diff --git a/Comprehensive Python Cheatsheet.mhtml b/Comprehensive Python Cheatsheet.mhtml new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ba5d1bdbb --- /dev/null +++ b/Comprehensive Python Cheatsheet.mhtml @@ -0,0 +1,9874 @@ +From: +Snapshot-Content-Location: https://gto76.github.io/python-cheatsheet/ +Subject: Comprehensive Python Cheatsheet +Date: Thu, 20 Jul 2023 21:45:57 -0000 +MIME-Version: 1.0 +Content-Type: multipart/related; + type="text/html"; + boundary="----MultipartBoundary--woPjoy8Y4Af6z7kPeFw2jGCIU9O3A2jLmleyvZRmJk----" + + +------MultipartBoundary--woPjoy8Y4Af6z7kPeFw2jGCIU9O3A2jLmleyvZRmJk---- +Content-Type: text/html +Content-ID: +Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable +Content-Location: https://gto76.github.io/python-cheatsheet/ + + + =20 + + Comprehensive Python Cheatsheet + + + + + + + + =20 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + Jure =C5=A0orn +
+ +

Comprehensive Python Cheat= +sheet

Download text file, Buy = +PDF, Fork me on = +GitHub, Check out FAQ or Switch to dark theme. +

3D"Monty


= +#Contents

ToC =3D {
+    '1. Col=
+lections': [List, Dictionary, Set, Tuple, Range, Enumerate, Iterator, Generator],
+    '2. Typ=
+es':       [Type, String, Regular_Exp, Format, Numbers, Combinatorics, Datetime],
+    '3. Syn=
+tax':      [Args, Inline, Import, Decorator, Class, Duck_Types, Enum, Exception],
+    '4. Sys=
+tem':      [Exit, Print, Input, Command_Line_Arguments, Open, Path, OS_Commands],
+    '5. Dat=
+a':        [JSON, Pickle, CSV, SQLite, Bytes, Struct, Array, Memory_View, Deque],
+    '6. Adv=
+anced':    [Threading, Operator, Introspection, Metaprograming, Eval, Coroutine],
+    '7. Lib=
+raries':   [Progress_Bar, Plot, Table, Curses, Logging, Scraping, Web, Profile,
+                       NumPy, Image, Audio, Games, D=
+ata]
+}
+
+ + + + + + +

#Main

if __name__ =3D=3D '__main__':     # Runs=
+ main() if file wasn't imported.
+    main()
+
+ +

#List

<list> =3D <list>[<slice>]       # Or: <list>[from_inclusive : to_exclusive : =C2=B1step]=
+
+
+ +
<list>.append(<el=
+>)            # Or: <list> +=3D [<=
+el>]
+<list>.extend(<collection>)    # O=
+r: <list> +=3D <collection>
+
+
<list>.sort()       =
+           # Sorts in ascending order.
+<list>.reverse()               # Reverse=
+s the list in-place.
+<list> =3D sorted(<collection>)  #=
+ Returns a new sorted list.
+<iter> =3D reversed(<list>)      #=
+ Returns reversed iterator.
+
+
sum_of_elements  =3D sum(&=
+lt;collection>)
+elementwise_sum  =3D [sum(pair) for pai=
+r in zip(list_a, list_b)]
+sorted_by_second =3D sorted(<collection>, key=3Dlambda el: el[1])
+sorted_by_both   =3D sorted(<collection>, key=3Dlambda el: (el[1], el[0]))
+flatter_list     =3D list(itertools.chain.from_iterable(<list>))
+product_of_elems =3D functools.reduce(lambda out, el: out * el, <collection>)
+list_of_chars    =3D list(<str>)
+
+
    +
  • For details about sorted(), min() and max() see sortable. +
  • Module operator provides functions itemgetter() and mul() that offer t= +he same functionality as lambda expressions above.
    • +
+
<list>.insert(<in=
+t>, <el>)     # Inserts item at index=
+ and moves the rest to the right.
+<el>  =3D <list>.pop([<int>])    # Removes and returns item at index or from the end.
+<int> =3D <list>.count(<el>)     # Returns number of occurrences. Also works on strings.
+<int> =3D <list>.index(<el>)     # Returns index of the first occurrence or raises ValueError.
+<list>.remove(<el>)            # R=
+emoves first occurrence of the item or raises ValueError.
+<list>.clear()                 # Removes=
+ all items. Also works on dictionary and set.
+
+

#Dictionary

<view> =3D <dict>.keys()      =
+                    # Coll. of keys that refle=
+cts changes.
+<view> =3D <dict>.values()                        # Coll. of values that reflects changes.
+<view> =3D <dict>.items()                         # Coll. of key-value tuples that reflects chgs.
+
+ +
value  =3D <dict>.ge=
+t(key, default=3DNone)          # Returns default if key is missing.
+value  =3D <dict>.setdefault(key, default=3DNone)   # Returns and writes defaul=
+t if key is missing.
+<dict> =3D collections.defaultdict(<type>)        # Returns a dict with default value of type.
+<dict> =3D collections.defaultdict(lambd=
+a: 1)     # Returns a dict with default value 1.
+
+
<dict> =3D dict(<=
+collection>)                     # Creates =
+a dict from coll. of key-value pairs.
+<dict> =3D dict(zip(keys, values))                # Creates a dict from two collections.
+<dict> =3D dict.fromkeys(keys [, value])          # Creates a dict from collection of keys.
+
+
<dict>.update(<di=
+ct>)                           # Adds items=
+. Replaces ones with matching keys.
+value =3D <dict>.pop(key)                         # Removes item or raises KeyError.
+{k for k, v in <dict>.items() if v =
+=3D=3D value}    # Returns set of keys that po=
+int to the value.
+{k: v for k, v in <dict>.items() if =
+k in keys}  # Returns a dictionary, filtered by keys.
+
+

Counter

>>> from collections import Counter
+>>> colors =3D ['blue', 'blue', 'blue', 'red', 'red']
+>>> counter =3D Counter(colors)
+>>> counter['yellow'] +=3D 1
+Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'yellow': 1})
+>>> counter.most_common()[0]
+('blue', 3)
+
+ +

#Set

<set> =3D set()                                   # `{}` returns a dictionary.
+
+ +
<set>.add(<el>=
+)                                 # Or: <se=
+t> |=3D {<el>}
+<set>.update(<collection> [, ...])              # Or: <set> |=3D <set>
+
+
<set>  =3D <set&g=
+t;.union(<coll.>)                   # Or=
+: <set> | <set>
+<set>  =3D <set>.intersection(<coll.>)            # Or: <set> & <set>
+<set>  =3D <set>.difference(<coll.>)              # Or: <set> - <set>
+<set>  =3D <set>.symmetric_difference(<coll.>)    # Or: <set> ^ <set>
+<bool> =3D <set>.issubset(<coll.>)                # Or: <set> <=3D <set>
+<bool> =3D <set>.issuperset(<coll.>)              # Or: <set> >=3D <set>
+
+
<el> =3D <set>=
+.pop()                              # Raises K=
+eyError if empty.
+<set>.remove(<el>)                              # Raises KeyError if missing.
+<set>.discard(<el>)                             # Doesn't raise an error.
+
+

Frozen Set

    +
  • Is immutable and hashable.
    • +
  • That means it can be used as a key in a dictionary or as an ele= +ment in a set.
    • +
<frozenset> =3D=
+ frozenset(<collection>)
+
+ + +

#Tuple

Tuple is an immutable and = +hashable list.

<tuple> =3D ()                                # Empty tuple.
+<tuple> =3D (<el>,)                           # Or: <el>,
+<tuple> =3D (<el_1>, <el_2> [, ...])          # Or: <el_1>, <el_2> [, ...]
+
+ + +

Named Tuple

Tuple's subclass with= + named elements.

>>> from collections import named=
+tuple
+>>> Point =3D namedtuple('Point', 'x y')
+>>> p =3D Point(1, y=3D2)
+Point(x=3D1, y=3D2)
+>>> p[0]
+1
+>>> p.x
+1
+>>> getattr(p, 'y')
+2
+
+ + +

#Range

Immutable and hashable seq= +uence of integers.

<range> =3D range(stop)                       # range(to_exclusive)
+<range> =3D range(start, stop)                # range(from_inclusive, to_exclusive)
+<range> =3D range(start, stop, =C2=B1step)         # range(from_inclusive, to_exclusive, =C2=B1step_size)
+
+ + +
=
+>>> [i for i in range(3)]
+[0, 1=
+, 2]
+
+

#Enumerate

for i, el <=
+span class=3D"hljs-keyword">in enumerate(<collection> [, i_sta=
+rt]):
+    ...
+
+ +

#Iterator

<iter> =3D iter(<collection>)          =
+       # `iter(<iter>)` returns unmodifi=
+ed iterator.
+<iter> =3D iter(<function>, to_exclusive)     # A sequence of return values until 'to_exclusive'.
+<el>   =3D next(<iter> [, default])           # Raises StopIteration or returns 'default' on end.
+<list> =3D list(<iter>)                       # Returns a list of iterator's remaining elements.
+
+ +

Itertools

import itertools as it
+
+ +
<iter> =3D it.count(=
+start=3D0, step=3D1)          # Returns updated val=
+ue endlessly. Accepts floats.
+<iter> =3D it.repeat(<el> [, times])          # Returns element endlessly or 'times' times.
+<iter> =3D it.cycle(<collection>)             # Repeats the sequence endlessly.
+
+
<iter> =3D it.chain(=
+<coll>, <coll> [, ...])   # Emptie=
+s collections in order (figuratively).
+<iter> =3D it.chain.from_iterable(<coll>)     # Empties collections inside a collection in order.
+
+
<iter> =3D it.islice=
+(<coll>, to_exclusive)    # Only returns=
+ first 'to_exclusive' elements.
+<iter> =3D it.islice(<coll>, from_inc, =E2=80=A6)     # `to_exclusive, +step_size`. Indices can be None.
+
+

#Generator

    +
  • Any function that contains a yield statement returns a generato= +r.
    • +
  • Generators and iterators are interchangeable.
    • +
def count(start, step):
+    while =
+True:
+        yield start
+        start +=3D step
+
+ + +
=
+>>> counter =3D count(10=
+, 2)
+>>> next(counter), next(counter),=
+ next(counter)
+(10, 12, 14)
+
+

#Type

    +
  • Everything is an object.
    • +
  • Every object has a type.
    • +
  • Type and class are synonymous.
    • +
<type> =3D type=
+(<el>)                          # Or: &l=
+t;el>.__class__
+<bool> =3D isinstance(<el>, <type>)            # Or: issubclass(type(<el>), <type>)
+
+ + +
=
+>>> type('a'), 'a'.__class__, str
+(<class 'str'>, <cl=
+ass 'str'>, <class 'str'>)
+
+

Some typ= +es do not have built-in names, so they must be imported:

from=
+ types import FunctionType, MethodType,=
+ LambdaType, GeneratorType, ModuleType
+
+ +

Abstract Base Classes

Ea= +ch abstract base class specifies a set of virtual subclasses. These classes= + are then recognized by isinstance() and issubclass() as subclasses of the = +ABC, although they are really not. ABC can also manually decide whether or = +not a specific class is its virtual subclass, usually based on which method= +s the class has implemented. For instance, Iterable ABC looks for method it= +er(), while Collection ABC looks for iter(), contains() and len().= +

>>> from collection=
+s.abc import Iterable, Collection, Sequ=
+ence
+>>> isinstance([1, 2, 3], Iterable)
+True
+
+ + +
=E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83                  =E2=94=82  Iterable  =E2=94=82 Collection =E2=94=
+=82  Sequence  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 list, range, str =E2=94=82     =E2=9C=93      =E2=94=82     =E2=
+=9C=93      =E2=94=82     =E2=9C=93      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 dict, set        =E2=94=82     =E2=9C=93      =E2=94=82     =E2=
+=9C=93      =E2=94=82            =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 iter             =E2=94=82     =E2=9C=93      =E2=94=82          =
+  =E2=94=82            =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=9B
+
+
=
+>>> from numbers import Number, Complex, Real, Rational, Integ=
+ral
+>>> isinstance(123, Number)
+True
+
+
=E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83                    =E2=94=82  Number  =E2=94=82  Complex =E2=94=
+=82   Real   =E2=94=82 Rational =E2=94=82 Integral =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 int                =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=
+=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =
+=E2=9C=93     =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 fractions.Fraction =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=
+=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =
+      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 float              =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=
+=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82          =
+=E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 complex            =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=
+=93     =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82          =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 decimal.Decimal    =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82          =
+=E2=94=82          =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82          =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
+

#String

<str>  =3D <str>.strip()                       =
+# Strips all whitespace characters from both e=
+nds.
+<str>  =3D <str>.strip('<chars&g=
+t;')              # Strips all passed c=
+haracters from both ends.
+
+ +
<list> =3D <str&g=
+t;.split()                       # Splits on o=
+ne or more whitespace characters.
+<list> =3D <str>.split(sep=3DNone<=
+/span>, maxsplit=3D-1)  # Splits on 'sep' str at most 'maxsplit' times.
+<list> =3D <str>.splitlines(keepends=3DFalse)    # On [\n\r\f\v\x1c-\x1e\=
+x85\u2028\u2029] and \r\n.
+<str>  =3D <str>.join(<coll_of_strings>)       # Joins elements using string as a separator.
+
+
<bool> =3D <sub_s=
+tr> in <str>                  =
+# Checks if string contains the substring.
+<bool> =3D <str>.startswith(<sub_str>)         # Pass tuple of strings for multiple options.
+<bool> =3D <str>.endswith(<sub_str>)           # Pass tuple of strings for multiple options.
+<int>  =3D <str>.find(<sub_str>)               # Returns start index of the first match or -1.
+<int>  =3D <str>.index(<sub_str>)              # Same, but raises ValueError if missing.
+
+
<str>  =3D <str&g=
+t;.replace(old, new [, count])   # Replaces 'o=
+ld' with 'new' at most 'count' times.
+<str>  =3D <str>.translate(<table>)            # Use `str.maketrans(<dict>)` to generate table.
+
+
<str>  =3D chr(<i=
+nt>)                          # Converts in=
+t to Unicode character.
+<int>  =3D ord(<str>)                          # Converts Unicode character to int.
+
+
    +
  • Also: '= +lstrip()', 'rstrip()' and 'rsplit()'.
    • +
  • Also: '= +lower()', 'upper()', 'capitalize()' and 'title()'.
    • +
+

Property Methods

=E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83               =E2=94=82 [ !#$%=E2=80=A6] =E2=94=82 [a-zA-Z] =E2=
+=94=82  [=C2=BC=C2=BD=C2=BE]   =E2=94=82  [=C2=B2=C2=B3=C2=B9]   =E2=94=82 =
+ [0-9]   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 isprintable() =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93  =
+   =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=
+=9C=93     =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 isalnum()     =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=
+=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93  =
+   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 isnumeric()   =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82    =
+=E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=
+=83
+=E2=94=83 isdigit()     =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82    =
+      =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 isdecimal()   =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82    =
+      =E2=94=82          =E2=94=82    =E2=9C=93     =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
+ +
    +
  • 'isspac= +e()' checks for whitespaces: '[ \t\n\r\f\v\x1c-\x1f\x85\xa0\u1680=E2=80=A6]'.
    • +
+

#Regex

import re
+<str>   =3D re.sub(<regex>, new, text, count=3D0)  # Substitutes all occur=
+rences with 'new'.
+<list>  =3D re.findall(<regex>, text)            # Returns all occurrences as strings.
+<list>  =3D re.split(<regex>, text, maxsplit=3D0)  # Use brackets in regex=
+ to include the matches.
+<Match> =3D re.search(<regex>, text)             # Searches for first occurrence of the pattern.
+<Match> =3D re.match(<regex>, text)              # Searches only at the beginning of the text.
+<iter>  =3D re.finditer(<regex>, text)           # Returns all occurrences as Match objects.
+
+ +
    +
  • Argument 'new' can be a function that accepts a Match object an= +d returns a string.
    • +
  • Search() and match() return None if they can't find a match.
    • +
  • Argument 'flags=3Dre.IGNORECASE' can be used with all functions.
    • +
  • Argument 'flags=3Dre.MULTILINE' makes '^' and '$' match the start/end of each = +line.
    • +
  • Argument 'flags=3Dre.DOTALL' makes '.' also accept the '\n'.
    • +
  • Use r'\= +1' or '\\1' for backreference ('\1' returns a character with octal code= + 1).
    • +
  • Add '?'= + after '*' and '+' to make them non-greedy.
    • +
+

Match Object

<str>   =3D <Match>.group()                 =
+     # Returns the whole match. Also group(0).=
+
+<str>   =3D <Match>.group(1)=
+                     # Returns part in the fir=
+st bracket.
+<tuple> =3D <Match>.groups()                     # Returns all bracketed parts.
+<int>   =3D <Match>.start()                      # Returns start index of the match.
+<int>   =3D <Match>.end()                        # Returns exclusive end index of the match.
+
+ +

Special Sequences

'\d' =3D=3D=
+ '[0-9]'                                =
+# Matches decimal characters.
+'\w' =3D=3D =
+'[a-zA-Z0-9_]'                         =
+# Matches alphanumerics and underscore.
+'\s' =3D=3D =
+'[ \t\n\r\f\v]'                        =
+# Matches whitespaces.
+
+ +
    +
  • By default, decimal characters, alphanumerics and whitespaces f= +rom all alphabets are matched unless 'flags=3Dre.ASCII' argument is used.
    • +
  • As shown above, it restricts all special sequence matches to th= +e first 128 characters and prevents '\s' from accepting '[\x1c-\x1f]' (the so-called = +separator characters).
    • +
  • Use a capital letter for negation (all non-ASCII characters wil= +l be matched when used in combination with ASCII flag).
    • +
+

#Format

=
+<str> =3D f'{&=
+lt;el_1>}, {<el_2>}'            # Curly brackets can also contai=
+n expressions.
+<str> =3D '{}, {}'.format(<el_1=
+>, <el_2>)  # Or: '{0}, {a}'.format(&=
+lt;el_1>, a=3D<el_2>)
+<str> =3D '%s, %s' % (<el_1>=
+, <el_2>)      # Redundant and inferior =
+C-style formatting.
+
+ +

Example

>>> Person =3D collecti=
+ons.namedtuple('Person', 'name height')
+>>> person =3D Person('Jean-Luc', 187)
+>>> f=
+'{person.name} is {person.height / 100} meters =
+tall.'
+'Jean-Luc is 1.87 meters tall.'
+
+ +

General Options

{<el>:<10}                               # '<el&g=
+t;      '
+{<el>:^10}                        =
+       # '   <el>   '
+{<el>:>10}                     =
+          # '      <el>'
+{<el>:.<10}                    =
+          # '<el>......'
+{<el>:0}                          =
+       # '<el>'
+
+ +
    +
  • Options can be generated dynamically: f'{<el>:{&l= +t;str/int>}[=E2=80=A6]}'.
    • +
  • Adding = +'=3D' to the expression prepends it to the output: f'= +{1+1= +=3D}' returns '1+1=3D2'.
    • +
  • Adding = +'!r' to the expression converts object to string by calling i= +ts repr() = +method.
    • +
+

Strings

{'abcde':10}                             =
+# 'abcde     '
+{'abcde':10.=
+3}                           # 'abc    =
+   '
+{'abcde':.3<=
+/span>}                             # 'abc'
+{'abcde'!r:1=
+0}                           # "'abcde'=
+   "
+
+ +

Numbers

{123456:10}                              # '    123456'
+{123456:10,}                             # '   123,=
+456'
+{123456:10_}                             # '   123_=
+456'
+{123456:+10<=
+/span>}                             # '   +123=
+456'
+{123456:=3D+=
+10}                            # '+   1=
+23456'
+{123456: }                              =
+ # ' 123456'
+{-123456: }                             =
+ # '-123456'
+
+ +

Floats

{1.23456:10.3}                           # =
+'      1.23'
+{1.23456:10.=
+3f}                          # '     1.=
+235'
+{1.23456:10.=
+3e}                          # ' 1.235e=
++00'
+{1.23456:10.=
+3%}                          # '  123.4=
+56%'
+
+ +

Comparison of presentation ty= +pes:

