition) and the share of
responsibilities. The main demand of the project managers is to be able to
† At the beginning of the project, make official introduc- estimate the partner and risks from the start of the project, in
tions of the various interlocutors. order to be aware of the situation’s risks, even though this
† Cautiously define the role of each one towards the one is imposed. Then, it is necessary to define precisely the
customers, so that they identify that the supplier of the limits of each one’s responsibility. Recommendations for
product is VALLOUREC and that they must apply to this category of project essentially concern the relations
VALLOUREC in case of a new need. between VALLOUREC and the different potentials. Here,
recommendations on technical problems are lesser.
In synthesis
† Consider schedules and rate of load of every partner and 7.6. Recommendations for investment projects at Hautmont
fix together terms (such that everybody is implied and
responsible for the fixed date). During the identification phase, one must:
† During the choice of partners, carefully take various
factors into account, in the following order of importance: † Have someone from VALLOUREC draft the conditions
their own competence, which must be appropriate (it of contract. Instead of giving to a subcontractor, the
must be the one that we miss); their motivation to work entire responsibility on the draft of contract conditions.
with us, their experience on superior connections (which † Have the various experts in the field concerned
is our field) and their remoteness. See, then, that negative contribute to the elaboration of contract conditions.
points are offset. † Make the marketing man aware of his reponsibility for
† Take part, as often as possible, in meetings with the need by having him sign the budget demand.
customers. † During a consultation of suppliers, consider risks
related to:
In synthesis (risks) * Geographic location: This is a way of minimizing
the costs of project follow-up and delays of
† Look for competence and help where they are: in case of intervention.
problem, change partners or at least make them move * Cultural difference: Besides the problem of
(keep the same partner but change interlocutors). language, one can have to face differences in
† Develop winner –winner exchanges. In theory, partners current standards.
are transparent for the customer. However, they are often * Communication: The ease of exchanges with the supplier
located on the oil platforms, in direct relation with the is important during the purchase, but most of all after it
customer, and serve as local interlocutors. (within the framework of maintenance, for example).
M. Mekhilef, J.S. Le Cardinal / Technovation 25 (2005) 407–420 419
Keping, C., Blong, R., Jacobson, C., 2001. MCE-RISK: integrating multi- Mounib Mekhilef, 42 years old, is associate
criteria evaluation and GIS for risk decision-making in natural hazards. professor at the University of Orléans in
Environmental Modeling & Software 16, 387 –397. France. He got his Mechanical engineering
Kim, J.K., Choi, S.H., 2001. A utility range-based interactive group support degree in 1982. In 1991, he presented his Ph.D.
system for multiattribute decision making. Computers & Operations thesis at the Ecole Centrale in Paris. In 2000,
Research 28, 485– 503. he received his degree in research management
Krishnan, V., 1998. Theory and methodology. Modeling ordered decision from the University of Nantes. Teaching
making in product development. European Journal of Operational modelling techniques and computer aided
Research 111, 351 –368. design, in the Mechanical Engineering Depart-
Kushniruk, A.W., Patel, Vimla L., 1998. Cognitive evaluation of decision ment at the university of Orléans; he is
making processes and assessment of information technology in currently conducting research at the Industrial
medicine. International Journal of Medical Informatics 51, 83– 90. Engineering Department of the Ecole Centrale
Levy-Leboyer, C., 1996. La gestion des competences, Presses Universi- in Paris. His main research fields are knowledge management and
taires de France. numerical optimisation. He is currently involved in a project team as an
Lewkowicz, M., Zacklad, M., 1998. La capitalisation des connaissances expert for the European Standardization Committee.
tacites de conception à partir des traces des processus de prise de
décision collective. Actes d’ingéniérie des connaissances 13–15 mai
1998, Pont-à-Mousson, France, pp.177–187.
McGregor, M.J., Rola-Rubzen, M.F., Murray-Prior, R., 2001. Micro and
macro-level approaches to modeling decision making. Agricultural Julie Stal Le Cardinal, mechanical engineer
Systems 69, 63–83. (University of Technology of Compiègne,
Nutt, P.C., 2000. Theory and methodology, context, tactics, and the France): Industrial Design, Project method-
examination of alternatives during strategic decision making. European ologies (Value Analysis and Project Manage-
Journal of Operational Research 124, 159 –186. ment (applications on concrete and varied
Rajabi, S., Kilgour, D.M., Hipel, K.W., 1998. Theory and methodology. industrial cases)).Master of Industrial Engin-
Modeling action-interdependence in multiple criteria decision making. eering Systems, at the Ecole Centrale Paris,
European Journal of Operational Research 110, 490 –508. with a report on capitalization of know-how in
Roy, B., 1985. Méthodologie multicritères d’aide à la decision, Economica, Paris. conception. The thesis concerns the optimis-
Thevenot, D., 1998. Le partage des connaissances, une mémoire interactive ation of the decision process in industrial
pour la compététivité de l’entreprise. Lavoisier Techniques et projects: observation of various industrial
documentation, SEP Division de Snecma, Paris, France. ISBN: projects. Validation of the proposed models
2-7430-0300-6. within the framework of training at Vallourec (meetings with project
Yamashita, T., 1997. On a support for human decision making by the managers, to analyse dysfunctions in their projects, propositions of action
combination of fuzzy reasoning and fuzzy structural modeling. Fuzzy plans and recommendations). Professor Assistant in the Industrial
Sets and Systems 87, 257–263. Engineering Laboratory at the Ecole Centrale Paris, France.