=E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83              =E2=94=82    {<float>}   =E2=94=82   {<floa=
+t>:f}  =E2=94=82   {<float>:e}  =E2=94=82   {<float>:%}  =E2=
+=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=A8
+=E2=94=83  0.000056789 =E2=94=82   '5.6789e-05' =E2=94=82    '0.000057'  =
+=E2=94=82 '5.678900e-05' =E2=94=82    '0.005679%' =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83  0.00056789  =E2=94=82   '0.00056789' =E2=94=82    '0.000568'  =
+=E2=94=82 '5.678900e-04' =E2=94=82    '0.056789%' =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83  0.0056789   =E2=94=82   '0.0056789'  =E2=94=82    '0.005679'  =
+=E2=94=82 '5.678900e-03' =E2=94=82    '0.567890%' =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83  0.056789    =E2=94=82   '0.056789'   =E2=94=82    '0.056789'  =
+=E2=94=82 '5.678900e-02' =E2=94=82    '5.678900%' =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83  0.56789     =E2=94=82   '0.56789'    =E2=94=82    '0.567890'  =
+=E2=94=82 '5.678900e-01' =E2=94=82   '56.789000%' =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83  5.6789      =E2=94=82   '5.6789'     =E2=94=82    '5.678900'  =
+=E2=94=82 '5.678900e+00' =E2=94=82  '567.890000%' =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 56.789       =E2=94=82  '56.789'      =E2=94=82   '56.789000'  =
+=E2=94=82 '5.678900e+01' =E2=94=82 '5678.900000%' =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=9B
+
+=E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=93
+=E2=94=83              =E2=94=82  {<float>:.2}  =E2=94=82  {<float=
+>:.2f} =E2=94=82  {<float>:.2e} =E2=94=82  {<float>:.2%} =E2=
+=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=A8
+=E2=94=83  0.000056789 =E2=94=82    '5.7e-05'   =E2=94=82      '0.00'    =
+=E2=94=82   '5.68e-05'   =E2=94=82      '0.01%'   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83  0.00056789  =E2=94=82    '0.00057'   =E2=94=82      '0.00'    =
+=E2=94=82   '5.68e-04'   =E2=94=82      '0.06%'   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83  0.0056789   =E2=94=82    '0.0057'    =E2=94=82      '0.01'    =
+=E2=94=82   '5.68e-03'   =E2=94=82      '0.57%'   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83  0.056789    =E2=94=82    '0.057'     =E2=94=82      '0.06'    =
+=E2=94=82   '5.68e-02'   =E2=94=82      '5.68%'   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83  0.56789     =E2=94=82    '0.57'      =E2=94=82      '0.57'    =
+=E2=94=82   '5.68e-01'   =E2=94=82     '56.79%'   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83  5.6789      =E2=94=82    '5.7'       =E2=94=82      '5.68'    =
+=E2=94=82   '5.68e+00'   =E2=94=82    '567.89%'   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 56.789       =E2=94=82    '5.7e+01'   =E2=94=82     '56.79'    =
+=E2=94=82   '5.68e+01'   =E2=94=82   '5678.90%'   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=9B
+
+ + +
    +
  • '{<f= +loat>:g}' is '{<float>:.6}' with stripped zeros, exponent= + starting at 7 figures.
    • +
  • When both rounding up and rounding down are possible, the one t= +hat returns result with even last digit is chosen. That makes '{6.5:.0f}' a '6' and= + '{7.5:.0f}'= + an '8'.
    • +
  • This rule only effects numbers that can be represented exactly = +by a float (.5, .25, =E2=80=A6).
    • +
+

Ints

{90:c}                              =
+     # 'Z'
+{90:b}                                  =
+ # '1011010'
+{90:X}                                  =
+ # '5A'
+
+ +

#Numbers

<int>      =3D int(<float/str/bool>)       =
+         # Or: math.floor(<float>)
+<float>    =3D float(<int/str/bool>)                # Or: <real>e=C2=B1<int>
+<complex>  =3D complex(real=3D0, i=
+mag=3D0)              # Or: <real> =C2=B1 <real>j
+<Fraction> =3D fractions.Fraction(0, 1)             # Or: Fraction(numerator=3D0, denominator=3D1)
+<Decimal>  =3D decimal.Decimal(<str/int>)           # Or: Decimal((sign, digits, exponent))
+
+ +
    +
  • 'int(&l= +t;str>)' and 'float(<str>)' raise ValueError on malformed= + strings.
    • +
  • Decimal numbers are stored exactly, unlike most floats where '1.1 + 2.2 !=3D 3.3'<= +/span>.
    • +
  • Floats can be compared with: 'math.isclose(<float>, <float>)'.
    • +
  • Precision of decimal operations is set with: 'decimal.getcontext().prec =3D <in= +t>'.
    • +
+

Basic Functions

<num> =3D pow(<num>, <num>)     =
+                    # Or: <num> ** <n=
+um>
+<num> =3D abs(<num>)                                # <float> =3D abs(<complex>)
+<num> =3D round(<num> [, =C2=B1ndigits])                 # `round(126, -1) =3D=3D 130`
+
+ +

Math

from math import e, pi, inf, nan, isinf, isnan    # `<el> =3D=3D nan` is always False.
+from math =
+import sin, cos, tan, asin, acos, atan  # Also: degrees, radians.
+from math =
+import log, log10, log2                 # Log can accept base as second arg.
+
+ +

Statistics

from statistics import mean, median, variance     # Also: stdev, quantiles, groupby.
+
+ +

Random

from random import random, randint, choice        # Also: shuffle, gauss, triangular, seed.
+<float> =3D random()                                # A float inside [0, 1).
+<int>   =3D randint(from_inc, to_inc)               # An int inside [from_inc, to_inc].
+<el>    =3D choice(<sequence>)                      # Keeps the sequence intact.
+
+ +

Bin, Hex

<int> =3D =C2=B10b<bi=
+n>                                  # Or: =
+=C2=B10x<hex>
+<int> =3D int('=C2=B1<bin>',=
+ 2)                          # Or: int('=C2=B1<hex>', 16)
+<int> =3D int('=C2=B10b<bin>', 0)                        # Or: int('=C2=B10x<hex>', 0)
+<str> =3D bin(<int>)                                # Returns '[-]0b<bin>'.
+
+ +

Bitwise Operators

<int> =3D <int> & <int> =
+                            # And (0b1100 &=
+; 0b1010 =3D=3D 0b1000).
+<int> =3D <int> | <int>                             # Or  (0b1100 | 0b1010 =3D=3D 0b1110).
+<int> =3D <int> ^ <int>                             # Xor (0b1100 ^ 0b1010 =3D=3D 0b0110).
+<int> =3D <int> << n_bits                           # Left shift. Use >> for right.
+<int> =3D ~<int>                                    # Not. Also -<int> - 1.
+
+ +

#Combinatorics

    +
  • Every function returns an iterator.
    • +
  • If you want to print the iterator, you need to pass it to the l= +ist() function first!
    • +
import itertools as it
+
+ + +
=
+>>> it.product([0, 1], repeat=3D3)
+[(0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), (0, =
+1, 0), (0, 1, 1),
+ (1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1, =
+1, 0), (1, 1, 1)]
+
+
=
+>>> it.product('abc', 'abc')                     #   a  b  c
+[('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),             # a x  x  x<=
+/span>
+ ('b', 'a'), ('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'),             # b x  x  x<=
+/span>
+ ('c', 'a'), ('c', 'b'), ('c', 'c')]             # c x  x  x<=
+/span>
+
+
=
+>>> it.combinations('abc', 2)                    #   a  b  c
+[('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),                         # a .  =
+x  x
+ ('b', 'c')]                                     # =
+b .  .  x
+
+
=
+>>> it.combinations_with_replacement('abc', 2)   #   a  b  c
+[('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),             # a x  x  x<=
+/span>
+ ('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'),                         # b .  =
+x  x
+ ('c', 'c')]                                     # =
+c .  .  x
+
+
=
+>>> it.permutations('abc', 2)                    #   a  b  c
+[('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),                         # a .  =
+x  x
+ ('b', 'a'), ('b', 'c'),                         # b x  =
+.  x
+ ('c', 'a'), ('c', 'b')]                         # c x  =
+x  .
+
+

#Datetime

    +
  • Module 'datetime' provides 'date' <= +span class=3D"hljs-section"><D>, 'time' <T>, 'datetim= +e' <DT> and 'timedelta' <TD> classes. All are immutable and hashable.
    • +
  • Time and datetime objects can be 'aware' <a>, meaning they ha= +ve defined timezone, or 'naive' <n>, meaning they don't.
    • +
  • If object is naive, it is presumed to be in the system's timezo= +ne.
    • +
from datetime import dat=
+e, time, datetime, timedelta
+from dateutil.tz import UTC, tzlocal, gettz, datetime_exists, resolve_imaginar=
+y
+
+ + +

Constructors

<D>  =3D date(year, month, day)           =
+    # Only accepts valid dates from 1 to 9999 =
+AD.
+<T>  =3D time(hour=3D0, minute=3D<=
+span class=3D"hljs-number">0, second=3D0=
+)     # Also: `microsecond=3D0, tzinfo=
+=3DNone, fold=3D0`.
+<DT> =3D datetime(year, month, day, hour=3D0)   # Also: `minute=3D0, second=3D0,=
+ microsecond=3D0, =E2=80=A6`.
+<TD> =3D timedelta(weeks=3D0, days=
+=3D0, hours=3D0)  # Also: `minutes=3D0, seconds=3D0=
+, microseconds=3D0`.
+
+ +
    +
  • Use '&l= +t;D/DT>.weekday()' to get the day of the week as an int, w= +ith Monday being 0.
    • +
  • 'fold= +=3D1' means the second pass in case of time jumping back for = +one hour.
    • +
  • Timedelta normalizes arguments to =C2=B1days, seconds (< 86= +=E2=80=AF400) and microseconds (< 1M).
    • +
  • '<DT= +a> =3D resolve_imaginary(<DTa>)' fixes DTs that fall= + into the missing hour.
    • +
+

Now

<D/DTn>  =3D D/DT.today()                     # Current local date or naive datetime.
+<DTn>    =3D DT.utcnow()                      # Naive datetime from current UTC time.
+<DTa>    =3D DT.now(<tzinfo>)                 # Aware datetime from current tz time.
+
+ +
    +
  • To extract time use '<DTn>.time()', '<DTa>.time()' or '<DTa>.timetz()'.
    • +
+

Timezone

<tzinfo> =3D UTC                              # UTC timezone. London without DST.
+<tzinfo> =3D tzlocal()                        # Local timezone. Also gettz().
+<tzinfo> =3D gettz('<Continent>/<=
+;City>')      # 'Continent/City_Name=
+' timezone or None.
+<DTa>    =3D <DT>.astimezone(<tzinfo>)        # Datetime, converted to the passed timezone.
+<Ta/DTa> =3D <T/DT>.replace(tzinfo=3D<tzinfo>)  # Unconverted object with a new timezone.
+
+ +

Encode

<D/T/DT> =3D D/T/DT.fromisoformat('<iso>')    # Object from=
+ ISO string. Raises ValueError.
+<DT>     =3D DT.strptime(<str>, '&l=
+t;format>')   # Datetime from str, a=
+ccording to format.
+<D/DTn>  =3D D/DT.fromordinal(<int>)          # D/DTn from days since the Gregorian NYE 1.
+<DTn>    =3D DT.fromtimestamp(<real>)         # Local time DTn from seconds since the Epoch.
+<DTa>    =3D DT.fromtimestamp(<real>, <tz.>)  # Aware datetime from seconds since the Epoch.
+
+ +
    +
  • ISO strings come in following forms: 'YYYY-MM-DD', 'HH:MM:SS.mmmuuu[=C2=B1HH:MM]', or both separated by an arbitrary character. All parts following = +the hours are optional.
    • +
  • Python uses the Unix Epoch: '1970-01-01 00:00 UTC', '1970-01-01 01:00 CET', =E2=80=A6
    • +
+

Decode

<str>    =3D <D/T/DT>.isoformat(sep=3D'T')      # Also `timespec=
+=3D'auto/hours/minutes/seconds/=E2=80=A6'`.
+<str>    =3D <D/T/DT>.strftime('<=
+;format>')    # Custom string repres=
+entation.
+<int>    =3D <D/DT>.toordinal()               # Days since Gregorian NYE 1, ignoring time and tz.
+<float>  =3D <DTn>.timestamp()                # Seconds since the Epoch, from DTn in local tz.
+<float>  =3D <DTa>.timestamp()                # Seconds since the Epoch, from aware datetime.
+
+ +

Format

>>> dt =3D datetime.str=
+ptime('2015-05-14 23:39:00.00 +0200', '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S.%f %z')
+>>> dt.strftime("%A, %dth of %B '%y, %I:%M%p %Z")
+"Thursday, 14th of May '15, 11:39PM UTC+02:00"<=
+/span>
+
+ +
    +
  • Format code '%z' accepts '=C2=B1HH[:]MM' and returns '=C2=B1HHMM' (or '' if datetim= +e is naive).
    • +
  • For abbreviated weekday and month use '%a' and '%b'.
    • +
+

Arithmetics

<D/DT>   =3D <D/DT>  =C2=B1 <TD>=
+                   # Returned datetime can fal=
+l into missing hour.
+<TD>     =3D <D/DTn> - <D/DTn>                # Returns the difference. Ignores time jumps.
+<TD>     =3D <DTa>   - <DTa>                  # Ignores time jumps if they share tzinfo object.
+<TD>     =3D <TD>    * <real>                 # Also: <TD> =3D abs(<TD>) and <TD> =3D=
+ <TD> =C2=B1% <TD>.
+<float>  =3D <TD>    / <TD>                   # How many weeks/years there are in TD. Also //.
+
+ +

#Arguments

Inside Function Call

func(<positional_args>)                           # func(0, 0)
+func(<keyword_args>)                              # func(x=3D0, y=3D0)
+func(<positional_args>, <keyword_args>)           # func(0, y=3D0)
+
+ + +

Inside Function Definition

def func(<nondefault_args>): ..= +. # def func(x, y): ... +def func(<default_a= +rgs>): ... # def func(x=3D0, y=3D0): ... +def func(<nondefaul= +t_args>, <default_args>): ... # def func(x, y=3D0): ... +
+ +
    +
  • Default values are evaluated when function is first encountered= + in the scope.
    • +
  • Any mutation of a mutable default value will persist between in= +vocations!
    • +
+

#Splat Operator

Inside Function Call

Splat = +expands a collection into positional arguments, while splatty-splat expands= + a dictionary into keyword arguments.

args   =3D (1, <=
+span class=3D"hljs-number">2)
+kwargs =3D {'x': 3, 'y': 4, 'z': 5}
+func(*args, **kwargs)
+
+ + + +

Is the same as:

func(1, 2, x=3D3, y=3D<=
+span class=3D"hljs-number">4, z=3D5)
+
+ +

Inside Function Definition

<= +p>Splat combines zero or more positional arguments into a tuple, wh= +ile splatty-splat combines zero or more keyword arguments into a dictionary= +.

def add(*a):
+    return sum(a)
+
+ + +
=
+>>> add(1, 2, 3)
+6
+
+

Legal argument combinations:

= +
def f(*args): ...               # f(1, 2, 3)
+def f(x, *args)=
+: ...            # f(1, 2, 3)
+def f(*args, z)=
+: ...            # f(1, 2, z=3D3)
+
+ +
def f(**kwargs): ...            # f(x=3D1, y=3D2, z=3D3)
+def f(x, **kwargs): ...         # f(x=3D1, y=3D2, z=3D=
+3) | f(1, y=3D2, z=3D3)
+
+
def f(*args, **kwargs): ...     # f(x=3D1, y=3D2, z=3D3) | f(1, y=3D2, z=3D3) | =
+f(1, 2, z=3D3) | f(1, 2, 3)
+def f(x, *args, **kwar=
+gs): ...  # f(x=3D1, y=3D2, z=3D=
+3) | f(1, y=3D2, z=3D3) | f(1, 2, z=3D3) | f(1, 2, 3)
+def f(*args, y, **kwar=
+gs): ...  # f(x=3D1, y=3D2, z=3D=
+3) | f(1, y=3D2, z=3D3)
+
+
def f(*, x, y, z): ...          # f(x=3D1, y=3D2, z=3D3)
+def f(x, *, y, z): ...          # f(x=3D1, y=3D2, z=3D=
+3) | f(1, y=3D2, z=3D3)
+def f(x, y, *, z): ...          # f(x=3D1, y=3D2, z=3D=
+3) | f(1, y=3D2, z=3D3) | f(1, 2, z=3D3)
+
+

Other Uses

<list>  =3D [*<coll.> [, ...]]    # Or: list(<collection>) [+ ...]
+<tuple> =3D (*<coll.>, [...])     =
+# Or: tuple(<collection>) [+ ...]
+<set>   =3D {*<coll.> [, ...]}    =
+# Or: set(<collection>) [| ...]
+<dict>  =3D {**<dict> [, ...]}    =
+# Or: dict(**<dict> [, ...])
+
+ +
head, *body, tail =3D <=
+coll.>     # Head or tail can be omitted.
+
+

#Inline

Lambda
<func> =3D lambda: <return_value>                   =
+  # A single statement function.
+<func> =3D lambda <arg_1>, =
+<arg_2>: <return_value>    # Also =
+accepts default arguments.
+

+ + +

Comprehensions

<list> =3D [i+1 for i in range(10)]                  =
+ # Or: [1, 2, ..., 10]
+<iter> =3D (i for i in range(10) if i > 5)            # Or: iter([6, 7, 8, 9])
+<set>  =3D {i+5 for i in range(10)}                   # Or: {5, 6, ..., 14}
+<dict> =3D {i: i*2 for i in range(10)}                # Or: {0: 0, 1: 2, ..., 9: 18}
+
+ +
=
+>>> [l+r for l in 'abc' for r in 'abc']
+['aa', 'ab'<=
+/span>, 'ac', ..., 'cc']
+
+

Map, Filter, Reduce

from func=
+tools import reduce
+
+ +
<iter> =3D map(lambda x: x + 1<=
+/span>, range(10))            # Or: iter([1, 2, ..., 10])
+<iter> =3D filter(lambda x: x >=
+; 5, range(1=
+0))         # Or: iter([6, 7, 8, 9])
+<obj>  =3D reduce(lambda out, x: =
+out + x, range(10))  # Or: 45
+
+

Any, All

<bool> =3D any(<collection>)                         =
+ # Is `bool(<el>)` True for any element.=
+
+<bool> =3D all(<collection>)                          # Is True for all elements or empty.
+
+ +

Conditional Expression

<obj> =3D <exp> if <condition> else <exp>             # Only =
+one expression gets evaluated.
+
+ +
=
+>>> [a if a else 'zero' for a in (0, 1, 2, 3)]      # `any([0, '', [], None]) =3D=3D F=
+alse`
+['zero', 1, 2, 3<=
+/span>]
+
+

Named Tuple, Enum, Dataclass

from collections import namedtu= +ple +Point =3D namedtuple('Point', 'x y') # Creates a tuple's subclass. +point =3D Point(0, 0) # Returns its instance. +
+ +
from enum import Enum
+Direction =3D Enum('Direction', 'N E S W')            # Creates an enum.
+direction =3D Direction.N                             # Returns its member.
+
+
from dataclasses import make_=
+dataclass
+Player =3D make_dataclass('Player', ['loc', 'dir'])   # Creates a class.
+player =3D Player(point, direction)                   # Returns its instance.
+
+

#Imports

import <module&g=
+t;            # Imports a built-in or '<mod=
+ule>.py'.
+import <package>           # Imports a built-in or '<package>/__init__.py=
+'.
+import <package>.<module>  =
+# Imports a built-in or '<package>/<m=
+odule>.py'.
+
+ +
    +
  • Package is a collection of modules, but it can also define its = +own objects.
    • +
  • On a filesystem this corresponds to a directory of Python files= + with an optional init script.
    • +
  • Running 'import <package>' does not automatically provide acce= +ss to the package's modules unless they are explicitly imported in its init= + script.
    • +
+

#Closure

We have/get a clos= +ure in Python when:

    +
  • A nested function references a value of its enclosing function = +and then
    • +
  • the enclosing function returns the nested function. +
def get_multiplier(a):
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">out(b):=
+
+        return a * b
+    return out
+
+ + + +
=
+>>> multiply_by_3 =3D get_multiplier(3)
+>>> multiply_by_3(10)
+30
+
+
    +
  • If multiple nested functions within enclosing function referenc= +e the same value, that value gets shared.
    • +
  • To dynamically access function's first free variable use '<function>.__closu= +re__[0].cell_contents'.
    • +
+

Partial

from functools import partial
+<function> =3D partial(<function> [, <arg_1>, <arg_2&g=
+t;, ...])
+
+ +
=
+>>> def multiply(a, b):
+...     retur=
+n a * b
+>>> multiply_by_3 =3D partial(mul=
+tiply, 3)
+>>> multiply_by_3(10)
+30
+
+
    +
  • Partial is also useful in cases when function needs to be passe= +d as an argument because it enables us to set its arguments beforehand.
    • +
  • A few examples being: 'defaultdict(<function>)', 'iter(<function>, to_exc= +lusive)' and dataclass's 'field(default_factory=3D<function>)'.
    • +
+

Non-Local

If variable is being assi= +gned to anywhere in the scope, it is regarded as a local variable, unless i= +t is declared as a 'global' or a 'nonlocal'.

def get_counter<=
+span class=3D"hljs-params">():
+    i =3D 0
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">out():<=
+/span>
+        nonlocal i
+        i +=3D 1
+        return i
+    return out
+
+ + +
=
+>>> counter =3D get_counter()
+>>> counter(), counter(), counter=
+()
+(1, 2=
+, 3)
+
+

#Deco= +rator

    +
  • A decorator takes a function, adds some functionality and retur= +ns it.
    • +
  • It can be any callable, but is usually implemented as a function that = +returns a cl= +osure.
    • +
@decorator_name
+def function_that_gets_passed_to_decorator():
+    ...
+
+ + +

Debugger Example

Decorator t= +hat prints function's name every time the function is called.

<= +pre>from functools import wraps + +def debug(func)= +: + @wraps(func) + def <= +span class=3D"hljs-title">out(*args, **k= +wargs): + print(func.__name__) + return func(*args, **kwargs) + return out + +@debug +def add(x, y):<= +/span> + return x + y +
+ + +
    +
  • Wraps is a helper decorator that copies the metadata of the pas= +sed function (func) to the function it is wrapping (out).
    • +
  • Without it 'add.__name__' would return <= +span class=3D"hljs-string">'out'.
    • +
+

LRU Cache

Decorator that caches fun= +ction's return values. All function's arguments must be hashable.<= +/p>

from functools import lru_=
+cache
+
+@lru_cache(maxsize=3DNone)
+def fib(n):
+    return n if n < 2 else fib(n-2) + fib(n-=
+1)
+
+ + +
    +
  • Default size of the cache is 128 values. Passing 'maxsize=3DNone' ma= +kes it unbounded.
    • +
  • CPython interpreter limits recursion depth to 1000 by default. = +To increase it use = +'sys.setrecursionlimit(<depth>)'.
    • +
+

Parametrized Decorator

A decorator that accepts arguments and returns a normal decorator that acc= +epts a function.

from functools import wraps
+
+def debug(print_result=
+=3DFalse):
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">decorator(func=
+):
+        @wraps(func)
+        def out(*args,=
+ **kwargs):
+            result =3D func(*args, **kwargs)
+            print(func.__name__, result if print_result else '')
+            return result
+        return out
+    return decorator
+
+@debug(print_result=3DTrue)
+def add(x, y):<=
+/span>
+    return x + y
+
+ + +
    +
  • Using only '@debug' to decorate the add() function would not work he= +re, because debug would then receive the add() function as a 'print_result'= + argument. Decorators can however manually check if the argument they recei= +ved is a function and act accordingly.
    • +
+

#Class

class <name>:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ a):
+        self.a =3D a
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__repr__(self)=
+:
+        class_name =3D self.__class__.__name__
+        return f'{class_name}({self.a!r})'
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__str__(self)<=
+/span>:
+        return str(self.a)
+
+    @classmethod
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">get_class_name=
+(cls):
+        return cls.__name__
+
+ +
    +
  • Return value of repr() should be unambiguous and of str() reada= +ble.
    • +
  • If only repr() is defined, it will also be used for str().
    • +
  • Methods decorated with '@staticmethod' do not receive 'self' nor 'c= +ls' as their first arg.
    • +
+

Expressions that call the s= +tr() method:

print(<=
+;el>)
+f'{<el>}'
+logging.warning(<el>)
+csv.writer(<file>).writerow([<el>])
+raise Exception(<el>)
+
+ +

Expressions that call the = +repr() method:

print/s=
+tr/repr([<el>])
+print/str/repr({<el>: <el>})
+f'{<el>!r}'
+Z =3D dataclasses.make_dataclass('Z', [<=
+span class=3D"hljs-string">'a']); print/str/repr(Z(<el>))
+>>> <el>
+
+ +

Constructor Overloading

class <name>:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ a=3DNone):
+        self.a =3D a
+
+ +

Inheritance

c=
+lass Person:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ name, age):
+        self.name =3D name
+        self.age  =3D age
+
+class Employee(Person):
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ name, age, staff_num):
+        super().__init__(name, age)
+        self.staff_num =3D staff_num
+
+ +

Multiple Inheritance

class A: =
+pass
+class B: pass
+class C(A, B): pass
+
+ +

MRO determines the order in which parent classes are traversed w= +hen searching for a method or an attribute:

+
=
+>>> C.mro()
+[<class 'C'>, <clas=
+s 'A'>, <class 'B'>, <class 'object'=
+>]
+
+

Property

Pythonic way of implementi= +ng getters and setters.

class Person:
+    @property
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">name(self):
+        return ' '.join(self._name)
+
+    @name.setter
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">name(self, val=
+ue):
+        self._name =3D value.split()
+
+ + +
=
+>>> person =3D Person()
+>>> person.name =3D '\t Guido  van Rossum \n'
+>>> person.name
+'Guido van Rossum'
+
+

Dataclass

Decorator that automatic= +ally generates init(), repr() and eq() special methods.

from=
+ dataclasses import dataclass, f=
+ield
+
+@dataclass(order=3DFalse, frozen=3DFalse)
+class <class_name>:
+    <attr_name>: <type>
+    <attr_name>: <type> =3D <default_value>
+    <attr_name>: list/dict/set =3D field(default_factory=3Dlist/dict/=
+set)
+
+ + +
    +
  • Objects can be made sortable with 'order=3DTrue' and immutable with 'frozen=3DTrue'.
    • +
  • For object to be hashable, all attributes must be hashable and 'frozen= +' must be True.
    • +
  • Function field() is needed because = +'<attr_name>: list =3D []' = +would make a list that is shared among all instances. Its 'default_factory'= + argument can be any callable.
    • +
  • For attributes of arbitrary type use 'typing.Any'.
    • +
+

Inline:

from dataclasses import make_dataclass
+<class> =3D make_dataclass('<class_nam=
+e>', <coll_of_attribute_names>)
+<class> =3D make_dataclass('<class_nam=
+e>', <coll_of_tuples>)
+<tuple> =3D ('<attr_name>', =
+<type> [, <default_value>])
+ +

Rest = +of type annotations (CPython interpreter ignores them all):

import typing as tp, collections.abc as abc
+<var_name>: list/set/abc.Iterable/abc.Sequence/tp.Optional[<type&g=
+t;] [=3D <obj>]
+<var_name>: dict/tuple/tp.Union[<type>, ...] [=3D <obj>]
+def func(<arg_name&=
+gt;: <type> [=3D <obj>]) -> <type>: ...
+
+ +

Slots

Mechanism that restricts objects= + to attributes listed in 'slots' and significantly reduces their memory foo= +tprint.

class MyClassWithSlots:
+    __slots__ =3D ['a']
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self)=
+:
+        self.a =3D 1
+
+ + +

Copy

from copy import copy, deepcopy
+<object> =3D copy(<object>)
+<object> =3D deepcopy(<object>)
+
+ +

#Duck Types

A duck ty= +pe is an implicit type that prescribes a set of special methods. Any object= + that has those methods defined is considered a member of that duck type.

Comparable

    +
  • If eq() method is not overridden, it returns 'id(self) =3D=3D id(other)', which is the same as 'self is other'.
    • +
  • That means all objects compare not equal by default. +
  • Only the left side object has eq() method called, unless it ret= +urns NotImplemented, in which case the right object is consulted. False is = +returned if both return NotImplemented.
    • +
  • Ne() automatically works on any object that has eq() defined.
    • +
class =
+MyComparable:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ a):
+        self.a =3D a
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__eq__(self, o=
+ther):
+        if isinstance(other, type(self)=
+):
+            return self.a =3D=3D other.=
+a
+        return NotImplemented
+
+ + + + +

Hashable

    +
  • Hashable object needs both hash() and eq() methods and its hash= + value should never change.
    • +
  • Hashable objects that compare equal must have the same hash val= +ue, meaning default hash() that returns 'id(self)' will not do.
    • +
  • That is why Python automatically makes classes unhashable if yo= +u only implement eq().
    • +
class =
+MyHashable:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ a):
+        self._a =3D a
+    @property
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">a(self)=
+:
+        return self._a
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__eq__(self, o=
+ther):
+        if isinstance(other, type(self)=
+):
+            return self.a =3D=3D other.=
+a
+        return NotImplemented
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__hash__(self)=
+:
+        return hash(self.a)
+
+ + +

Sortable

    +
  • With 'total_ordering' decorator, you only need to provide eq() = +and one of lt(), gt(), le() or ge() special methods and the rest will be au= +tomatically generated.
    • +
  • Functions sorted() and min() only require lt() method, while ma= +x() only requires gt(). However, it is best to define them all so that conf= +usion doesn't arise in other contexts.
    • +
  • When two lists, strings or dataclasses are compared, their valu= +es get compared in order until a pair of unequal values is found. The compa= +rison of this two values is then returned. The shorter sequence is consider= +ed smaller in case of all values being equal.
    • +
  • Characters are compared by their Unicode IDs. Use module 'local= +e' for proper alphabetical order.
    • +
from functools import to=
+tal_ordering
+
+@total_ordering
+class MySortable:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ a):
+        self.a =3D a
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__eq__(self, o=
+ther):
+        if isinstance(other, type(self)=
+):
+            return self.a =3D=3D other.=
+a
+        return NotImplemented
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__lt__(self, o=
+ther):
+        if isinstance(other, type(self)=
+):
+            return self.a < other.a
+        return NotImplemented
+
+ + +

Iterator

    +
  • Any object that has methods next() and iter() is an iterator.
    • +
  • Next() should return next item or raise StopIteration.= +
    • +
  • Iter() should return 'self'.
    • +
class =
+Counter:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self)=
+:
+        self.i =3D 0
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__next__(self)=
+:
+        self.i +=3D 1
+        return self.i
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__iter__(self)=
+:
+        return self
+
+ + +
=
+>>> counter =3D Counter()
+>>> next(counter), next(counter),=
+ next(counter)
+(1, 2=
+, 3)
+
+

Python has many diffe= +rent iterator objects:

Callable

    +
  • All functions and classes have a call() method, hence are calla= +ble.
    • +
  • When this cheatsheet uses '<function>' as an argument, it actu= +ally means '<cal= +lable>'.
    • +
class =
+Counter:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self)=
+:
+        self.i =3D 0
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__call__(self)=
+:
+        self.i +=3D 1
+        return self.i
+
+ + + + +
=
+>>> counter =3D Counter()
+>>> counter(), counter(), counter=
+()
+(1, 2=
+, 3)
+
+

Context Manager

    +
  • With statements only work with objects that have enter() and ex= +it() special methods.
    • +
  • Enter() should lock the resources and optionally return an obje= +ct.
    • +
  • Exit() should release the resources.
    • +
  • Any exception that happens inside the with block is passed to t= +he exit() method.
    • +
  • The exit() method can suppress the exception by returning a tru= +e value.
    • +
class =
+MyOpen:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ filename):
+        self.filename =3D filename
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__enter__(self=
+):
+        self.file =3D open(self.filename)
+        return self.file
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__exit__(self,=
+ exc_type, exception, traceback):
+        self.file.close()
+
+ + +
=
+>>> with open('test.txt', 'w') as file:
+...     file.write('Hello World!')
+>>> =
+with MyOpen('test.txt') as file:
+...     print(file.read())
+Hello World!
+
+

#Iterable Du= +ck Types

Iterable

    +
  • Only required method is iter(). It should return an iterator of= + object's items.
    • +
  • Contains() automatically works on any object that has iter() de= +fined.
    • +
class =
+MyIterable:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ a):
+        self.a =3D a
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__iter__(self)=
+:
+        return iter(self.a)
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__contains__(s=
+elf, el):
+        return el in self.a
+
+ + + +
=
+>>> obj =3D MyIterable([1, 2, 3])
+>>> [el for el in obj]
+[1, 2=
+, 3]
+>>> 1=
+ in obj
+True
+
+

Collection

    +
  • Only required methods are iter() and len(). Len() should return= + the number of items.
    • +
  • This cheatsheet actually means '<iterable>' when it uses '<collection>'.
    • +
  • I chose not to use the name 'iterable' because it sounds scarie= +r and more vague than 'collection'. The only drawback of this decision is t= +hat a reader could think a certain function doesn't accept iterators when i= +t does, since iterators are the only built-in objects that are iterable but= + are not collections.
    • +
class =
+MyCollection:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ a):
+        self.a =3D a
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__iter__(self)=
+:
+        return iter(self.a)
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__contains__(s=
+elf, el):
+        return el in self.a
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__len__(self)<=
+/span>:
+        return len(self.a)
+
+ + +

Sequence

    +
  • Only required methods are getitem() and len().
    • +
  • Getitem() should return an item at the passed index or raise In= +dexError.
    • +
  • Iter() and contains() automatically work on any object that has= + getitem() defined.
    • +
  • Reversed() automatically works on any object that has getitem()= + and len() defined.
    • +
class =
+MySequence:
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ a):
+        self.a =3D a
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__iter__(self)=
+:
+        return iter(self.a)
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__contains__(s=
+elf, el):
+        return el in self.a
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__len__(self)<=
+/span>:
+        return len(self.a)
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__getitem__(se=
+lf, i):
+        return self.a[i]
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__reversed__(s=
+elf):
+        return reversed(self.a)
+
+ + +

Discrepancies between glossary definitions and abstract base classes:
    +
  • Glossary defines iterable as any object with iter() or getitem(= +) and sequence as any object with getitem() and len(). It does not define c= +ollection.
    • +
  • Passing ABC Iterable to isinstance() or issubclass() checks whe= +ther object/class has method iter(), while ABC Collection checks for iter()= +, contains() and len().
    • +

+ + + + +

ABC Sequence

    +
  • It's a richer interface than the basic sequence.
    • +
  • Extending it generates iter(), contains(), reversed(), index() = +and count().
    • +
  • Unlike = +'abc.Iterable' and 'abc.Collection', it is not a duck type. That i= +s why 'issubclass(M= +ySequence, abc.Sequence)' would return False even if MySequen= +ce had all the methods defined. It however recognizes list, tuple, range, s= +tr, bytes, bytearray, array, memoryview and deque, because they are registe= +red as its virtual subclasses.
    • +
from collections import =
+abc
+
+class MyAbcSequence(abc.S=
+equence):
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ a):
+        self.a =3D a
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__len__(self)<=
+/span>:
+        return len(self.a)
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__getitem__(se=
+lf, i):
+        return self.a[i]
+

Table of required and automatically available special method= +s:

=E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83            =E2=94=82  Iterable  =E2=94=82 Collection =E2=94=82  S=
+equence  =E2=94=82 abc.Sequence =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 iter()     =E2=94=82     !      =E2=94=82     !      =E2=94=82   =
+  =E2=9C=93      =E2=94=82      =E2=9C=93       =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 contains() =E2=94=82     =E2=9C=93      =E2=94=82     =E2=9C=93  =
+    =E2=94=82     =E2=9C=93      =E2=94=82      =E2=9C=93       =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 len()      =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82     !      =E2=94=82   =
+  !      =E2=94=82      !       =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 getitem()  =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82   =
+  !      =E2=94=82      !       =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 reversed() =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82   =
+  =E2=9C=93      =E2=94=82      =E2=9C=93       =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 index()    =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82   =
+         =E2=94=82      =E2=9C=93       =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 count()    =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82   =
+         =E2=94=82      =E2=9C=93       =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=9B
+
+ +
    +
  • Other ABCs that generate missing methods are: MutableSequence, = +Set, MutableSet, Mapping and MutableMapping.
    • +
  • Names of their required methods are stored in '<abc>.__abstractmethods__'.
    • +
+

#Enum

from enum import Enum, auto
+
+ +
class <e=
+num_name>(Enum):
+    <member_name> =3D auto()
+    <member_name> =3D <value>
+    <member_name> =3D <value>, <value>
+
+
    +
  • Function auto() returns an increment of the last numeric value = +or 1.
    • +
  • Accessing a member named after a reserved keyword causes Syntax= +Error.
    • +
  • Methods receive the member they were called on as the 'self' ar= +gument.
    • +
+
<member> =3D <enu=
+m>.<member_name>           # Returns =
+a member.
+<member> =3D <enum>['<member_nam=
+e>']        # Returns a member. Rais=
+es KeyError.
+<member> =3D <enum>(<value>)                # Returns a member. Raises ValueError.
+<str>    =3D <member>.name                  # Returns member's name.
+<obj>    =3D <member>.value                 # Returns member's value.
+
+
<list>   =3D list(&l=
+t;enum>)                   # Returns enum's=
+ members.
+<list>   =3D [a.name for a in <enum>]       # Returns enum's member names.
+<list>   =3D [a.value for a in <enum>]      # Returns enum's member values.
+<member> =3D random.choice(list(<enum>))    # Returns a random member.
+
+
def get_=
+next_member(member):
+    members =3D list(type(member))
+    index =3D members.index(member) + 1
+    return members[index % len(members)=
+]
+
+

Inline

Cutlery =3D Enum('Cutlery', 'FORK KNIFE SPOON')
+Cutlery =3D Enum('Cutlery', ['FORK', 'KNIFE',=
+ 'SPOON'])
+Cutlery =3D Enum('Cutlery', {'FORK': 1, 'KNIFE': 2=
+, 'SPOON': 3=
+})
+
+ +

User-= +defined functions cannot be values, so they must be wrapped:

from functools import partial
+LogicOp =3D Enum('LogicOp', {'AND': partial(lambda<=
+/span> l, r: l and r),
+                           'OR':  partia=
+l(lambda l, r: l or r)})
+
+ +

#Exceptions

try:
+    <code>
+except <exception>:
+    <code>
+
+ +

Complex Example

try:
+    <code_1>
+except <exception_a>:
+    <code_2_a>
+except <exception_b>:
+    <code_2_b>
+else:
+    <code_2_c>
+finally:
+    <code_3>
+
+ +
    +
  • Code inside the 'else' block will only be executed if 'try' block had no = +exceptions.
    • +
  • Code inside the 'finally' block will always be executed (unless a si= +gnal is received).
    • +
  • All variables that are initialized in executed blocks are also = +visible in all subsequent blocks, as well as outside the try/except clause = +(only function blocks delimit scope).
    • +
  • To catch signals use 'signal.signal(signal_number, <func>)'.
    • +
+

Catching Exceptions

except=
+ <exception>: ...
+except <exception> as <name>: ...
+except (<exception>, [...]): ...
+except (<exception>, [...]) as <name>: ...
+
+ +
    +
  • Also catches subclasses of the exception.
    • +
  • Use 'tr= +aceback.print_exc()' to print the error message to stderr.
    • +
  • Use 'pr= +int(<name>)' to print just the cause of the exception (= +its arguments).
    • +
  • Use 'lo= +gging.exception(<message>)' to log the passed message, = +followed by the full error message of the caught exception.
    • +
+

Raising Exceptions

raise =
+<exception>
+raise <exception>()
+raise <exception>(<el> [, .=
+..])
+
+ +

Re-raising caught exception:

<= +pre>except <exception> [as &= +lt;name>]: + ... + raise +
+ +

Exception Object

arguments =3D <name>.args
+exc_type  =3D <name>.__class__
+filename  =3D <name>.__traceback__.tb_frame.f_code.co_filename
+func_name =3D <name>.__traceback__.tb_frame.f_code.co_name
+line      =3D linecache.getline(filename, <name>.__traceback__.tb_lin=
+eno)
+trace_str =3D ''.join(traceback.format_t=
+b(<name>.__traceback__))
+error_msg =3D ''.join(traceback.format_e=
+xception(exc_type, <name>, <name>.__traceback__))
+
+ +

Built-in Exceptions

BaseException
+ =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 SystemExit                   # Raised by the sys.exit() function.
+ =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 KeyboardInterrupt            # Raised when the user hits the interrupt key (ctrl-c).
+ =E2=94=94=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 Exception                    # User-defined exceptions should be derived from this class.
+      =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 ArithmeticError         # Base class for arithmetic errors such as ZeroDivisionError.
+      =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 AssertionError          # Raised by `assert <exp>` if expression returns false va=
+lue.
+      =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 AttributeError          # Raised when object doesn't have requested attribute/method.
+      =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 EOFError                # Raised by input() when it hits an end-of-file condition.
+      =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 LookupError             # Base class for errors when a collection can't find an item.
+      =E2=94=82    =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 IndexError         # Raised when a sequence index is out of range.
+      =E2=94=82    =E2=94=94=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 KeyError           # Raised when a dictionary key or set element is missin=
+g.
+      =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 MemoryError             # Out of memory. Could be too late to start deleting vars.
+      =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 NameError               # Raised when nonexistent name (variable/func/class) is used.
+      =E2=94=82    =E2=94=94=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 UnboundLocalError  # Raised when local name is used before it's being defi=
+ned.
+      =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 OSError                 # Errors such as FileExistsError/PermissionError (see #Open).
+      =E2=94=82    =E2=94=94=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 ConnectionError    # Errors such as BrokenPipeError/ConnectionAbortedError=
+.
+      =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 RuntimeError            # Raised by errors that don't fall into other categories.
+      =E2=94=82    =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 NotImplementedErr  # Can be raised by abstract methods or by unfinished co=
+de.
+      =E2=94=82    =E2=94=94=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 RecursionError     # Raised when the maximum recursion depth is exceeded.<=
+/span>
+      =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 StopIteration           # Raised by next() when run on an empty iterator.
+      =E2=94=9C=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 TypeError               # Raised when an argument is of the wrong type.
+      =E2=94=94=E2=94=80=E2=94=80 ValueError              # When argument has the right type but inappropriate value.
+
+ +

Collections and their excepti= +ons:

=E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83           =E2=94=82    List    =E2=94=82    Set     =E2=94=82    =
+Dict    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 getitem() =E2=94=82 IndexError =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82  Ke=
+yError  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 pop()     =E2=94=82 IndexError =E2=94=82  KeyError  =E2=94=82  Ke=
+yError  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 remove()  =E2=94=82 ValueError =E2=94=82  KeyError  =E2=94=82    =
+        =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 index()   =E2=94=82 ValueError =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82    =
+        =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
+ +

Useful built-in exceptions:

= +raise TypeError('Argument is of the wron= +g type!') +raise ValueError('Argument has the right type but an inappropriate value!') +raise RuntimeError('None of above!') +
+ +

User-defined Exceptions

class MyError=
+(Exception): pass
+class MyInputError(MyErro=
+r): pass
+
+ +

#Exit

Exits the interpreter by raisi= +ng SystemExit exception.

import sys
+sys.exit()                        # Exits with=
+ exit code 0 (success).
+sys.exit(<el>)                    # Prin=
+ts to stderr and exits with 1.
+sys.exit(<int>)                   # Exit=
+s with passed exit code.
+
+ + +

#Print

print(<el_1>, ..., sep=3D' '<=
+/span>, end=3D'\n', file=3Dsys.stdout, f=
+lush=3DFalse)
+
+ +
    +
  • Use 'fi= +le=3Dsys.stderr' for messages about errors.
    • +
  • Use 'fl= +ush=3DTrue' to forcibly flush the stream.
    • +
+

Pretty Print

from pprint import pprint
+pprint(<collection>, width=3D80, d=
+epth=3DNone, compact=3DFalse, sort_dicts=3DTrue)
+
+ +
    +
  • Levels deeper than 'depth' get replaced by '=E2=80=A6'.
    • +
+

#Input

Reads a line from the user= + input or pipe if present.