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING DESIGN
ICED 03 STOCKHOLM, AUGUST 19-21, 2003
Abstract
In this article, we formulate an hypothesis which stipulates that in an environment project, one
can improve the performance of a company of the point of view of the clarification of the
processes of decision-taking by managing organizational knowledge stemming from previous
projects. Although evident on the theoretical plan, this proposition, require in the real
executives a more precise formulation. We show in this article by which means one can reach
this objective and confirm so this hypothesis. This document begins by presenting the
industrial context in which we worked, and a clarification of objectives. We go through the
related works in the second section. The third section is dedicated to the presentation of the
concept of knowledge that is situated in the heart of this work. In the following section we
propose an abstract frame given concrete expression on an example. Finally we discuss
contributions of this search and the commitments that it produces.
1. Introduction
These research works are based on an industrial need emanating from a very precise frame. It
is about a French metallurgical group, about an international scale, specialized in the steel
tube. The head offices as well as the functional managements of this group are on Paris while
the factories of production are spread in France and in the world. The initial demand of this
group was to help them to track down dysfunctions in decisions concerning actors' choice in
their projects of conception. We have for it worked in two factories in very various
professions because customers, markets, know-how and different products. The conclusions
of these first works were that there was no culture generic project, that each spoke about
project and told to work in project but with an organization well to one, with methods well to
one, mostly not formalized and so not long-lasting in the time because not contagious.
Following this first stage, we so worked towards a homogenization of the method project
within this industrial group. We first of all accompanied project managers in the assembly of
a new project, in the constitution of the team project, in the constitution of the committee of
piloting. Over two years, around thirty projects was so followed, by various design projects,
investment projects and Human resource projects…
Finally, is stood out a charter of generic project, adapted to the set of the projects of the
holding factories. This charter wants light (10 pages) and easy of use. Objective is that any
project that starts in the group follows this method.
By following this method from the starting up of a new project, one allows so the project
manager and his team to spare time in the assembly of the project. Indeed, this charter
supplies him a generic frame, naturally adaptable to his need, to him then to dedicate itself to
the contents of its project. All the projects being presented under the same shape, their
capitalization is it facilitated. The leader of a new project can so very easily inquire about the
organization adopted by a past project and\or on the decisions which were taken concerning
certain identical problems of organization.
Project environment is by nature unstable. Capitalizing organizational knowledge in such a
frame allows bringing certain stability to the various actors of the project management, to
help them in their decision-takings. This allows sparing time for the benefit of the company
performance improvement. Let us notice that, although the problem and the method can be
put back on projects of any type, we shall approach here only the problem of design projects.
Best Practices/
Lessons Learned
Organizational GIM/PIM
Design
2. Related Works
The question of the improvement of organizational processes for the behavior of project is a
recurring question. It emanates essentially from the scientific community that works in
sciences of organizations and in management of projects. However, the frame that we have
defined point a problem identified at the level of research departments by the projects
administrators. This question is essentially relative to the project design and to their behavior.
Two essential ways are outlined: that stemming from the world the operational research and
which by leaning on mathematical models and on hypotheses (often simplified) turn to a
formulation in term of optimization problem. These problems are then handled within the
framework of linear programming (mostly) or still within the framework of heuristics. In
every case an abstraction is made by the lived experience. Second, tries to open the way
towards a not mathematical formulation that seized the pluridisciplinarity of the industrial
problem. In this type of formulation one finds the development of models knowledge capture
or more generally knowledge management, in order to give them to the decision-maker in
following dates.
In a recent article [2], Christophe Belleval, by handling the problem of the systems innovative
design, raises the strategic and organizational challenges that lift the actions of reforms of
project management. Indeed, the projects management is in the heart of several stakes because
it constitutes the lung of the company, in the sense that it translates strategic will and
expresses it at operational level. It is, by definition, the assembly of a set of sub-process that
constitutes the architecture of the know-how in a given domain. Belleval, shows so the
inadequacy that can exist between two modes of projects management that have to live and\or
collaborate.