<str> =3D input(prompt=3DNo=
+ne)
+
+ + +
    +
  • Trailing newline gets stripped.
    • +
  • Prompt string is printed to the standard output before reading = +input.
    • +
  • Raises EOFError when user hits EOF (ctrl-d/ctrl-z=E2=8F=8E) or = +input stream gets exhausted.
    • +
+

#Co= +mmand Line Arguments

<=
+span class=3D"hljs-keyword">import sys
+scripts_path =3D sys.argv[0]
+arguments    =3D sys.argv[1:]
+
+ +

Argument Parser

from argparse =
+import ArgumentParser, FileType
+p =3D ArgumentParser(description=3D<str>)
+p.add_argument('-<short_name>', '--<name>', action=3D'store_true')  # Flag.
+p.add_argument('-<short_name>', '--<name>', type=3D<type>)    =
+      # Option.
+p.add_argument('<name>', type=3D&l=
+t;type>, nargs=3D1)                  =
+  # First argument.
+p.add_argument('<name>', type=3D&l=
+t;type>, nargs=3D'+')                =
+  # Remaining arguments.
+p.add_argument('<name>', type=3D&l=
+t;type>, nargs=3D'*')                =
+  # Optional arguments.
+args  =3D p.parse_args()                                            # Exits on error.
+value =3D args.<name>
+
+ +
    +
  • Use 'he= +lp=3D<str>' to set argument description that will be di= +splayed in help message.
    • +
  • Use 'de= +fault=3D<el>' to set the default value.
    • +
  • Use 'ty= +pe=3DFileType(<mode>)' for files. Accepts 'encoding', b= +ut 'newline' is None.
    • +
+

#Open

Opens the file and returns a c= +orresponding file object.

<file> =3D open(<path>, mode=3D'r', encoding=3DNone, ne=
+wline=3DNone)
+
+ + +
    +
  • 'encodi= +ng=3DNone' means that the default encoding is used, which is = +platform dependent. Best practice is to use 'encoding=3D"utf-8"' whenever possib= +le.
    • +
  • 'newlin= +e=3DNone' means all different end of line combinations are co= +nverted to '\n' on read, while on write all '\n' characters are converted t= +o system's default line separator.
    • +
  • 'newlin= +e=3D""' means no conversions take place, but input is still b= +roken into chunks by readline() and readlines() on every '\n', '\r' and '\r= +\n'.
    • +
+

Modes

    +
  • 'r' - Read (default).
    • +
  • 'w' - Write (truncate).
    • +
  • 'x' - Write or fail if the file already exists.
    • +
  • 'a' - Append.
    • +
  • 'w+' - Read and write (truncate).
    • +
  • 'r+' - Read and write from the start.
    • +
  • 'a+' - Read and write from the end.
    • +
  • 't' - Text mode (default).
    • +
  • 'b' - Binary mode ('br', 'bw', 'bx', =E2=80=A6).
    • +

Exceptions

    +
  • 'FileNo= +tFoundError' can be raised when reading with 'r' or 'r+'.
    • +
  • 'FileEx= +istsError' can be raised when writing with 'x'.
    • +
  • 'IsADir= +ectoryError' and 'PermissionError' can be raised by any.<= +/li> +
  • 'OSErro= +r' is the parent class of all listed exceptions. +

File Object

<file>.seek(0)                      # Moves to the start o=
+f the file.
+<file>.seek(offset)                 # Mo=
+ves 'offset' chars/bytes from the start.
+<file>.seek(0, 2)                   # Moves t=
+o the end of the file.
+<bin_file>.seek(=C2=B1offset, <anchor>)  # Anchor: 0 start, 1 current position, 2 end.
+
+ + + + + +
<str/bytes> =3D <=
+file>.read(size=3D-1)  # Reads 'size' chars/bytes or until EOF.
+<str/bytes> =3D <file>.readline()     # Returns a line or empty string/bytes on EOF.
+<list>      =3D <file>.readlines()    # Returns a list of remaining lines.
+<str/bytes> =3D next(<file>)          # Returns a line using buffer. Do not mix.
+
+
<file>.write(<str=
+/bytes>)           # Writes a string or byt=
+es object.
+<file>.writelines(<collection>)     # Writes a coll. of strings or bytes objects.
+<file>.flush()                      # Fl=
+ushes write buffer. Runs every 4096/8192 B.
+
+
    +
  • Methods do not add or strip trailing newlines, even writelines(= +).
    • +
+

Read Text from File

def read_file(filename):
+    with open(filename, encoding=3D'utf-8') as file:
+        return file.readlines()
+
+ +

Write Text to File

def write_to_file(filename, text):
+    with open(filename, 'w', encoding=3D'utf-8') as file:
+        file.write(text)
+
+ +

#Paths

import os, glob
+from pathlib import Path
+
+ +
<str>  =3D os.getcwd=
+()                # Returns the current workin=
+g directory.
+<str>  =3D os.path.join(<path>, ...)  # Joins two or more pathname components.
+<str>  =3D os.path.realpath(<path>)   # Resolves symlinks and calls path.abspath().
+
+
<str>  =3D os.path.b=
+asename(<path>)   # Returns final compon=
+ent of the path.
+<str>  =3D os.path.dirname(<path>)    # Returns path without the final component.
+<tup.> =3D os.path.splitext(<path>)   # Splits on last period of the final component.
+
+
<list> =3D os.listdi=
+r(path=3D'.')       # Returns filenames located at the path.
+<list> =3D glob.glob('<pattern>')     # Returns paths matching the wildcar=
+d pattern.
+
+
<bool> =3D os.path.e=
+xists(<path>)     # Or: <Path>.exi=
+sts()
+<bool> =3D os.path.isfile(<path>)     # Or: <DirEntry/Path>.is_file()
+<bool> =3D os.path.isdir(<path>)      # Or: <DirEntry/Path>.is_dir()
+
+
<stat> =3D os.stat(&=
+lt;path>)            # Or: <DirEntry/Pat=
+h>.stat()
+<real> =3D <stat>.st_mtime/st_size/=E2=80=A6  # Modification time, size in bytes, ...
+
+

DirEntry

Unlike listdir(), scandir(= +) returns DirEntry objects that cache isfile, isdir and on Windows also sta= +t information, thus significantly increasing the performance of code that r= +equires it.

&l=
+t;iter> =3D os.scandir(path=3D'.')   =
+    # Returns DirEntry objects located at the =
+path.
+<str>  =3D <DirEntry>.path            # Returns the whole path as a string.
+<str>  =3D <DirEntry>.name            # Returns final component as a string.
+<file> =3D open(<DirEntry>)           # Opens the file and returns a file object.
+
+ + +

Path Object

<Path> =3D Path(<path> [, ...])       # Accepts strings, Paths and DirEntry objects.
+<Path> =3D <path> / <path> [/ ...]    # First or second path must be a Path object.
+<Path> =3D <Path>.resolve()           # Resolves symlinks and calls <Path>.absolute().
+
+ +
<Path> =3D Path()   =
+                  # Returns relative cwd. Also=
+ Path('.').
+<Path> =3D Path.cwd()                 # =
+Returns absolute cwd. Also Path().resolve().
+<Path> =3D Path.home()                # =
+Returns user's home directory (absolute).
+<Path> =3D Path(__file__).resolve()   # =
+Returns script's path if cwd wasn't changed.
+
+
<Path> =3D <Path&=
+gt;.parent              # Returns Path without=
+ the final component.
+<str>  =3D <Path>.name                # Returns final component as a string.
+<str>  =3D <Path>.stem                # Returns final component without extension.
+<str>  =3D <Path>.suffix              # Returns final component's extension.
+<tup.> =3D <Path>.parts               # Returns all components as strings.
+
+
<iter> =3D <Path&=
+gt;.iterdir()           # Returns directory co=
+ntents as Path objects.
+<iter> =3D <Path>.glob('<pattern=
+>')   # Returns Paths matching the w=
+ildcard pattern.
+
+
<str>  =3D str(<P=
+ath>)                # Returns path as a st=
+ring.
+<file> =3D open(<Path>)               # Also <Path>.read/write_text/bytes().
+
+

#OS Commands

import=
+ os, shutil, subprocess
+
+ +
os.chdir(<path>)    =
+                # Changes the current working =
+directory.
+os.mkdir(<path>, mode=3D0o777)    =
+    # Creates a directory. Permissions are in =
+octal.
+os.makedirs(<path>, mode=3D0o777) =
+    # Creates all path's dirs. Also `exist_ok=
+=3DFalse`.
+
+
shutil.copy(from, to)     =
+          # Copies the file. 'to' can exist or=
+ be a dir.
+shutil.copy2(from, to)              # Also cop=
+ies creation and modification time.
+shutil.copytree(from, to)           # Copies t=
+he directory. 'to' must not exist.
+
+
os.rename(from, to)       =
+          # Renames/moves the file or director=
+y.
+os.replace(from, to)                # Same, bu=
+t overwrites file 'to' even on Windows.
+shutil.move(from, to)               # Rename()=
+ that moves into 'to' if it's a dir.
+
+
os.remove(<path>)   =
+                # Deletes the file.
+os.rmdir(<path>)                    # De=
+letes the empty directory.
+shutil.rmtree(<path>)               # De=
+letes the directory.
+
+
    +
  • Paths can be either strings, Paths or DirEntry objects.
    • +
  • Functions report OS related errors by raising either OSError or= + one of its subclasses.
    • +
+

Shell Commands

<pipe> =3D os.popen('<command>')      # Executes co=
+mmand in sh/cmd. Returns its stdout pipe.
+<str>  =3D <pipe>.read(size=3D-1)       # Reads 'size' chars or until EOF.=
+ Also readline/s().
+<int>  =3D <pipe>.close()             # Closes the pipe. Returns None on success (returncode 0).
+
+ +

Sends '1 + = +1' to the basic calculator and captures its output:

>>> subprocess.run('bc', input=3D'1 + 1\n', capture_output=3DTrue, text=3DTrue)
+CompletedProcess(args=3D'bc', returncode=
+=3D0, stdout=3D'2\n', stderr=3D'')
+
+ +

Sends test.in to the basic calculator running in standa= +rd mode and saves its output to test.out:

>>> from shlex import split
+>>> os.popen('echo 1 + 1 > test.in')
+>>> subprocess.run(split('bc -s'), stdin=3Dopen('test.in'), stdout=3Dopen('test.out'<=
+/span>, 'w'))
+CompletedProcess(args=3D['bc', '-s'], returncode=3D0=
+)
+>>> open('test.out').read()
+'2\n'
+
+ +

#JSON

Text file format for storing c= +ollections of strings and numbers.

import json
+<str>    =3D json.dumps(<object>)     # Converts object to JSON string.
+<object> =3D json.loads(<str>)        # Converts JSON string to object.
+
+ + +

Read Object from JSON File

=
+<=
+span class=3D"hljs-keyword">def read_json=
+_file(filename):
+    with open(filename, encoding=3D'utf-8') as file:
+        return json.load(file)
+
+ +

Write Object to JSON File

def write_to_js=
+on_file(filename, an_object):
+    with open(filename, 'w', encoding=3D'utf-8') as file:
+        json.dump(an_object, file, ensure_ascii=3DFalse, indent=3D2)
+
+ +

#Pickle

Binary file format for= + storing Python objects.

import pickle
+<bytes>  =3D pickle.dumps(<object>)   # Converts object to bytes object.
+<object> =3D pickle.loads(<bytes>)    # Converts bytes object to object.
+
+ + +

Read Object from File

def read_pickle_file(filename):
+    with open(filename, 'rb') as file:
+        return pickle.load(file)
+
+ +

Write Object to File

def write_to_pickle_fil=
+e(filename, an_object):
+    with open(filename, 'wb') as file:
+        pickle.dump(an_object, file)
+
+ +

#CSV

Text file format for storing sprea= +dsheets.

import csv
+
+ + +

Read

<reader> =3D csv.reader(<file>)       # Also: `dialect=3D'excel', delimiter=3D','`.
+<list>   =3D next(<reader>)           # Returns next row as a list of strings.
+<list>   =3D list(<reader>)           # Returns a list of remaining rows.
+
+ +
    +
  • File must be opened with a 'newline=3D""' argument, or newlines embe= +dded inside quoted fields will not be interpreted correctly!
    • +
  • To print the spreadsheet to the console use Tabulate library. +
  • For XML and binary Excel files (xlsx, xlsm and xlsb) use = +Pandas library.
    • +
  • Reader accepts any iterator of strings, not just files.
    • +
+

Write

<writer> =3D csv.writer(<file>)       # Also: `dialect=3D'excel', delimiter=3D','`.
+<writer>.writerow(<collection>)     # Encodes objects using `str(<el>)`.
+<writer>.writerows(<coll_of_coll>)  # Appends multiple rows.
+
+ +
    +
  • File must be opened with a 'newline=3D""' argument, or '\r' will be = +added in front of every '\n' on platforms that use '\r\n' line endings!
    • +
+

Parameters

    +
  • 'dialec= +t' - Master parameter that sets the default values. String or= + a 'csv.Dialect' object.
    • +
  • 'delimi= +ter' - A one-character string used to separate fields.
    • +
  • 'quotec= +har' - Character for quoting fields that contain special char= +acters.
    • +
  • 'double= +quote' - Whether quotechars inside fields are/get doubled or = +escaped.
    • +
  • 'skipin= +itialspace' - Is space character at the start of the field st= +ripped by the reader.
    • +
  • 'linete= +rminator' - How writer terminates rows. Reader is hardcoded t= +o '\n', '\r', '\r\n'.
    • +
  • 'quotin= +g' - 0: As necessary, 1: All, 2: All but numbers which are re= +ad as floats, 3: None.
    • +
  • 'escape= +char' - Character for escaping quotechars if doublequote is F= +alse.
    • +

Dialects

=E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83                  =E2=94=82     excel    =E2=94=82   excel-tab  =
+=E2=94=82     unix     =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 delimiter        =E2=94=82       ','    =E2=94=82      '\t'    =
+=E2=94=82       ','    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 quotechar        =E2=94=82       '"'    =E2=94=82       '"'    =
+=E2=94=82       '"'    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 doublequote      =E2=94=82      True    =E2=94=82      True    =
+=E2=94=82      True    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 skipinitialspace =E2=94=82     False    =E2=94=82     False    =
+=E2=94=82     False    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 lineterminator   =E2=94=82    '\r\n'    =E2=94=82    '\r\n'    =
+=E2=94=82      '\n'    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 quoting          =E2=94=82         0    =E2=94=82         0    =
+=E2=94=82         1    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 escapechar       =E2=94=82      None    =E2=94=82      None    =
+=E2=94=82      None    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
+ + + +

Read Rows from CSV File

def read_csv_file(filename, dialect=3D'excel'):
+    with open(filename, encoding=3D'utf-8', newline=3D'') as file:
+        return list(csv.reader(file, di=
+alect))
+
+ +

Write Rows to CSV File

def write_to_csv_file=
+(filename, rows, dialect=3D'excel'):
+    with open(filename, 'w', encoding=3D'utf-8', newline=3D'') as file:
+        writer =3D csv.writer(file, dialect)
+        writer.writerows(rows)
+
+ +

#SQLite

A server-less database= + engine that stores each database into a separate file.

impo=
+rt sqlite3
+<conn> =3D sqlite3.connect(<path>)                # Opens existing or new file. Also ':memory:'.
+<conn>.close()                                  # Closes the connection.
+
+ + +

Read

<cursor> =3D <conn>.execute('=
+<query>')            # Can raise =
+a subclass of sqlite3.Error.
+<tuple>  =3D <cursor>.fetchone()                  # Returns next row. Also next(<cursor>).
+<list>   =3D <cursor>.fetchall()                  # Returns remaining rows. Also list(<cursor>).
+
+ +

Write

<conn>.execute('<query>')                       # Can raise a subc=
+lass of sqlite3.Error.
+<conn>.commit()                                 # Saves all changes since the last commit.
+<conn>.rollback()                               # Discards all changes since the last commit.
+
+ +

Or:

with <conn>:                    =
+                # Exits the block with commit(=
+) or rollback(),
+    <conn>.execute('<query>'=
+)                   # depending on whether any=
+ exception occurred.
+
+ +

Placeholders

<conn>.execute('<q=
+uery>', <list/tuple>)         =
+# Replaces '?'s in query with values.
+<conn>.execute('<query>', &l=
+t;dict/namedtuple>)    # Replaces ':<key=
+>'s with values.
+<conn>.executemany('<query>'=
+, <coll_of_above>)  # Runs execute() mul=
+tiple times.
+
+ +
    +
  • Passed values can be of type str, int, float, bytes, None, bool= +, datetime.date or datetime.datetime.
    • +
  • Bools will be stored and returned as ints and dates as ISO formatted string= +s.
    • +
+

Example

Values are not actually sa= +ved in this example because 'conn.commit()' is omitted!

>>>=
+ conn =3D sqlite3.connect('test.db')
+>>> conn.execute('CREATE TABLE person (person_id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name, heig=
+ht)')
+>>> conn.execute('INSERT INTO person VALUES (NULL, ?, ?)', ('Jean-Luc', 187)=
+).lastrowid
+1
+>>> conn.execute('SELECT * FROM person').fetchall()
+[(1, 'Jean-L=
+uc', 187)]
+
+ + +

SqlAlchemy

# $ pip3 install sqlalchemy
+from sqlalchemy import create_engine, text
+<engine> =3D create_engine('<url>'<=
+/span>)               # Url: 'dialect://user:p=
+assword@host/dbname'.
+<conn>   =3D <engine>.connect()                   # Creates a connection. Also <conn>.close().
+<cursor> =3D <conn>.execute(text('&=
+lt;query>'), =E2=80=A6)   # Replaces=
+ ':<key>'s with keyword arguments.
+with <conn>.begin(): ...         =
+               # Exits the block with commit o=
+r rollback.
+
+ +
=E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83 Dialect    =E2=94=82 pip3 install =E2=94=82 import   =E2=94=82   =
+        Dependencies           =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 mysql      =E2=94=82 mysqlclient  =E2=94=82 MySQLdb  =E2=94=82 ww=
+w.pypi.org/project/mysqlclient =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 postgresql =E2=94=82 psycopg2     =E2=94=82 psycopg2 =E2=94=82 ww=
+w.pypi.org/project/psycopg2    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 mssql      =E2=94=82 pyodbc       =E2=94=82 pyodbc   =E2=94=82 ww=
+w.pypi.org/project/pyodbc      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 oracle     =E2=94=82 oracledb     =E2=94=82 oracledb =E2=94=82 ww=
+w.pypi.org/project/oracledb    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
+

#Bytes

Bytes object is an immutab= +le sequence of single bytes. Mutable version is called bytearray.<= +/p>

<bytes> =3D b'<str>'                          # Only accepts ASCII characters and \x00-\xff.
+<int>   =3D <bytes>[<index>]                  # Returns an int in range from 0 to 255.
+<bytes> =3D <bytes>[<slice>]                  # Returns bytes even if it has only one element.
+<bytes> =3D <bytes>.join(<coll_of_bytes>)     # Joins elements using bytes as a separator.
+
+ + +

Encode

<bytes> =3D bytes(<coll_of_ints>)             # Ints must be in range from 0 to 255.
+<bytes> =3D bytes(<str>, 'utf-8')             # Or: <str>.encode('ut=
+f-8')
+<bytes> =3D <int>.to_bytes(n_bytes, =E2=80=A6)        # `byteorder=3D'big/little', signed=3DFalse`.
+<bytes> =3D bytes.fromhex('<hex>')            # Hex pairs can be separated=
+ by whitespaces.
+
+ +

Decode

<list>  =3D list(<bytes>)                     # Returns ints in range from 0 to 255.
+<str>   =3D str(<bytes>, 'utf-8')             # Or: <bytes>.decode('=
+utf-8')
+<int>   =3D int.from_bytes(<bytes>, =E2=80=A6)        # `byteorder=3D'big/little', signed=3DFalse`.
+'<hex>' =3D <bytes>.hex()   =
+                  # Returns hex pairs. Accepts=
+ `sep=3D<str>`.
+
+ +

Read Bytes from File

def read_bytes(filename):
+    with open(filename, 'rb') as file:
+        return file.read()
+
+ +

Write Bytes to File

def write_bytes<=
+span class=3D"hljs-params">(filename, bytes_obj):
+    with open(filename, 'wb') as file:
+        file.write(bytes_obj)
+
+ +

#Struct

    +
  • Module that performs conversions between a sequence of numbers = +and a bytes object.
    • +
  • System=E2=80=99s type sizes, byte order, and alignment rules ar= +e used by default.
    • +
from struct import pack,=
+ unpack
+<bytes> =3D pack('<format>',=
+ <el_1> [, ...])  # Packages arguments o=
+r raises struct.error.
+<tuple> =3D unpack('<format>', <bytes>)       # Use iter_unpack() fo=
+r iterator of tuples.
+
+ + +
=
+>>> pack('>hhl', 1, 2, 3)
+b'\x00\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03'
+>>> unpack('>hhl', b'\x00\x01\x00\x02\x00\=
+x00\x00\x03')
+(1, 2=
+, 3)
+
+

Format

For standard type sizes and manual a= +lignment (padding) start format string with:

    +
  • '=3D' - System's byte order (usually little-endian).
    • +
  • '<'<= +/span> - Little-endian.
    • +
  • '>'<= +/span> - Big-endian (also '!').
    • +

Besides numbers, pack() and unpack() also support bytes obj= +ects as part of the sequence:

    +
  • 'c' - A bytes object with a single element. For pad byte use 'x'.
    • +
  • '<n= +>s' - A bytes object= + with n elements.
    • +

Integer types. Use a capital le= +tter for unsigned type. Minimum and standard sizes are in brackets:

+
  • 'b' - char (1/1)
    • +
  • 'h' - short (2/2)
    • +
  • 'i' - int (2/4)
    • +
  • 'l' - long (4/4)
    • +
  • 'q' - long long (8/8)
    • +

    Floating point types:

    +
  • 'f' - float (4/4)
    • +
  • 'd' - double (8/8)
    • +
    + + + + + + + + +

    #Array

    List that can only hold nu= +mbers of a predefined type. Available types and their minimum sizes in byte= +s are listed above. Sizes and byte order are always determined by the syste= +m, however bytes of each element can be swapped with byteswap() method.

    from array import ar=
+ray
+<array> =3D array('<typecode>', <collection>)    # Array from collec=
+tion of numbers.
+<array> =3D array('<typecode>', <bytes>)         # Array from bytes =
+object.
+<array> =3D array('<typecode>', <array>)         # Treats array as a=
+ sequence of numbers.
+<bytes> =3D bytes(<array>)                       # Or: <array>.tobytes()
+<file>.write(<array>)                          # Writes array to the binary file.
+
    + + +

    #Memory View

      +
    • A sequence object that points to the memory of another object.<= +/strong>
      • +
    • Each element can reference a single or multiple consecutive byt= +es, depending on format.
      • +
    • Order and number of elements can be changed with slicing.
      • +
    • Casting only works between char and other types and uses system= +'s sizes.
      • +
    • Byte order is always determined by the system.
      • +
    <mview> =3D mem=
+oryview(<bytes/bytearray/array>)  # Immu=
+table if bytes, else mutable.
+<real>  =3D <mview>[<index>]                     # Returns an int or a float.
+<mview> =3D <mview>[<slice>]                     # Mview with rearranged elements.
+<mview> =3D <mview>.cast('<typec=
+ode>')           # Casts memoryview =
+to the new format.
+<mview>.release()                              # Releases the object's memory buffer.
+
    + + +
    <bytes> =3D bytes(&l=
+t;mview>)                       # Returns a=
+ new bytes object.
+<bytes> =3D <bytes>.join(<coll_of_mviews>)       # Joins mviews using bytes object as sep.
+<array> =3D array('<typecode>', <mview>)         # Treats mview as a=
+ sequence of numbers.
+<file>.write(<mview>)                          # Writes mview to the binary file.
+
    +
    <list>  =3D list(<=
+;mview>)                        # Returns a=
+ list of ints or floats.
+<str>   =3D str(<mview>, 'utf-8')                # Treats mview as a bytes=
+ object.
+<int>   =3D int.from_bytes(<mview>, =E2=80=A6)           # `byteorder=3D'big/little', signed=3DFalse`.
+'<hex>' =3D <mview>.hex()   =
+                     # Treats mview as a bytes=
+ object.
+
    +

    #Deque

    A thread-safe list with ef= +ficient appends and pops from either side. Pronounced "deck".

    <= +pre>from collections import deque +<deque> =3D deque(<collection>, maxlen=3DNone) +
    + + +
    <deque>.appendleft(&=
+lt;el>)                       # Opposite el=
+ement is dropped if full.
+<deque>.extendleft(<collection>)               # Collection gets reversed.
+<el> =3D <deque>.popleft()                       # Raises IndexError if empty.
+<deque>.rotate(n=3D1)             =
+               # Rotates elements to the right=
+.
+
    +

    #Threading

      +
    • CPython interpreter can only run a single thread at a time.
      • +
    • That is why using multiple threads won't result in a faster exe= +cution, unless at least one of the threads contains an I/O operation.
      • +
    from threading import Th=
+read, RLock, Semaphore, Event, Barrier
+from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor, as_completed
+
    + + +

    Thread

    <Thread> =3D Thread(target=3D<function>)           # Use `args=3D<collection>` to set the argum=
+ents.
+<Thread>.start()                               # Starts the thread.
+<bool> =3D <Thread>.is_alive()                   # Checks if the thread has finished executing.
+<Thread>.join()                                # Waits for the thread to finish.
+
    + +
      +
    • Use 'kw= +args=3D<dict>' to pass keyword arguments to the functio= +n.
      • +
    • Use 'da= +emon=3DTrue', or the program will not be able to exit while t= +he thread is alive.
      • +
    +

    Lock

    <lock> =3D RLock()                               # Lock that can only be released by acquirer.
+<lock>.acquire()                               # Waits for the lock to be available.
+<lock>.release()                               # Makes the lock available again.
+
    + +

    Or:

    with <lock>:                  =
+                 # Enters the block by calling=
+ acquire() and
+    ...                                        # exits it with release(), even on error.
+
    + +

    Semaphore, Event, Barrier

    <Semaphore> =3D Semaphore(v=
+alue=3D1)               # Lock that can be acquired by 'value' threads.
+<Event>     =3D Event()                          # Method wait() blocks until set() is called.
+<Barrier>   =3D Barrier(n_times)                 # Wait() blocks until it's called n_times.
+
    + +

    Queue

    <Queue> =3D queue.Queue(maxsize=3D0=
+)               # A thread-safe FIFO qu=
+eue. Also LifoQueue.
+<Queue>.put(<el>)                              # Blocks until queue stops being full.
+<Queue>.put_nowait(<el>)                       # Raises queue.Full exception if full.
+<el> =3D <Queue>.get()                           # Blocks until queue stops being empty.
+<el> =3D <Queue>.get_nowait()                    # Raises queue.Empty exception if empty.
+
    + +

    Thread Pool Executor

    <Exec> =3D ThreadPoolExecutor(max_w=
+orkers=3DNone)  # Or: `with ThreadPoolExecutor() as <name>: =E2=80=A6`
+<iter> =3D <Exec>.map(<func>, <args_1>, ...)     # Multithreaded and non-lazy map(). Keeps order.=
+
+<Futr> =3D <Exec>.submit(<func>, <arg_1>, ...)   # Creates a thread and returns its Future obj.
+<Exec>.shutdown(wait=3DTrue)     =
+                # Blocks until all threads fin=
+ish executing.
+
    + +
    <bool> =3D <Futur=
+e>.done()                       # Checks if=
+ the thread has finished executing.
+<obj>  =3D <Future>.result(timeout=3DNone)         # Waits for thread to =
+finish and returns result.
+<bool> =3D <Future>.cancel()                     # Returns False if thread is already running.
+<iter> =3D as_completed(<coll_of_Futures>)       # Each Future is yielded as it completes.
+
    +
      +
    • Map() and as_completed() also accept 'timeout' argument that ca= +uses TimeoutError if result isn't available in 'timeout' seconds after next= +() is called.
      • +
    • Exceptions that happen inside threads are raised when next() is= + called on map's iterator or when result() is called on a Future. Its excep= +tion() method returns exception or None.
      • +
    • An object with the same interface called ProcessPoolExecutor pr= +ovides true parallelism by running a separate interpreter in each process. = +Arguments/results must be pickable.
      • +
    +

    #Operator

    Module of func= +tions that provide the functionality of operators.

    import operator as op
+<obj>     =3D op.add/sub/mul/truediv/floordiv/mod(<obj>, <ob=
+j>)     # +, -, *, /, //, %
+<int/set> =3D op.and_/or_/xor(<int/set>, <int/set>)      =
+           # &, |, ^
+<bool>    =3D op.eq/ne/lt/le/gt/ge(<sortable>, <sortable>=
+)          # =3D=3D, !=3D, <, <=3D, >=
+, >=3D
+<func>    =3D op.itemgetter/attrgetter/methodcaller(<obj> [, ..=
+.])  # [index/key], .name, .name()
+
    + + +
    elementwise_sum  =3D map(o=
+p.add, list_a, list_b)
+sorted_by_second =3D sorted(<collection>, key=3Dop.itemgetter(1))
+sorted_by_both   =3D sorted(<collection>, key=3Dop.itemgetter(1, 0))
+product_of_elems =3D functools.reduce(op.mul, <collection>)
+union_of_sets    =3D functools.reduce(op.or_, <coll_of_sets>)
+first_element    =3D op.methodcaller('pop', 0)(<list>)
+
    +
      +
    • Binary operators require objects to have and(), or(), xor() and= + invert() special methods, unlike logical operators that work on all types = +of objects.
      • +
    • Also: '= +<bool> =3D <bool> &|^ <bool>' and '<int> =3D <boo= +l> &|^ <int>'.
      • +
    +

    #Introspection

    Inspecting code at runtime.

    Var= +iables

    <list> =
+=3D dir()                             # Names =
+of local variables (incl. functions).
+<dict> =3D vars()                            # Dict of local variables. Also locals().
+<dict> =3D globals()                         # Dict of global variables.
+
    + + + +

    Attributes

    <list> =3D dir(<object>)                     # Names of object's attributes (incl. methods).<=
+/span>
+<dict> =3D vars(<object>)                    # Dict of writable attributes. Also <obj>.__dict__.
+<bool> =3D hasattr(<object>, '<a=
+ttr_name>')  # Checks if getattr() r=
+aises an AttributeError.
+value  =3D getattr(<object>, '<attr_na=
+me>')  # Raises AttributeError if at=
+tribute is missing.
+setattr(<object>, '<attr_name>', value)    # Only works on objects with '_=
+_dict__' attribute.
+delattr(<object>, '<attr_name>')           # Same. Also `del <object>=
+;.<attr_name>`.
+
    + +

    Parameters

    <Sig>  =3D inspect.signature(<function>)     =
+# Function's Signature object.
+<dict> =3D <Sig>.parameters                  # Dict of Parameter objects.
+<memb> =3D <Param>.kind                      # Member of ParameterKind enum.
+<obj>  =3D <Param>.default                   # Default value or Parameter.empty.
+<type> =3D <Param>.annotation                # Type or Parameter.empty.
+
    + +

    #Metaprogramming

    Code that generates code.

    = +Type

    Type is the root class. If only passed an object it ret= +urns its type (class). Otherwise it creates a new class.

    <=
+code class=3D"python language-python hljs"><class> =3D type('<class_name>', <tuple_of_parents>, &=
+lt;dict_of_class_attributes>)

    + + + + +
    =
+>>> Z =3D type('Z', (), =
+{'a': 'abcde=
+', 'b': 12345})
+>>> z =3D Z()
+
    +

    Meta Class

    A class that creates cl= +asses.

    def my_meta_class(name, pare=
+nts, attrs):
+    attrs['a'] =3D 'abcde'
+    return type(name, parents, attrs)
+
    + + +

    Or:

    class MyMetaClass(type=
+):
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__new__(cls, n=
+ame, parents, attrs):
+        attrs['a'] =3D 'abcde'
+        return type.__new__(cls, name, =
+parents, attrs)
+
    + +
      +
    • New() is a class method that gets called before init(). If it r= +eturns an instance of its class, then that instance gets passed to init() a= +s a 'self' argument.
      • +
    • It receives the same arguments as init(), except for the first = +one that specifies the desired type of the returned instance (MyMetaClass i= +n our case).
      • +
    • Like in our case, new() can also be called directly, usually fr= +om a new() method of a child class (def __new__(cls):= + return super().__new__(cls)).
      • +
    • The only difference between the examples above is that my_meta_= +class() returns a class of type type, while MyMetaClass() returns a class o= +f type MyMetaClass.
      • +
    +

    Metaclass Attribute

    Right= + before a class is created it checks if it has the 'metaclass' attribute de= +fined. If not, it recursively checks if any of his parents has it defined a= +nd eventually comes to type().

    cl=
+ass MyClass(metaclass=3DMyMetaClass):
+    b =3D 12345
+
    + + +
    =
+>>> MyClass.a, MyClass.b
+('abcde', 12=
+345)
+
    +

    Type Diagram

    type(MyClass) =3D=3D MyMetaClass         # MyClass is an instance of MyMetaClass.
+type(MyMetaClass) =3D=3D type            # MyM=
+etaClass is an instance of type.
+
    + +
    =E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=93
+=E2=94=83   Classes   =E2=94=82 Metaclasses =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83   MyClass =E2=86=90=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=95=B4MyMetaClass =E2=94=
+=83
+=E2=94=83             =E2=94=82     =E2=86=91       =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83    object =E2=86=90=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=95=B4type =E2=86=90=E2=95=AE  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83             =E2=94=82     =E2=94=82 =E2=95=B0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=95=AF  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83     str =E2=86=90=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=95=AF       =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
    +

    Inheritance Diagram

    MyClass.__base__ =3D=3D object           <=
+span class=3D"hljs-comment"># MyClass is a subclass of object.
+MyMetaClass.__base__ =3D=3D type         # MyM=
+etaClass is a subclass of type.
+
    + +
    =E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=93
+=E2=94=83   Classes   =E2=94=82 Metaclasses =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83   MyClass   =E2=94=82 MyMetaClass =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83      =E2=86=91      =E2=94=82     =E2=86=91       =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83    object=E2=95=B6=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=86=92 type     =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83      =E2=86=93      =E2=94=82             =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83     str     =E2=94=82             =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
    +

    #Eval

    >>> from ast import literal_=
+eval
+>>> literal_eval('[1, 2, 3]')
+[1, 2=
+, 3]
+>>> literal_eval('1 + 2')
+ValueError: malformed node or string
+
    + +

    #Coroutines

      +
    • Coroutines have a lot in common with threads, but unlike thread= +s, they only give up control when they call another coroutine and they don= +=E2=80=99t use as much memory.
      • +
    • Coroutine definition starts with 'async' and its call with 'await'.
      • +
    • 'asynci= +o.run(<coroutine>)' is the main entry point for asynchr= +onous programs.
      • +
    • Functions wait(), gather() and as_completed() start multiple co= +routines at the same time.
      • +
    • Asyncio module also provides its own Queue, Event, Lock and Semaphore cl= +asses.
      • +

    Runs a terminal game where you control an asterisk that must avoid= + numbers:

    import asyncio, collections, curses, curses.textpa=
+d, enum, random
+
+P =3D collections.namedtuple('P', 'x y')         # =
+Position
+D =3D enum.Enum('D', 'n e s w')                  # =
+Direction
+W, H =3D 15, 7                                   # =
+Width, Height
+
+def main(screen):
+    curses.curs_set(0)                  =
+       # Makes cursor invisible.
+    screen.nodelay(True)               =
+        # Makes getch() non-blocking.
+    asyncio.run(main_coroutine(screen))        # Starts running asyncio code.
+
+async def main_corout=
+ine(screen):
+    moves =3D asyncio.Queue()
+    state =3D {'*': P(0, 0), **{id_: P(W//2, H//2)=
+ for id_ i=
+n range(10)}}
+    ai    =3D [random_controller(id_, moves) f=
+or id_ in range(10)]
+    mvc   =3D [human_controller(screen, moves), model(moves, state), view(s=
+tate, screen)]
+    tasks =3D [asyncio.create_task(cor) for cor in ai + mvc]
+    await asyncio.wait(tasks, return_wh=
+en=3Dasyncio.FIRST_COMPLETED)
+
+async def random_cont=
+roller(id_, moves):
+    while =
+True:
+        d =3D random.choice(list(D))
+        moves.put_nowait((id_, d))
+        await asyncio.sleep(random.tria=
+ngular(0.01, 0.65))
+
+async def human_contr=
+oller(screen, moves):
+    while =
+True:
+        key_mappings =3D {258: D.s, 259: D.n, 260: D.w, 261: D.e}
+        if d :=3D key_mappings.get(scre=
+en.getch()):
+            moves.put_nowait(('*', d))
+        await asyncio.sleep(0.005)
+
+async def model(moves, state):
+    while state['*'] not in (state[id_] for id=
+_ in range(=
+10)):
+        id_, d =3D await moves.get()
+        x, y   =3D state[id_]
+        deltas =3D {D.n: P(0, -1), D.e: P(1, =
+0), D.s: P(0=
+, 1), D.w: P(-1, 0)}
+        state[id_] =3D P((x + deltas[d].x) % W, (y + deltas[d].y) % H)
+
+async def view=
+(state, screen):
+    offset =3D P(curses.COLS//2 - W//2, curses.LINES//2 - H//2)
+    while =
+True:
+        screen.erase()
+        curses.textpad.rectangle(screen, offset.y-1, offset.x-1, offset.y+H, off=
+set.x+W)
+        for id_, p in state.items():
+            screen.addstr(offset.y + (p.y - state['*'].y + H//2) % H,
+                          offset.x + (p.x - state['*'].x + W//2) % W, str(id_))
+        screen.refresh()
+        await asyncio.sleep(0.005)
+
+if __name__ =3D=3D '__main__':
+    curses.wrapper(main)
+
    + + + +


    +

    Libraries

    #Progress Bar

    # $ pip3 install tqdm
+>>> =
+from tqdm import tqdm
+>>> =
+from time import sleep
+>>> =
+for el in tqdm([1, 2, 3], desc=3D'Processing'):
+...     sleep(=
+1)
+Processing: 100%|=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=
+=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=
+=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88=E2=96=88| 3/3 [00:03<00:00,  1.0=
+0s/it]
+
    + + +

    #Plot

    # $ pip3 install matplotlib
+import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+plt.plot/bar/scatter(x_data, y_data [, label=3D<str>])  # Or: plt.plot(y_data)
+plt.legend()                                          # Adds a legend.
+plt.savefig(<path>)                                   # Saves the figure.
+plt.show()                                            # Displays the figure.
+plt.clf()                                             # Clears the figure.
+
    + +

    #Table

    Prints a CSV file as an ASCII table:

    # $ pip3 install tabula=
+te
+import csv, tabulate
+with open('=
+test.csv', encoding=3D'utf-8', ne=
+wline=3D'') as file:
+    rows   =3D csv.reader(file)
+    header =3D next(rows)
+    table  =3D tabulate.tabulate(rows, header)
+print(table)
+
    + + +

    #Curses

    Runs a basic file explorer in the terminal:

    impor=
+t curses, curses.ascii, os
+from curses import A_REVERSE, KEY_DOWN, KEY_UP, KEY_LEFT, KEY_RIGHT, KEY_ENTER
+
+def main(screen):
+    ch, first, selected, paths =3D 0, 0, 0, o=
+s.listdir()
+    while ch !=3D curses.ascii.ESC:
+        height, width =3D screen.getmaxyx()
+        screen.erase()
+        for y, filename in enumerate(paths[first : first+height]):
+            color =3D A_REVERSE if file=
+name =3D=3D paths[selected] else 0
+            screen.addstr(y, 0, filename=
+[:width-1], color)
+        ch =3D screen.getch()
+        selected +=3D (ch =3D=3D KEY_DOWN) - (ch =3D=3D KEY_UP)
+        selected =3D max(0, min(len(path=
+s)-1, selected))
+        first +=3D (selected >=3D first + height) - (selected < first=
+)
+        if ch in [KEY_LEFT, KEY_RIGHT, KEY_ENTER, ord('\n'), ord('\r')]:
+            new_dir =3D '..' if ch =3D=3D KEY_LEFT else paths[selected]
+            if os.path.isdir(new_dir):
+                os.chdir(new_dir)
+                first, selected, paths =3D 0, 0, os.listdir()
+
+if __name__ =3D=3D '__main__':
+    curses.wrapper(main)
+
    + + +

    #Logging

    import logging
+
    + +
    logging.basicConfig(filena=
+me=3D<path>)              # Configures t=
+he root logger.
+logging.debug/info/warning/error/critical(<str>)  # Logs to the root logger.
+<Logger> =3D logging.getLogger(__name__)            # Logger named after the module.
+<Logger>.<level>(<str>)                           # Messages propagate to the root logger.
+<Logger>.exception(<str>)                         # Calls error() with caught exception.
+
    +

    Setup

    logging.basicConfig(
+    filename=3DNone,                   =
+             # Logs to console by default.
+    format=3D'%(levelname)s:%(name)s:%(message)=
+s',  # Add `%(asctime)s` for datetime.<=
+/span>
+    level=3Dlogging.WARNING,                        # Drops messages with lower priority.
+    handlers=3D[logging.StreamHandler()]            # Uses FileHandler if filename is set.
+)
+
    + +
    <Formatter> =3D logg=
+ing.Formatter('<format>')       # Creates a Formatter.
+<Handler> =3D logging.FileHandler(<path>)           # Creates a Handler.
+<Handler>.setFormatter(<Formatter>)               # Adds Formatter to the Handler.
+<Handler>.setLevel(<int/str>)                     # Processes all messages by default.
+<Logger>.addHandler(<Handler>)                    # Adds Handler to the Logger.
+<Logger>.setLevel(<int/str>)                      # What is sent to handlers and parent.
+
    +
      +
    • Parent logger can be specified by naming the child logger '<parent>.<name= +>'.
      • +
    • Formatter also supports: pathname, filename, funcName, lineno, = +thread and process.
      • +
    • A 'hand= +lers.RotatingFileHandler' creates and deletes log files based= + on 'maxBytes' and 'backupCount' arguments.
      • +
    +

    Creates a logger that writes all messages to a= + file and sends them to the root logger that prints to stdout:

    >>=
+> logging.basicConfig(level=3D'WARNIN=
+G')
+>>> logger =3D logging.getLogger(=
+'my_module')
+>>> handler =3D logging.FileHandl=
+er('test.log')
+>>> formatter =3D logging.Formatt=
+er('%(asctime)s %(levelname)s:%(name)s:%(messag=
+e)s')
+>>> handler.setFormatter(formatte=
+r)
+>>> logger.addHandler(handler)
+>>> logger.critical('Running out of disk space.')
+CRITICAL:my_module:Running out of disk space.
+>>> print(open('test.log').read())
+2023-02-07 23:21:01,430 CRITICAL:my_module:Running out of disk space.
+
    + +

    #Scraping

    Scrapes Python's URL, vers= +ion number and logo from its Wikipedia page:

    # $ pip3 install reques=
+ts beautifulsoup4
+import requests, bs4, os, sys
+
+WIKI_URL =3D 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyt=
+hon_(programming_language)'
+try:
+    html       =3D requests.get(WIKI_URL).text
+    document   =3D bs4.BeautifulSoup(html, 'htm=
+l.parser')
+    table      =3D document.find('table'=
+, class_=3D'infobox vevent')
+    python_url =3D table.find('th', text=
+=3D'Website').next_sibling.a['href']
+    version    =3D table.find('th', text=
+=3D'Stable release').next_sibling.string=
+s.__next__()
+    logo_url   =3D table.find('img')['src']
+    logo       =3D requests.get(f'https:{logo_url}').content
+    filename   =3D os.path.basename(logo_url)
+    with open(filename, 'wb') as file:
+        file.write(logo)
+    print(f'{python_=
+url}, {version}, file://{os.path.abspath(filename)}')
+except requests.exceptions.ConnectionEr=
+ror:
+    print("You've got problems with connection.=
+", file=3Dsys.stderr)
+
    + + +

    #Web

    Flask is a micro web framework/ser= +ver. If you just want to open a html file in a web browser use 'webbrowser.open(<path>)= +' instead.