Daniela Damm and Martin Schindler in a paper [3] related to project-oriented knowledge
medium (PKM), point that knowledge-creation teams play key roles in the process of value
creation of an organization, but this knowledge need to be captured because “After the
project’s mission is completed, the team members are assigned to new projects or
disbanded”. They defend the thesis of Project Knowledge Medium that is constituted by three
modules: Knowledge from project, knowledge about projects and Knowledge in projects (see
Fig 1).
Martin Eppler and Oliver Sukowski, using “action research” [4] show how to improve the
team management. Their model is based on five layers (communication, rules, knowledge
processes, tools, leadership functions). Stig Ottoson [6] argues that researchers have to act
simultaneously as researchers and entrepreneurs as project leaders and team members. Doing
this way should according to the author improve knowledge of management. The proposition
is based on a “quantum approach” and “chaos and complexity” theories.
3. Project Environment
4. Organizational knowledge
operations, relations, at the same time as the general and specific heuristics with the
inference procedures within the situation to be modeled (Sowa, 1984).
- Knowledge is the set of the truths and faiths, perspectives and concepts, judgments and
anticipations, methodologies and know-how (Wiig, 1993).
- Knowledge is the set of (mental) representations, experiences and procedures which are
considered as true and right and which drive reflections, behavior and communications
among persons (Van der Spek and SpijkerveT, 1997).
- Knowledge is reasoning about the information to drive actively the execution of a task,
the resolution of problems and the decision taking for the learning and the education
(Beckman, 1997).
- Commercial knowledge is a network of imperatives developed explicitly and
administered, of plans, rules written and contained in a part of the company and
distributed within the company and which create performance on the market (Marc
Desmarest, 1997).
These various definitions send back to an approach of the knowledge that places it in diverse
levels while being logically organized: explicit knowledge (vs. Tacit), abstract knowledge (vs.
Concrete), declarative knowledge (vs. Procedural), etc.
Re-Use
Sharing
Knowledge Value
Capitalization
Documentation
Validation
First Use
Identification
Creation
5. Illustration
Let us take here the case of a design project of an order management system, common to
several factories. The project manager, the young person, dynamics, is novice in the
management, he worked until now as expert, on a particular task and not on a project
altogether. Furthermore, this project has the peculiarity to concern factories in France and in
Germany; the difference between the two cultures adds so in the technical complexity of the
problem.
5.1 Report
The project manager is helped in his technical tasks by a French expert and by a German
homologue. He feels quickly extended beyond by events, inquiries, interviews, and
preparations of working meetings, preparations of meeting of steering committee that crowd
without final goal is clearly defined.
During the first coaching meeting, the confusion of these three persons is blatant and the
project manager is not any more really the leader, one has to deal more with a team of three
persons who work together, without no decision is taken and without responsibilities are
affected. They admit not to know any more the nature of the project, what one asks for them
to deliver at the end of their mission, and do not how know how to proceed any more either to
get back information. Confusion is so at the same moment in the nature of knowledge
necessary for the good progress of the project and in the processes of obtaining this
knowledge.
Steering Committee
Information
Search
WBS
Project Organization
Firm Organization
The role of the project leader is to inform the hierarchy of the project team about the work to
be done so that the hierarchy is aware of the responsibilities of everyone on different work
packages. This helps the hierarchy to evaluate the work done at the end of the year on the
project by a resource dedicated to a given project.
The third main aspect of the communication is the information search. On the one hand, as
projects are capitalized, a new project leader can find a former project with a similar
organization that helps him for his own project. On the other hand, project leaders can share
knowledge about their projects or about projects more generally.
Then, a project organization is of course needed to assure a good coherence between all
projects in a company. At the beginning, this is facilitated by an external coaching, made by a
consultant for instance.
6. Conclusion
Through this research work, we tried to illustrate the link between knowledge management
and project management, especially for decision-making.
The company where we have built this methodology is now autonomous as far as project
management is concerned. The project charter is a reflex for any new project, its project
leader, its project team and its steering committee. Moreover, the project leaders club is a
good way to share information about difficulties encountered in project. The external
coaching we have been assuring during two years is really useful. Unfortunately, we are not
able to say whether this is a necessary condition for an effective project management or not,
because we only have this industrial experience.
One more question is about the necessity of a integrated system for knowledge management
in a project environment. In our case, project leaders ask questions on a kind of intranet
forum, and discussions are established via the net between project leaders. This is the actual
way of sharing and managing project knowledge. The following step could be the conception
of an integrated system.
References
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For more information please contact:
Mounib Mekhilef, Ecole Centrale Paris, Grande voie des Vignes, 92295 Chatenay Malabry Cedex, France
Tel: 1 41 13 15 68, Fax: 1 41 13 12 72, email: : Mounib.Mekhilef@lgi.ecp.fr, URL: http://www.lgi.ecp.fr