    # $ pip3 install flask
+from flask import Flask, send_from_directory, render_template_string, request
+
    + + +
    app =3D Flask(__name__)
+app.run(host=3DNone, debug=3DNone)
+
    +
      +
    • Starts the app at 'http://localhost:5000'. Use 'host=3D"0.0.0.0"' to run = +externally.
      • +
    • Install a WSGI server like Waitress and a HTTP server such= + as Nginx for better security.
      • +
    • Debug mode restarts the app whenever script changes and display= +s errors in the browser.
      • +
    +

    Static Request

    @app.route('/img/<path:=
+filename>')
+def serve_file(filenam=
+e):
+    return send_from_directory('dirname/', filename)
+
    + +

    Dynamic Request

    @app.route('/<sport&g=
+t;')
+def serve_html(sport)<=
+/span>:
+    return render_template_string('<h1>{{title}}</h1>', title=3Dspo=
+rt)
+
    + +
      +
    • To return an error code use 'abort(<int>)' and to redirect use= + 'redirect(<url&= +gt;)'.
      • +
    • 'reques= +t.args[<str>]' returns parameter from the query string = +(URL part after '?').
      • +
    • Use 'se= +ssion[key] =3D value' to store session data like username, et= +c.
      • +
    +

    REST Request

    @app.post('/<sport>/odds=
+')
+def serve_json(sport)<=
+/span>:
+    team =3D request.form['team']
+    return {'team': team, 'odds': [2.09, 3.74, 3.68]}
+
    + +

    Star= +ts the app in its own thread and queries it with a post request:

    <=
+code class=3D"python language-python hljs"># $=
+ pip3 install requests
+>>> =
+import threading, requests
+>>> threading.Thread(target=3Dapp=
+.run, daemon=3DTrue).start()
+>>> url =3D 'http://localhost:5000/football/odds'
+>>> request_data =3D {'team': 'arsenal f.c.'<=
+/span>}
+>>> response =3D requests.post(ur=
+l, data=3Drequest_data)
+>>> response.json()
+{'team': 'ar=
+senal f.c.', 'odds': [2.09, 3.74, 3.68]}
+
    + +

    #Profiling

    from time <=
+span class=3D"hljs-keyword">import perf_counter
+start_time =3D perf_counter()
+...
+duration_in_seconds =3D perf_counter() - start_time
+
    + +

    Timing a Snippet

    >>> from timeit i=
+mport timeit
+>>> timeit('list(range(10000))', number=3D100=
+0, globals=3Dglobals(), setup=3D'pass')
+0.19373
+
    + +

    Profiling by Line

    $ pip3 install line_profiler
+$ echo "@profile
+def main():
+    a =3D list(range(10000))
+    b =3D set(range(10000))
+main()" > test.py
+$ kernprof -lv test.py
+Line #   Hits     Time  Per Hit   % Time  Line Contents
+=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
+=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D=
+=3D=3D=3D=3D=3D
+     1                                    @profile
+     2                                    def main():
+     3      1    219.0    219.0     31.1      a =3D list(range(10000))
+     4      1    487.0    487.0     68.9      b =3D set(range(10000))
+
    + +

    Call and Flame Graphs

    $ pip3 install gprof2dot snakeviz; apt/brew insta=
+ll graphviz
+$ tail -n 4 test.py > test.py
+$ python3 -m cProfile -o test.prof test.py
+$ gprof2dot -f pstats test.prof | dot -Tpng -o test.png; xdg-open/open test=
+.png
+$ snakeviz test.prof
+
    + +

    Sampling and Memory Profilers
    =E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=93
+=E2=94=83 pip3 install =E2=94=82          How to run           =E2=94=82   =
+Target   =E2=94=82   Type   =E2=94=82 Live =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 py-spy       =E2=94=82 py-spy top -- python3 test.py =E2=94=82   =
+ CPU     =E2=94=82 Sampling =E2=94=82 Yes  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 pyinstrument =E2=94=82 pyinstrument test.py          =E2=94=82   =
+ CPU     =E2=94=82 Sampling =E2=94=82 No   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 scalene      =E2=94=82 scalene test.py               =E2=94=82 CP=
+U+Memory =E2=94=82 Sampling =E2=94=82 No   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 memray       =E2=94=82 memray run --live test.py     =E2=94=82   =
+Memory   =E2=94=82 Tracing  =E2=94=82 Yes  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 filprofiler  =E2=94=82 fil-profile run test.py       =E2=94=82   =
+Memory   =E2=94=82 Tracing  =E2=94=82 No   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+

    + +

    #NumPy

    Array manipulation mini-la= +nguage. It can run up to one hundred times faster than the equivalent Pytho= +n code. An even faster alternative that runs on a GPU is called CuPy.

    # $ pip3 install numpy
+import numpy as np
+
    + + +
    <array> =3D np.array=
+(<list/list_of_lists>)                # =
+Returns a 1d/2d NumPy array.
+<array> =3D np.zeros/ones(<shape>)                        # Also np.full(<shape>, <el>).
+<array> =3D np.arange(from_inc, to_exc, =C2=B1step)            # Also np.linspace(start, stop, len).
+<array> =3D np.random.randint(from_inc, to_exc, <shape>)  # Also np.random.random(<shape>).
+
    +
    <view>  =3D <arra=
+y>.reshape(<shape>)                      # Also `<array>.shape =3D <shape>`.
+<array> =3D <array>.flatten()                             # Also `<view> =3D <array>.ravel()`.
+<view>  =3D <array>.transpose()                           # Or: <array>.T
+
    +
    <array> =3D np.copy/=
+abs/sqrt/log/int64(<array>)           # =
+Returns new array of the same shape.
+<array> =3D <array>.sum/max/mean/argmax/all(axis)         # Passed dimension gets aggregated.
+<array> =3D np.apply_along_axis(<func>, axis, <array>)   =
+ # Func can return a scalar or array.
+
    +
    <array> =3D np.conca=
+tenate(<list_of_arrays>, axis=3D0)=
+      # Links arrays along first axis (rows).<=
+/span>
+<array> =3D np.row_stack/column_stack(<list_of_arrays>)   # Treats 1d arrays as rows or columns.
+<array> =3D np.tile/repeat(<array>, <int/list>)          =
+ # Tiles array or repeats its elements.
+
    +
      +
    • Shape is a tuple of dimension sizes. A 100x50 RGB image has sha= +pe (50, 100, 3).
      • +
    • Axis is an index of the dimension that gets aggregated. Leftmos= +t dimension has index 0. Summing the RGB image along axis 2 will return a g= +reyscale image with shape (50, 100).
      • +
    +

    Indexing

    <el=
+>       =3D <2d_array>[row_index, column_index]        # <3d_a>[table_i, row_i, column_i]
+<1d_view>  =3D <2d_array>[row_index]                      # <3d_a>[table_i, row_i]
+<1d_view>  =3D <2d_array>[:, column_index]                # <3d_a>[table_i, :, column_i]
+<2d_view>  =3D <2d_array>[rows_slice, columns_slice]      # <3d_a>[table_i, rows_s, columns_s]
+
    + +
    <2d_array> =3D <2d_array>[row_in=
+dexes]                    # <3d_a>[table=
+_i/is, row_is]
+<2d_array> =3D <2d_array>[:, column_indexes]              # <3d_a>[table_i/is, :, column_is]
+<1d_array> =3D <2d_array>[row_indexes, column_indexes]    # <3d_a>[table_i/is, row_is, column_is]
+<1d_array> =3D <2d_array>[row_indexes, column_index]      # <3d_a>[table_i/is, row_is, column_i]
+
    +
    <2d_bools> =3D <2d_array> >&l=
+t;=3D=3D <el/1d/2d_array>           # 1d=
+_array must have size of a row.
+<1d/2d_a>  =3D <2d_array>[<2d/1d_bools>]                 =
+ # 1d_bools must have size of a column.
+
    +
      +
    • Indexes should not be tuples because Python converts 'obj[i, j]' to= + 'obj[(i, j)]'!
      • +
    • Any value that is broadcastable to the indexed shape can be ass= +igned to the selection.
      • +
    +

    Broadcasting

    Set of rules by wh= +ich NumPy functions operate on arrays of different sizes and/or dimensions.= +

    left  =3D [[<=
+span class=3D"hljs-number">0.1], [0.6], [0.8]]                           =
+# Shape: (3, 1)
+right =3D [ 0.1 ,  0.6 ,  0.8 ]              =
+             # Shape: (3,)
+
    + + +

    = +1. If array shapes differ in length, left-pad the shorter shape with ones:<= +/h4>
    left  =3D [[0.1], [0.6], [<=
+span class=3D"hljs-number">0.8]]                           # Shape: (3, 1)
+right =3D [[0.1 ,  0.6 ,  0.8]]              =
+             # Shape: (1, 3) <- !
+

    + +

    2. If any dimensions differ in size, expand the ones = +that have size 1 by duplicating their elements:

    left  =3D [[0.1,  0.1,  0.=
+1],                             # Shape=
+: (3, 3) <- !
+         [0.6,  0.6,  0.6],
+         [0.8,  0.8,  0.8]]
+
+right =3D [[0.1,  0.6,  0.8],                =
+             # Shape: (3, 3) <- !
+         [0.1,  0.6,  0.8],
+         [0.1,  0.6,  0.8]]
+
    + +

    Example

    For each point returns index of its nearest p= +oint ([0.1, = +0.6, 0.8] =3D> [1, 2, 1]):

    >>&=
+gt; points =3D np.array([0.1, 0.6, 0.8=
+])
+ [ 0.1,  0.6=
+,  0.8]
+>>> wrapped_points =3D points.res=
+hape(3, 1)
+[[ 0.1],
+ [ 0.6],
+ [ 0.8]]
+>>> distances =3D wrapped_points =
+- points
+[[ 0. , -0.5=
+, -0.7],
+ [ 0.5,  0.<=
+/span> , -0.2],
+ [ 0.7,  0.2=
+,  0. ]]
+>>> distances =3D np.abs(distance=
+s)
+[[ 0. ,  0.5=
+,  0.7],
+ [ 0.5,  0.<=
+/span> ,  0.2],
+ [ 0.7,  0.2=
+,  0. ]]
+>>> i =3D np.arange(3)
+[0, 1=
+, 2]
+>>> distances[i, i] =3D np.inf
+[[ inf,  0.5,  0.7],
+ [ 0.5,  inf,  0.2],
+ [ 0.7,  0.2=
+,  inf]]
+>>> distances.argmin(1)
+[1, 2=
+, 1]
+
    + + +

    #Image

    # $ pip3 install pillow
+from PIL i=
+mport Image, ImageDraw
+
    + +
    <Image> =3D Image.ne=
+w('<mode>', (width, height))  # Also `color=3D<int/tuple/str>`.
+<Image> =3D Image.open(<path>)                    # Identifies format based on file contents.
+<Image> =3D <Image>.convert('<mo=
+de>')             # Converts image t=
+o the new mode.
+<Image>.save(<path>)                            # Selects format based on the path extension.
+<Image>.show()                                  # Opens image in the default preview app.
+
    +
    <int/tuple> =3D <=
+Image>.getpixel((x, y))          # Returns =
+a pixel.
+<Image>.putpixel((x, y), <int/tuple>)           # Writes a pixel to the image.
+<ImagingCore> =3D <Image>.getdata()               # Returns a flattened view of the pixels.
+<Image>.putdata(<list/ImagingCore>)             # Writes a flattened sequence of pixels.
+<Image>.paste(<Image>, (x, y))                  # Writes passed image to the image.
+
    +
    <Image> =3D <Imag=
+e>.filter(<Filter>)              # `&=
+lt;Filter> =3D ImageFilter.<name>([<args>])`
+<Image> =3D <Enhance>.enhance(<float>)            # `<Enhance> =3D ImageEnhance.<name>(<=
+Image>)`
+
    +
    <array> =3D np.array=
+(<Image>)                     # Creates =
+NumPy array from the image.
+<Image> =3D Image.fromarray(np.uint8(<array>))    # Use <array>.clip(0, 255) to clip the values.
+
    +

    Modes

      +
    • '1' - 1-bit pixels, black and white, stored with one pixel per byte.= +
      • +
    • 'L' - 8-bit pixels, greyscale.
      • +
    • 'RGB' - 3x8-bit pixels, true color.
      • +
    • 'RGBA'<= +/span> - 4x8-bit pixels, true color with transparency mask.= +
      • +
    • 'HSV' - 3x8-bit pixels, Hue, Saturation, Value color space.= +
      • +

    Examples

    Creates a PNG image of a rainbow gradient:

    WIDTH, HEIGHT =3D 100, 100
+n_pixels =3D WIDTH * HEIGHT
+hues =3D (255 * i/n_pixels for i in range=
+(n_pixels))
+img =3D Image.new('HSV', (WIDTH, HEIGHT)=
+)
+img.putdata([(int(h), 255, 255) for h in hues])
+img.convert('RGB').save('test.png')
+
    + + + + +

    Adds noise to a PNG image:

    from=
+ random import randint
+add_noise =3D lambda value: max(0, min(255, =
+value + randint(-20, 20)))
+img =3D Image.open('test.png').convert(<=
+span class=3D"hljs-string">'HSV')
+img.putdata([(add_noise(h), s, v) for h=
+, s, v in img.getdata()])
+img.show()
+
    + +

    Image Draw

    <ImageDraw> =3D ImageDraw.Draw(<Image>)         =
+  # Object for adding 2D graphics to the image=
+.
+<ImageDraw>.point((x, y))                       # Draws a point. Truncates floats into ints.
+<ImageDraw>.line((x1, y1, x2, y2 [, ...]))      # To get anti-aliasing use Image's resize().
+<ImageDraw>.arc((x1, y1, x2, y2), deg1, deg2)   # Always draws in clockwise direction.
+<ImageDraw>.rectangle((x1, y1, x2, y2))         # To rotate use Image's rotate() and paste().
+<ImageDraw>.polygon((x1, y1, x2, y2, ...))      # Last point gets connected to the first.
+<ImageDraw>.ellipse((x1, y1, x2, y2))           # To rotate use Image's rotate() and paste().
+<ImageDraw>.text((x, y), text, font=3D<Font>)     # `<Font> =3D ImageFont.truetype(<path>, size=
+)`
+
    + +
      +
    • Use 'fi= +ll=3D<color>' to set the primary color.
      • +
    • Use 'wi= +dth=3D<int>' to set the width of lines or contours.
      • +
    • Use 'ou= +tline=3D<color>' to set the color of the contours.
      • +
    • Color can be an int, tuple, '#rrggbb[aa]' string or a color name.
      • +
    +

    #Animation

    Creates a GIF of a bouncing ball:

    # $ pip3 ins=
+tall imageio
+from PIL i=
+mport Image, ImageDraw
+import imageio
+
+WIDTH, HEIGHT, R =3D 126, 126, 10
+frames =3D []
+for velocity in range(1, 16):
+    y =3D sum(range(velocity))
+    frame =3D Image.new('L', (WIDTH, HEI=
+GHT))
+    draw  =3D ImageDraw.Draw(frame)
+    draw.ellipse((WIDTH/2-R, y, WIDTH/2+R, y+R*2), fill=3D'white')
+    frames.append(frame)
+frames +=3D reversed(frames[1:-1])
+imageio.mimsave('test.gif', frames, dura=
+tion=3D0.03)
+
    + + +

    #Audio

    import wave
+
    + +
    <Wave_read>  =3D wav=
+e.open('<path>', 'rb')        # Opens the WAV=
+ file.
+framerate    =3D <Wave_read>.getframerate()       # Number of frames per second.
+nchannels    =3D <Wave_read>.getnchannels()       # Number of samples per frame.
+sampwidth    =3D <Wave_read>.getsampwidth()       # Sample size in bytes.
+nframes      =3D <Wave_read>.getnframes()         # Number of frames.
+<params>     =3D <Wave_read>.getparams()          # Immutable collection of above.
+<bytes>      =3D <Wave_read>.readframes(nframes)  # Returns next 'nframes' frames.
+
    +
    <Wave_write> =3D wav=
+e.open('<path>', 'wb')        # Truncates exi=
+sting file.
+<Wave_write>.setframerate(<int>)                # 44100 for CD, 48000 for video.
+<Wave_write>.setnchannels(<int>)                # 1 for mono, 2 for stereo.
+<Wave_write>.setsampwidth(<int>)                # 2 for CD quality sound.
+<Wave_write>.setparams(<params>)                # Sets all parameters.
+<Wave_write>.writeframes(<bytes>)               # Appends frames to the file.
+
    +
      +
    • Bytes object contains a sequence of frames, each consisting of = +one or more samples.
      • +
    • In a stereo signal, the first sample of a frame belongs to the = +left channel.
      • +
    • Each sample consists of one or more bytes that, when converted = +to an integer, indicate the displacement of a speaker membrane at a given m= +oment.
      • +
    • If sample width is one byte, then the integer should be encoded= + unsigned.
      • +
    • For all other sizes, the integer should be encoded signed with = +little-endian byte order.
      • +
    +

    Sample Values

    =E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83 sampwidth =E2=94=82    min    =E2=94=82 zero =E2=94=82    max    =
+=E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83     1     =E2=94=82         0 =E2=94=82  1=
+28 =E2=94=82       255 =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83     2     =E2=94=82    -32768 =E2=94=82    0 =E2=94=82     32767 =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83     3     =E2=94=82  -8388608 =E2=94=82    0 =E2=94=82   8388607 =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
    + +

    Read Float Samples from WAV Fil= +e

    def read_wav_file(filename):
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">get_int(bytes_=
+obj):
+        an_int =3D int.from_bytes(bytes_obj, 'l=
+ittle', signed=3D(sampwidth !=3D 1))
+        return an_int - 128 * (sampwidth =3D=3D 1)
+    with wave.open(filename, 'rb') as file:
+        sampwidth =3D file.getsampwidth()
+        frames =3D file.readframes(-1)
+    bytes_samples =3D (frames[i : i+sampwidth] for i in range(0, len(frames), sampwidth))
+    return [get_int(b) / pow(2, sampwidth * 8 - 1) for<=
+/span> b in bytes_samples]
+
    + +

    Write Float Samples to WAV File<= +/h3>
    def =
+write_to_wav_file(filename, float_sample=
+s, nchannels=3D1, sampwidth=3D2, framerate=3D44100):
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">get_bytes(a_fl=
+oat):
+        a_float =3D max(-1, min(1 - 2e-16, a_=
+float))
+        a_float +=3D sampwidth =3D=3D 1
+        a_float *=3D pow(2, sampwidth * =
+8 - 1=
+)
+        return int(a_float).to_bytes(sa=
+mpwidth, 'little', signed=3D(sampwidth !=
+=3D 1))
+    with wave.open(filename, 'wb') as file:
+        file.setnchannels(nchannels)
+        file.setsampwidth(sampwidth)
+        file.setframerate(framerate)
+        file.writeframes(b''.join(get_by=
+tes(f) for f in float_samples))
+

    + +

    Examples

    Saves a 440 Hz sine wave to a mono WAV file:

    from math import pi, sin
+samples_f =3D (sin(i * 2 * pi * 440 / 44100) =
+for i in range(100_000))
+write_to_wav_file('test.wav', samples_f)
+
    + + +

    Adds noise to a mono WAV file:

    = +
    from random import random
+add_noise =3D lambda value: value + (ra=
+ndom() - 0.5) * 0.03
+samples_f =3D (add_noise(f) for f in read_wav_file('test.wav'))
+write_to_wav_file('test.wav', samples_f)
+
    + +

    Plays a WAV file:

    # $ pip3 install sim=
+pleaudio
+from simpleaudio import play_buffer
+with wave.open('test.wav', 'rb') as file:
+    p =3D file.getparams()
+    frames =3D file.readframes(-1)
+    play_buffer(frames, p.nchannels, p.sampwidth, p.framerate)
+
    + +

    Text to Speech

    # $ pip3 install pyttsx3=
+
+import pyttsx3
+engine =3D pyttsx3.init()
+engine.say('Sally sells seashells by the seasho=
+re.')
+engine.runAndWait()
+
    + +

    #Synthesizer

    Plays Popcorn by Gershon Kingsley:

    <= +pre># $ pip3 install simpleaudio +import array, itertools as it, math, simpleaudio + +F =3D 44100 +P1 =3D '71=E2=99=A9,69=E2=99=AA,,71=E2=99=A9,66= +=E2=99=AA,,62=E2=99=A9,66=E2=99=AA,,59=E2=99=A9,,' +P2 =3D '71=E2=99=A9,73=E2=99=AA,,74=E2=99=A9,73= +=E2=99=AA,,74=E2=99=AA,,71=E2=99=AA,,73=E2=99=A9,71=E2=99=AA,,73=E2=99=AA,,= +69=E2=99=AA,,71=E2=99=A9,69=E2=99=AA,,71=E2=99=AA,,67=E2=99=AA,,71=E2=99=A9= +,,' +get_pause =3D lambda seconds: it.repe= +at(0, int(seconds * F)) +sin_f =3D lambda i, hz: math.sin(= +i * 2 * math.pi * hz / F) +get_wave =3D lambda hz, seconds: (si= +n_f(i, hz) for i in range(int(seconds * F))) +get_hz =3D lambda key: 8.176 * 2 ** (in= +t(key) / 12) +parse_note =3D lambda note: (get_hz(no= +te[:2]), 1/4 if<= +/span> '=E2=99=A9' in note else 1/8) +get_samples =3D lambda note: get_wave(*= +parse_note(note)) if note else get_pause(1/8) +samples_f =3D it.chain.from_iterable(get_samples(n) for n in f'{P1},{P1},{P2}'.split(',')) +samples_i =3D array.array('h', (int(f = +* 30000) fo= +r f in samples_f)) +simpleaudio.play_buffer(samples_i, 1, 2, F) +
    + + +

    #Pygame

    # $ pip3 install pygame
+import pygame as pg
+
+pg.init()
+screen =3D pg.display.set_mode((500, 500))
+rect =3D pg.Rect(240, 240, 20, 20)
+while not<=
+/span> pg.event.get(pg.QUIT):
+    deltas =3D {pg.K_UP: (0, -20), pg.K_RIGHT: (20, 0), pg.K_DOWN: (0, 20), pg.K_LEFT: (-20, 0)=
+}
+    for event in pg.event.get(pg.KEYDOWN):
+        dx, dy =3D deltas.get(event.key, (0, 0))
+        rect =3D rect.move((dx, dy))
+    screen.fill((0, 0, 0))
+    pg.draw.rect(screen, (255, 255, 255), rec=
+t)
+    pg.display.flip()
+
    + +

    Rectangle

    Object for storing recta= +ngular coordinates.

    <Rect> =3D pg.Rect(x, y, width, height)           # Floats get truncated into ints.
+<int>  =3D <Rect>.x/y/centerx/centery/=E2=80=A6           # Top, right, bottom, left. Allows assignments.
+<tup.> =3D <Rect>.topleft/center/=E2=80=A6                # Topright, bottomright, bottomleft. Same.
+<Rect> =3D <Rect>.move((delta_x, delta_y))        # Use move_ip() to move in-place.
+
    + + +
    <bool> =3D <Rect&=
+gt;.collidepoint((x, y))            # Checks i=
+f rectangle contains the point.
+<bool> =3D <Rect>.colliderect(<Rect>)             # Checks if two rectangles overlap.
+<int>  =3D <Rect>.collidelist(<list_of_Rect>)     # Returns index of first colliding Rect or -1.
+<list> =3D <Rect>.collidelistall(<list_of_Rect>)  # Returns indexes of all colliding rectangles.
+
    +

    Surface

    Object for representing imag= +es.

    <Surf&g=
+t; =3D pg.display.set_mode((width, height))   =
+# Opens new window and returns its surface.
+<Surf> =3D pg.Surface((width, height))            # New RGB surface. RGBA if `flags=3Dpg.SRCALPHA`.
+<Surf> =3D pg.image.load(<path/file>)             # Loads the image. Format depends on source.
+<Surf> =3D pg.surfarray.make_surface(<np_array>)  # Also `<np_arr> =3D surfarray.pixels3d(<Surf>=
+;)`.
+<Surf> =3D <Surf>.subsurface(<Rect>)              # Creates a new surface from the cutout.
+
    + + +
    <Surf>.fill(color)  =
+                            # Tuple, Color('#r=
+rggbb[aa]') or Color(<name>).
+<Surf>.set_at((x, y), color)                    # Updates pixel. Also <Surf>.get_at((x, y)).
+<Surf>.blit(<Surf>, (x, y))                     # Draws passed surface to the surface.
+
    +
    from pygame.transform import =
+scale, ...
+<Surf> =3D scale(<Surf>, (width, height))         # Returns scaled surface.
+<Surf> =3D rotate(<Surf>, anticlock_degrees)      # Returns rotated and scaled surface.
+<Surf> =3D flip(<Surf>, x_bool, y_bool)           # Returns flipped surface.
+
    +
    from pygame.draw import line,=
+ ...
+line(<Surf>, color, (x1, y1), (x2, y2), width)  # Draws a line to the surface.
+arc(<Surf>, color, <Rect>, from_rad, to_rad)    # Also ellipse(<Surf>, color, <Rect>, width=3D0).=
+
+rect(<Surf>, color, <Rect>, width=3D0)            # Also polygon(<Surf&=
+gt;, color, points, width=3D0).
+
    +

    Font

    <Font> =3D pg.font.Font(<path/file>, size)        # Loads TTF file. Pass None for default font.
+<Surf> =3D <Font>.render(text, antialias, color)  # Background color can be specified at the end.
+
    + +

    Sound

    <Sound> =3D pg.mixer.Sound(<path/file/bytes>)     # Loads WAV file or array of signed shorts.
+<Sound>.play/stop()                             # Also <Sound>.set_volume(<float>).
+
    + +

    Basic Mario Brothers Example

    = +
    import collections, dataclasses, enum, io, itertools as it, pygame as pg, urllib.request
+from random import randint
+
+P =3D collections.namedtuple('P', 'x y')          #=
+ Position
+D =3D enum.Enum('D', 'n e s w')                   #=
+ Direction
+W, H, MAX_S =3D 50, 50, P(5, 10)                  # Widt=
+h, Height, Max speed
+
+def main():
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">get_screen():
+        pg.init()
+        return pg.display.set_mode((W*<=
+span class=3D"hljs-number">16, H*16))
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">get_images():
+        url =3D 'https://gto76.github.io/python=
+-cheatsheet/web/mario_bros.png'
+        img =3D pg.image.load(io.BytesIO(urllib.request.urlopen(url).read()=
+))
+        return [img.subsurface(get_rect=
+(x, 0)) for=
+ x in range(img.get_width() // <=
+span class=3D"hljs-number">16)]
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">get_mario():
+        Mario =3D dataclasses.make_dataclass('M=
+ario', 'rect spd facing_left frame_cycle=
+'.split())
+        return Mario(get_rect(1, 1), P(0, 0), False, it.cycle(range(3)))
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">get_tiles():
+        border =3D [(x, y) for x in range(W) for<=
+/span> y in range(H) if x in [0, W-1] or y in [0, H-1]=
+]
+        platforms =3D [(randint(1, W-2), randint(2, H-2)) for _ in range(W*H // 10)]
+        return [get_rect(x, y) for x, y in=
+ border + platforms]
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">get_rect(x, y)=
+:
+        return pg.Rect(x*16, y*16, 16, 16)
+    run(get_screen(), get_images(), get_mario(), get_tiles())
+
+def run(screen, images=
+, mario, tiles):
+    clock =3D pg.time.Clock()
+    pressed =3D set()
+    while =
+not pg.event.get(pg.QUIT) and cl=
+ock.tick(28):
+        keys =3D {pg.K_UP: D.n, pg.K_RIGHT: D.e, pg.K_DOWN: D.s, pg.K_LEFT:=
+ D.w}
+        pressed |=3D {keys.get(e.key) for e in pg.event.get(pg.KEYDOWN)}
+        pressed -=3D {keys.get(e.key) for e in pg.event.get(pg.KEYUP)}
+        update_speed(mario, tiles, pressed)
+        update_position(mario, tiles)
+        draw(screen, images, mario, tiles, pressed)
+
+def update_speed(mario=
+, tiles, pressed):
+    x, y =3D mario.spd
+    x +=3D 2 * ((D.e in pressed) - (D.w in =
+pressed))
+    x +=3D (x < 0) - (x > 0)
+    y +=3D 1 if D.s not in get_boundaries(mario.rect, tiles) else (D.n in pressed) * =
+-10
+    mario.spd =3D P(x=3Dmax(-MAX_S.x, min(MAX_S.x, x)), y=3Dmax(-MAX_S.y, m=
+in(MAX_S.y, y)))
+
+def update_position(ma=
+rio, tiles):
+    x, y =3D mario.rect.topleft
+    n_steps =3D max(abs(s) for s in mario.spd)
+    for _ =
+in range(n_steps):
+        mario.spd =3D stop_on_collision(mario.spd, get_boundaries(mario.rec=
+t, tiles))
+        mario.rect.topleft =3D x, y =3D x + (mario.spd.x / n_steps), y + (m=
+ario.spd.y / n_steps)
+
+def get_boundaries(rec=
+t, tiles):
+    deltas =3D {D.n: P(0, -1), D.e: P(1, 0), D.s: P(0, 1), D.w: P(-1, 0)}
+    return {d for d, delta in deltas.items=
+() if rect.move(delta).collidelist(tile=
+s) !=3D -1}
+
+def stop_on_collision(=
+spd, bounds):
+    return P(x=3D0 if (D.w in bounds and spd.x=
+ < 0) or=
+ (D.e in bounds and spd.x > 0) else spd.x,
+             y=3D0 if (D.n in bounds and spd.y < 0<=
+/span>) or (D.s in bounds and spd.y > <=
+span class=3D"hljs-number">0) else spd.y)
+
+def draw(screen, image=
+s, mario, tiles, pressed):
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">get_marios_image_index():
+        if D.s not in get_boundaries(mario=
+.rect, tiles):
+            return 4
+        return next(mario.frame_cycle) =
+if {D.w, D.e} & pressed else 6
+    screen.fill((85, 168, 255))
+    mario.facing_left =3D (D.w in press=
+ed) if {D.w, D.e} & pressed else mario.facing_left
+    screen.blit(images[get_marios_image_index() + mario.facing_left * 9], mario.rect)
+    for t =
+in tiles:
+        screen.blit(images[18 if t.x in [0, (W-1=
+)*16] or t.y in [0, (H-1)*16] else 19], t)
+    pg.display.flip()
+
+if __name__ =3D=3D '__main__':
+    main()
+
    + +

    #Pandas

    # $ pip3 install pandas matplo=
+tlib
+import pandas as pd, matplotlib.pyplot as =
+plt
+
    + +

    Series

    Ordered dictionary with a name= +.

    >>> pd.Series([1=
+, 2], index=3D['x', 'y'], name=3D'a')
+x    1
+y    2
+Name: a, dtype: int64
+
    + + +
    <Sr> =3D pd.Series(&=
+lt;list>)                       # Assigns R=
+angeIndex starting at 0.
+<Sr> =3D pd.Series(<dict>)                       # Takes dictionary's keys for index.
+<Sr> =3D pd.Series(<dict/Series>, index=3D<list>)  # Only keeps items with keys specified in index.
+
    +
    <el> =3D <Sr>.=
+loc[key]                           # Or: <S=
+r>.iloc[index]
+<Sr> =3D <Sr>.loc[keys]                          # Or: <Sr>.iloc[indexes]
+<Sr> =3D <Sr>.loc[from_key : to_key_inclusive]   # Or: <Sr>.iloc[from_i : to_i_exclusive]
+
    +
    <el> =3D <Sr>[=
+key/index]                         # Or: <S=
+r>.key
+<Sr> =3D <Sr>[keys/indexes]                      # Or: <Sr>[<keys_slice/slice>]
+<Sr> =3D <Sr>[bools]                             # Or: <Sr>.loc/iloc[bools]
+
    +
    <Sr> =3D <Sr> =
+><=3D=3D <el/Sr>                       # Returns a Series of bools.
+<Sr> =3D <Sr> +-*/ <el/Sr>                       # Items with non-matching keys get value NaN.
+
    +
    <Sr> =3D pd.concat(&=
+lt;coll_of_Sr>)                 # Concats m=
+ultiple Series into one long Series.
+<Sr> =3D <Sr>.combine_first(<Sr>)                # Adds items that are not yet present.
+<Sr>.update(<Sr>)                              # Updates items that are already present.
+
    +
    <Sr>.plot.line/area/=
+bar/pie/hist()             # Generates a Matpl=
+otlib plot.
+plt.show()                                     # Displays the plot. Also plt.savefig(<path>).
+
    +

    Series =E2=80=94 Aggregate, Tra= +nsform, Map:

    <el>=
+; =3D <Sr>.sum/max/mean/idxmax/all()          # Or: <Sr>.agg(lambda <Sr>: <el>)
+<Sr> =3D <Sr>.rank/diff/cumsum/ffill/interpl()   # Or: <Sr>.agg/transform(lambda <Sr>: <Sr>=
+)
+<Sr> =3D <Sr>.fillna(<el>)                       # Or: <Sr>.agg/transform/map(lambda <el>: =
+<el>)
+
    + +
    =
+>>> sr =3D pd.Series([1,=
+ 2], index=3D['x', 'y'])
+x    1
+y    2
+
    +
    =E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83               =E2=94=82    'sum'    =E2=94=82   ['sum']   =E2=94=82 {<=
+span class=3D"hljs-string">'s': 'sum'}  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 sr.apply(=E2=80=A6)   =E2=94=82      =
+3      =E2=94=82    sum  3   =E2=
+=94=82     s  3      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 sr.agg(=E2=80=A6)     =E2=94=82             =E2=94=82            =
+ =E2=94=82               =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
+=E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83               =E2=94=82    'rank'   =E2=94=82   ['rank']  =E2=94=82 {<=
+span class=3D"hljs-string">'r': 'rank'} =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 sr.apply(=E2=80=A6)   =E2=94=82             =E2=94=82      rank  =
+ =E2=94=82               =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 sr.agg(=E2=80=A6)     =E2=94=82     x  1    =E2=94=82   x     1   =E2=
+=94=82    r  x  1    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83               =E2=94=82     y  2    =E2=94=82   y     2   =E2=94=82   =
+    y  2    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
    + +
      +
    • Keys/indexes/bools can't be tuples because 'obj[x, y]' is converted = +to 'obj[(x, y)]'!
      • +
    • Methods ffill(), interpolate(), fillna() and dropna() accept 'inplace=3DTrue'.
      • +
    • Last result has a hierarchical index. Use '<Sr>[key_1, key_2]'= + to get its values.
      • +
    +

    DataFrame

    Table with labeled rows = +and columns.

    <=
+span class=3D"hljs-meta">>>> pd.DataFrame([[1, 2], [3, 4]], index=3D=
+['a', 'b'], columns=3D['x', 'y'])
+   x  y
+a  1  2
+b  3  4
+
    + + +
    <DF>    =3D pd.DataF=
+rame(<list_of_rows>)         # Rows can =
+be either lists, dicts or series.
+<DF>    =3D pd.DataFrame(<dict_of_columns>)      # Columns can be either lists, dicts or series.
+
    +
    <el>    =3D <DF&g=
+t;.loc[row_key, column_key]        # Or: <D=
+F>.iloc[row_index, column_index]
+<Sr/DF> =3D <DF>.loc[row_key/s]                  # Or: <DF>.iloc[row_index/es]
+<Sr/DF> =3D <DF>.loc[:, column_key/s]            # Or: <DF>.iloc[:, column_index/es]
+<DF>    =3D <DF>.loc[row_bools, column_bools]    # Or: <DF>.iloc[row_bools, column_bools]
+
    +
    <Sr/DF> =3D <DF&g=
+t;[column_key/s]                   # Or: <D=
+F>.column_key
+<DF>    =3D <DF>[row_bools]                      # Keeps rows as specified by bools.
+<DF>    =3D <DF>[<DF_of_bools>]                  # Assigns NaN to False values.
+
    +
    <DF>    =3D <DF&g=
+t; ><=3D=3D <el/Sr/DF>                 # Returns DF of bools. Sr is treated as a row.
+<DF>    =3D <DF> +-*/ <el/Sr/DF>                 # Items with non-matching keys get value NaN.
+
    +
    <DF>    =3D <DF&g=
+t;.set_index(column_key)           # Replaces =
+row keys with values from a column.
+<DF>    =3D <DF>.reset_index(drop=3DFalse)         # Drops or moves row k=
+eys to column named index.
+<DF>    =3D <DF>.sort_index(ascending=3DTrue)      # Sorts rows by row ke=
+ys. Use `axis=3D1` for cols.
+<DF>    =3D <DF>.sort_values(column_key/s)       # Sorts rows by the passed column/s. Same.
+
    +

    DataFrame =E2=80=94 Merge, Join, C= +oncat:

    >>> l =3D pd.DataFrame([[1, 2], [3, 4]], index=3D['a', 'b'], co=
+lumns=3D['x', 'y'])
+   x  y
+a  1  2
+b  3  4
+>>> r =3D pd.DataFrame([[4, 5], [6, 7]], in=
+dex=3D['b', =
+'c'], columns=3D['y', 'z'])
+   y  z
+b  4  5
+c  6  7
+
    + +
    =E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83                        =E2=94=82    '=
+outer'    =E2=94=82   'inner'  =
+=E2=94=82   'left'   =E2=94=82       Des=
+cription        =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 l.merge(r, on=3D'y',     =E2=
+=94=82    x   y   z  =E2=94=82 x   y   z  =E2=94=82 x   y   z  =E2=94=82 Me=
+rges on column if 'on' =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83            how=3D=E2=80=A6)      =E2=94=82 0  1   2   .  =E2=94=82 3   4   5  =
+=E2=94=82 1   2   .  =E2=94=82 or 'left/right_on' are   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                        =E2=94=82 1  3   4<=
+/span>   5  =E2=94=82            =E2=94=
+=82 3   4   5  =E2=94=82 set, else on shared =
+cols.=E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                        =E2=94=82 2  .   6   7  =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 Uses 'inner' by default. =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 l.join(r, lsuffix=3D'l', =E2=
+=94=82    x yl yr  z =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 x yl yr  z =E2=94=82 Me=
+rges on row keys.      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83           rsuffix=3D'r', =E2=
+=94=82 a  1  2  .  . =E2=94=82 x yl yr  z =E2=94=82 =
+1  2  .  . =E2=94=82 Uses 'left' by default.  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83           how=3D=E2=80=A6)       =E2=94=82 b  3  4  4  5 =E2=94=82 3  4  4  5 =E2=94=
+=82 3  4  4  5 =E2=94=82 If r is a Series, it is  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                        =E2=94=82 c  .  .  6  7 =E2=94=82            =
+=E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 treated as a column.     =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 pd.concat([l, r],      =E2=94=82    x   y   z  =E2=94=82     y   =
+   =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 Adds rows at the bottom. =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83           axis=3D0,      =E2=
+=94=82 a  1   2   .  =E2=94=82     2      =E2=
+=94=82            =E2=94=82 Uses 'outer'=
+ by default. =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83           join=3D=E2=80=A6)      =E2=94=82 b  3   4   .  =E2=94=82    =
+ 4      =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 A=
+ Series is treated as a =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                        =E2=94=82 b  .   4   5  =E2=94=82     4      =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 column. To =
+add a row use =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                        =E2=94=82 c  .   6   7  =E2=94=82     6      =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 pd.concat([=
+l, DF([sr])]).=E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 pd.concat([l, r],      =E2=94=82    x  y  y  z =E2=94=82         =
+   =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 Adds columns at the      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83           axis=3D1,      =E2=
+=94=82 a  1  2  .  . =E2=94=82 x  y  y  z =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 right e=
+nd. Uses 'outer'  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83           join=3D=E2=80=A6)      =E2=94=82 b  3  4  4  5 =E2=94=82 3  4  4  5 =E2=94=
+=82            =E2=94=82 by default. A Series is  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                        =E2=94=82 c  .  .  6  7 =E2=94=82            =
+=E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 treated as a column.     =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 l.combine_first(r)     =E2=94=82    x   y   z  =E2=94=82         =
+   =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 Adds missing rows and    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                        =E2=94=82 a  1=
+   2   .  =E2=94=82            =
+=E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 columns. Also updates    =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                        =E2=94=82 b  3=
+   4   5  =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 items that =
+contain NaN.  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                        =E2=94=82 c  .   6   7  =E2=94=82            =
+=E2=94=82            =E2=94=82 R must be a DataFrame.   =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
    +

    DataFrame =E2=80=94 Aggregat= +e, Transform, Map:

    <=
+;Sr> =3D <DF>.sum/max/mean/idxmax/all()          # Or: <DF>.apply/agg(lambda <Sr>: <el>)
+<DF> =3D <DF>.rank/diff/cumsum/ffill/interpl()   # Or: <DF>.apply/agg/transfrm(lambda <Sr>: <S=
+r>)
+<DF> =3D <DF>.fillna(<el>)                       # Or: <DF>.applymap(lambda <el>: <el>=
+;)
+
    + +
      +
    • All operations operate on columns by default. Pass 'axis=3D1' to pr= +ocess the rows instead.
      • +
    +
    =
+>>> df =3D pd.DataFrame([[1, 2], [3<=
+/span>, 4]], index=3D['a', 'b'], columns=3D[<=
+span class=3D"hljs-string">'x', 'y'])
+   x  y
+a  1  2
+b  3  4
+
    +
    =E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82    'sum'    =E2=94=82   ['sum']   =E2=94=82 =
+{'x': 'sum'<=
+/span>}  =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 df.apply(=E2=80=A6)     =E2=94=82             =E2=94=82       x  =
+y  =E2=94=82               =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 df.agg(=E2=80=A6)       =E2=94=82     x  4    =E2=94=82  sum  4  6  =E2=94=82     x  4      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82     y  6    =E2=94=82             =E2=94=82               =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
+=E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82    'rank'   =E2=94=82   ['rank']  =E2=94=82 =
+{'x': 'rank'=
+} =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 df.apply(=E2=80=A6)     =E2=94=82      x  y   =E2=94=82      x   =
+ y =E2=94=82        x      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 df.agg(=E2=80=A6)       =E2=94=82   a  1  1   =E2=94=82   rank rank =
+=E2=94=82     a  1      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83 df.transform(=E2=80=A6) =E2=94=82   b  2  2   =E2=94=82 a    1    1 =E2=94=
+=82     b  2      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82             =E2=94=82 b    2    2 =E2=94=82=
+               =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
    + +
      +
    • Use '&l= +t;DF>[col_key_1, col_key_2][row_key]' to get the fifth res= +ult's values.
      • +
    +

    DataFrame =E2=80=94 Plot, Encode,= + Decode:

    <DF>.pl=
+ot.line/area/bar/hist/scatter/box()     # Also=
+: `x=3Dcolumn_key, y=3Dcolumn_key/s`.
+plt.show()                                     # Displays the plot. Also plt.savefig(<path>).
+
    + +
    <DF> =3D pd.read_jso=
+n/html('<str/path/url>')     # Run `$ pip3 install beautifulsoup4 lxml`.
+<DF> =3D pd.read_csv/pickle/excel('<pa=
+th/url>')  # Use `sheet_name=3DNone`=
+ to get all Excel sheets.
+<DF> =3D pd.read_sql('<table/query>=
+', <conn.>)   # Accepts SQLite3 o=
+r SQLAlchemy connection.
+<DF> =3D pd.read_clipboard()                     # Reads a copied table from the clipboard.
+
    +
    <dict> =3D <DF>=
+;.to_dict(['d/l/s/=E2=80=A6'])          =
+   # Returns columns as dicts, lists or series=
+.
+<str>  =3D <DF>.to_json/html/csv([<path>])       # Also to_markdown/latex([<path>]).
+<DF>.to_pickle/excel(<path>)                   # Run `$ pip3 install "pandas[excel]" odfpy`.
+<DF>.to_sql('<table_name>', =
+<connection>)      # Accepts SQLite3 or =
+SQLAlchemy connection.
+
    +

    GroupBy

    Object that groups together = +rows of a dataframe based on the value of the passed column.

    &g= +t;>> df =3D pd.DataFrame([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [= +7, 8, 6]], list('abc'), list('xyz')) +>>> df.groupby('z').get_group(6) + x y z +b 4 5 6 +c 7 8 6 +
    + + +
    <GB> =3D <DF>.=
+groupby(column_key/s)              # Splits DF=
+ into groups based on passed column.
+<DF> =3D <GB>.apply(<func>)                      # Maps each group. Func can return DF, Sr or el.
+<GB> =3D <GB>[column_key]                        # Single column GB. All operations return a Sr.
+
    +

    GroupBy =E2=80=94 Aggregate, T= +ransform, Map:

    <DF&=
+gt; =3D <GB>.sum/max/mean/idxmax/all()          # Or: <GB>.agg(lambda <Sr>: <el>)
+<DF> =3D <GB>.rank/diff/cumsum/ffill()           # Or: <GB>.transform(lambda <Sr>: <Sr>)
+<DF> =3D <GB>.fillna(<el>)                       # Or: <GB>.transform(lambda <Sr>: <Sr&g=
+t;)
+
    + +
    =
+>>> gb =3D df.groupby('z')
+      x  y  z
+3: a  1  2  3
+6: b  4  5  6
+   c  7  8  6
+
    +
    =E2=94=8F=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=AF=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=93
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82    'sum'    =E2=94=82    'rank'   =E2=94=82 =
+  ['rank']  =E2=94=82 {'x': 'rank'} =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 gb.agg(=E2=80=A6)       =E2=94=82      x   y  =E2=94=82      x  y=
+   =E2=94=82      x    y =E2=94=82        x      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82  z          =E2=94=82   a  1  1   =E2=94=82=
+   rank rank =E2=94=82     a  1      =E2=
+=94=83
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82  3  =
+ 1   2  =E2=94=82   b  1  1   =E2=94=82 a    1    =
+1 =E2=94=82     b  1      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82  6  =
+11  13  =E2=94=82   c  2  2   =E2=94=82 b    1    =
+1 =E2=94=82     c  2      =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82             =E2=94=82             =E2=
+=94=82 c    2    2 =E2=94=82               =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=A0=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
+=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=
+=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=
+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=BC=E2=
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+=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=94=80=E2=
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+=E2=94=80=E2=94=A8
+=E2=94=83 gb.transform(=E2=80=A6) =E2=94=82      x   y  =E2=94=82      x  y=
+   =E2=94=82             =E2=94=82               =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82  a   1   2  =E2=94=82   a  1  1   =E2=94=82      =
+       =E2=94=82               =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82  b  11  13  =E2=94=82   b  1  1   =E2=94=82      =
+       =E2=94=82               =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=83                 =E2=94=82  c  11  13  =E2=94=82   c  2  2   =E2=94=82      =
+       =E2=94=82               =E2=94=83
+=E2=94=97=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=
+=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=B7=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=
+=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=E2=94=81=
+=E2=94=81=E2=94=9B
+
    +

    Rolling

    Object for rolling window ca= +lculations.

    &l=
+t;RSr/RDF/RGB> =3D <Sr/DF/GB>.rolling(win_size)   # Also: `min_periods=3DNone, center=3DFalse`.
+<RSr/RDF/RGB> =3D <RDF/RGB>[column_key/s]        # Or: <RDF/RGB>.column_key
+<Sr/DF>       =3D <R>.mean/sum/max()             # Or: <R>.apply/agg(<agg_func/str>)
+
    + + +

    #Plotly

    # $ pip3 install plotly kaleid=
+o
+from plotly.express import line
+<Figure> =3D line(<DF>, x=3D<col_name>, y=3D<col_name&=
+gt;)           # Or: line(x=3D<list>, y=
+=3D<list>)
+<Figure>.update_layout(margin=3Ddict(t=3D=
+0, r=3D0, b=3D0, l=3D0), =E2=80=A6)  <=
+span class=3D"hljs-comment"># `paper_bgcolor=3D'rgb(0, 0, 0)'`.
+<Figure>.write_html/json/image('<path&=
+gt;')                    # Also <Fig=
+ure>.show().
+
    + +

    Displays a line chart of total coronavirus deaths per million g= +rouped by continent:

    = += += +Apr 2020Jul 2020= +Oct= + 2020Jan 2021Apr 2021Jul 2021O= +ct 20210500<= +/text>1000150020002500= +
    <= +/g>ContinentSouth America= +North AmericaEuropeAsia= +AfricaOceania<= +rect class=3D"legendtoggle" pointer-events=3D"all" x=3D"0" y=3D"-9.5" width= +=3D"128.52083587646484" height=3D"19" style=3D"cursor: pointer; fill: rgb(0= +, 0, 0); fill-opacity: 0;">DateTotal Deaths per Million
    .cls-1 {fill: #3f4f75;} .cls-2 {fill: #80cfbe;} .cls-3 {fill: #fff;}plotly-logomark
    = +
    covid =3D pd.read_csv('h=
+ttps://covid.ourworldindata.org/data/owid-covid-data.csv',
+                    usecols=3D['iso_code', 'date', '=
+total_deaths', 'population'])
+continents =3D pd.read_csv('https://gist.github=
+usercontent.com/stevewithington/20a69c0b6d2ff'
+                         '846ea5d35e5fc47f26c/r=
+aw/country-and-continent-codes-list-csv.csv',
+                         usecols=3D['Three_Lett=
+er_Country_Code', 'Continent_Name'])
+df =3D pd.merge(covid, continents, left_on=3D'i=
+so_code', right_on=3D'Three_Letter_Count=
+ry_Code')
+df =3D df.groupby(['Continent_Name', 'date']).sum().reset_index()
+df['Total Deaths per Million'] =3D df.to=
+tal_deaths * 1e6 / df.population
+df =3D df[df.date > '2020-03-14']
+df =3D df.rename({'date': 'Date', 'Continent_Name': 'Continent'}, axis=3D'columns')
+line(df, x=3D'Date', y=3D'Total Deaths per Million', color=3D'Continent').show()
+
    + + + +

    Displays a multi-axis line chart of total= + coronavirus cases and changes in prices of Bitcoin, Dow Jones and gold:

    = +<= +rect class=3D"nwdrag drag cursor-nw-resize" data-subplot=3D"xy" x=3D"60" y= +=3D"4" width=3D"20" height=3D"20" style=3D"fill: transparent; stroke-width:= + 0; pointer-events: all;">= += += +<= +path class=3D"y2grid crisp" transform=3D"translate(0,258.90999999999997)" d= +=3D"M80,0h696" style=3D"stroke: rgb(255, 255, 255); stroke-opacity: 1; stro= +ke-width: 1px;">= += +Apr 2020J= +ul 2020Oct 2020Jan 2021Apr 2021Jul 2021Oct 2021050M= +100M150M200M2= +50M0100200<= +/text>300400<= +text text-anchor=3D"start" x=3D"779.4" y=3D"4.199999999999999" data-unforma= +tted=3D"500" data-math=3D"N" transform=3D"translate(0,106.53)" style=3D"fon= +t-family: "Open Sans", verdana, arial, sans-serif; font-size: 12p= +x; fill: rgb(42, 63, 95); fill-opacity: 1; white-space: pre;">500600700
    Total Cases<= +g class=3D"legendlines"><= +rect class=3D"legendtoggle" pointer-events=3D"all" x=3D"0" y=3D"-9.5" width= +=3D"108.75" height=3D"19" style=3D"cursor: pointer; fill: rgb(0, 0, 0); fil= +l-opacity: 0;">Bitcoin= +Dow JonesGold<= +/g>Total Cases%<= +g class=3D"zoomlayer">
    import pandas as pd, plotly.graph_objects as go
+
+def main():
+    display_data(wrangle_data(*scrape_data()))
+
+def scrape_data():
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">scrape_covid()=
+:
+        url =3D 'https://covid.ourworldindata.o=
+rg/data/owid-covid-data.csv'
+        df =3D pd.read_csv(url, usecols=3D['loc=
+ation', 'date', 'total_cases'])
+        return df[df.location =3D=3D 'World'].set_index('date').total_cases
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">scrape_yahoo(s=
+lug):
+        url =3D (f'https://query1.finance.yahoo=
+.com/v7/finance/download/{slug}?'
+               'period1=3D1579651200&period=
+2=3D9999999999&interval=3D1d&events=3Dhistory')
+        df =3D pd.read_csv(url, usecols=3D['Dat=
+e', 'Close'])
+        return df.set_index('Date').Close
+    out =3D scrape_covid(), scrape_yahoo('BTC-U=
+SD'), scrape_yahoo('GC=3DF'), scr=
+ape_yahoo('^DJI')
+    return map(pd.Series.rename, out, [=
+'Total Cases', 'Bitcoin', 'Gold', 'Dow Jones'])
+
+def wrangle_data(covid=
+, bitcoin, gold, dow):
+    df =3D pd.concat([bitcoin, gold, dow], axis=3D1)  # Joins columns on dates.
+    df =3D df.sort_index().interpolate()            # Sorts by date and interpolates NaN-s.
+    df =3D df.loc['2020-02-23':]        =
+            # Discards rows before '2020-02-23=
+'.
+    df =3D (df / df.iloc[0]) * 100                  # Calculates percentages relative to day 1.
+    df =3D df.join(covid)                           # Adds column with covid cases.
+    return df.sort_values(df.index[-1], axis=3D1)   # Sorts columns by last day's value.
+
+def display_data(df):
+    figure =3D go.Figure()
+    for col_name in reversed(df.columns):
+        yaxis =3D 'y1' if col_name =3D=3D 'Total Ca=
+ses' else 'y2'
+        trace =3D go.Scatter(x=3Ddf.index, y=3Ddf[col_name], name=3Dcol_nam=
+e, yaxis=3Dyaxis)
+        figure.add_trace(trace)
+    figure.update_layout(
+        yaxis1=3Ddict(title=3D'Total Cases', rangemode=3D'tozero'),
+        yaxis2=3Ddict(title=3D'%', range=
+mode=3D'tozero', overlaying=3D'y', side=3D'right'),
+        legend=3Ddict(x=3D1.1),
+        height=3D450
+    )
+    figure.show()
+
+if __name__ =3D=3D '__main__':
+    main()
+
    + + + +

    #PySimpleGUI

    # $ pip3 i=
+nstall PySimpleGUI
+import PySimpleGUI as sg
+
+layout =3D [[sg.Text("What's your name?"=
+)], [sg.Input()], [sg.Button('Ok')]]
+window =3D sg.Window('Window Title', lay=
+out)
+event, values =3D window.read()
+print(f'Hello {value=
+s[0]}!' if event =3D=3D 'Ok' <=
+span class=3D"hljs-keyword">else '')
+
    + +

    #Appendix

    Cy= +thon

    Library that compiles Python code into C.

    <= +pre># $ pip3 install cython +import pyximport; pyximport.install() +import <cython_script> +<cython_script>.main() +
    + + + +

    Definitions:

      +
    • All 'cd= +ef' definitions are optional, but they contribute to the spee= +d-up.
      • +
    • Script needs to be saved with a 'pyx' extension.
      • +
    cdef <ctype> &l=
+t;var_name> =3D <el>
+cdef <ctype>[n_elements] <var_name> =3D [<el>, <el>=
+, ...]
+cdef <ctype/void> <func_name>(<ctype> <arg_name>): =
+...
+
    + + +
    cdef class <class_name>:
+    cdef public <ctype> <attr_name>
+    def <=
+span class=3D"hljs-title">__init__(self,=
+ <ctype> <arg_name>):
+        self.<attr_name> =3D <arg_name>
+
    +
    cdef enum <enum_name>=
+;: <member_name>, <member_name>, ...
+
    +

    PyInstaller

    $ pip3 install pyinstaller
+$ pyinstaller script.py                        # Compiles into './dist/script' directory.
+$ pyinstaller script.py --onefile              # Compiles into './dist/script' console app.
+$ pyinstaller script.py --windowed             # Compiles into './dist/script' windowed app.
+$ pyinstaller script.py --add-data '<path>:.'  # Adds file to the root of the executable.
+
    + +
      +
    • File paths need to be updated to 'os.path.join(sys._MEIPASS, <path>)'= +.
      • +
    +

    Basic Script Template

    #!/usr/bin=
+/env python3
+#
+# Usage: .py
+#
+
+from sys i=
+mport argv, exit
+from collections import defaultdict, namedtuple
+from dataclasses import make_dataclass
+from enum =
+import Enum
+import functools as ft, itertools as it, o=
+perator as op, re
+
+
+def main():
+    pass
+
+
+###
+##  UTIL
+#
+
+def read_file(filename=
+):
+    with open(filename, encoding=3D'utf-8') as file:
+        return file.readlines()
+
+
+if __name__ =3D=3D '__main__':
+    main()
+
    + +

    #Index

    • Only available in the= + PDF.
      • +
    • Ctrl+F / =E2=8C=98F is usually sufficient.
      • +
    • Searching '#<title>' will limit the search to the titles.
      • +
    +=20 + + + + + + =20 + =20 + =20 + =20 + + =20 + + + + +------MultipartBoundary--woPjoy8Y4Af6z7kPeFw2jGCIU9O3A2jLmleyvZRmJk---- +Content-Type: text/css +Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable +Content-Location: cid:css-f5978238-c4d6-4d80-ab44-36d739b2a915@mhtml.blink + +@charset "utf-8"; + +.js-plotly-plot .plotly .mapboxgl-ctrl-logo { display: block; width: 21px; = +height: 21px; background-image: url("data:image/svg+xml;charset=3Dutf-8,%3C= +?xml version=3D\"1.0\" encoding=3D\"utf-8\"?%3E %3Csvg version=3D\"1.1\" id= +=3D\"Layer_1\" xmlns=3D\"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg\" xmlns:xlink=3D\"http:= +//www.w3.org/1999/xlink\" x=3D\"0px\" y=3D\"0px\" viewBox=3D\"0 0 21 21\" s= +tyle=3D\"enable-background:new 0 0 21 21;\" xml:space=3D\"preserve\"%3E%3Cg= + transform=3D\"translate(0,0.01)\"%3E%3Cpath d=3D\"m 10.5,1.24 c -5.11,0 -9= +.25,4.15 -9.25,9.25 0,5.1 4.15,9.25 9.25,9.25 5.1,0 9.25,-4.15 9.25,-9.25 0= +,-5.11 -4.14,-9.25 -9.25,-9.25 z m 4.39,11.53 c -1.93,1.93 -4.78,2.31 -6.7,= +2.31 -0.7,0 -1.41,-0.05 -2.1,-0.16 0,0 -1.02,-5.64 2.14,-8.81 0.83,-0.83 1.= +95,-1.28 3.13,-1.28 1.27,0 2.49,0.51 3.39,1.42 1.84,1.84 1.89,4.75 0.14,6.5= +2 z\" style=3D\"opacity:0.9;fill:%23ffffff;enable-background:new\" class=3D= +\"st0\"/%3E%3Cpath d=3D\"M 10.5,-0.01 C 4.7,-0.01 0,4.7 0,10.49 c 0,5.79 4.= +7,10.5 10.5,10.5 5.8,0 10.5,-4.7 10.5,-10.5 C 20.99,4.7 16.3,-0.01 10.5,-0.= +01 Z m 0,19.75 c -5.11,0 -9.25,-4.15 -9.25,-9.25 0,-5.1 4.14,-9.26 9.25,-9.= +26 5.11,0 9.25,4.15 9.25,9.25 0,5.13 -4.14,9.26 -9.25,9.26 z\" style=3D\"op= +acity:0.35;enable-background:new\" class=3D\"st1\"/%3E%3Cpath d=3D\"M 14.74= +,6.25 C 12.9,4.41 9.98,4.35 8.23,6.1 5.07,9.27 6.09,14.91 6.09,14.91 c 0,0 = +5.64,1.02 8.81,-2.14 C 16.64,11 16.59,8.09 14.74,6.25 Z m -2.27,4.09 -0.91,= +1.87 -0.9,-1.87 -1.86,-0.91 1.86,-0.9 0.9,-1.87 0.91,1.87 1.86,0.9 z\" styl= +e=3D\"opacity:0.35;enable-background:new\" class=3D\"st1\"/%3E%3Cpolygon po= +ints=3D\"11.56,12.21 10.66,10.34 8.8,9.43 10.66,8.53 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.mapboxgl-ctrl-attrib.= +mapboxgl-compact::after { bottom: 0px; left: 0px; } + +.js-plotly-plot .plotly .mapboxgl-ctrl-bottom-right > .mapboxgl-ctrl-attrib= +.mapboxgl-compact::after { bottom: 0px; right: 0px; } + +.js-plotly-plot .plotly .mapboxgl-ctrl-attrib.mapboxgl-compact { min-height= +: 20px; padding: 0px; margin: 10px; position: relative; background-color: r= +gb(255, 255, 255); border-radius: 3px 12px 12px 3px; } + +.js-plotly-plot .plotly .mapboxgl-ctrl-attrib.mapboxgl-compact::after { con= +tent: ""; cursor: pointer; position: absolute; background-image: url("data:= +image/svg+xml;charset=3Dutf-8,%3Csvg viewBox=3D\"0 0 20 20\" xmlns=3D\"http= +://www.w3.org/2000/svg\"%3E %3Cpath fill=3D\"%23333333\" fill-rule=3D\"even= +odd\" d=3D\"M4,10a6,6 0 1,0 12,0a6,6 0 1,0 -12,0 M9,7a1,1 0 1,0 2,0a1,1 0 1= +,0 -2,0 M9,10a1,1 0 1,1 2,0l0,3a1,1 0 1,1 -2,0\"/%3E %3C/svg%3E"); backgrou= +nd-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5); width: 24px; height: 24px; box-sizing: = +border-box; 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