Table of Contents

* [Introduction](#introduction)

* [Introduction to Programming Languages](#introduction-to-programming-languages)

* [Introduction to Python](#introduction-to-python)

* [Advantages of Python](#advantages-of-python)

* [Installing Python in Windows](#installing-python-in-windows)

* [Installing Python in macOS (Apple)](#installing-python-in-macos-apple)

* [Execution Modes](#execution-modes)

* [Interactive Mode of Execution](#interactive-mode-of-execution)

* [Script Mode of Execution](#script-mode-of-execution)

* [Python Fundamentals](#python-fundamentals)

* [Tokens: Introduction](#tokens-introduction)

* [Tokens: Keywords](#tokens-keywords)

* [Tokens: Identifiers](#tokens-identifiers)

* [Tokens: Literals](#tokens-literals)

* [Numeric Literals](#numeric-literals)

* [Integer Literals](#integer-literals)

* [Floating Point Literals](#floating-point-literals)

* [Imaginary Literals](#imaginary-literals)

* [Boolean Literals](#boolean-literals)

* [String Literals](#string-literals)

* [Special Literal](#special-literal)

* [Collection of Literals](#collection-of-literals)

* [Tokens: Operators](#tokens-operators)

* [Tokens: Delimiters](#tokens-delimiters)

* [Grouping](#grouping)

* [Punctuation, Decoration and Annotation](#punctuation-decoration-and-annotation)

* [Assignment/Binding](#assignmentbinding)

* [Character Set](#character-set)

* [Blocks and Indentation](#blocks-and-indentation)

* [Comments](#comments)

* [Single Line Comments](#single-line-comments)

* [Multiline comments](#multiline-comments)

* [Variables, Objects & Data Types](#variables-objects--data-types)

* [What are Objects & Variables?](#what-are-objects--variables)

* [Variables & Assignment Statements](#variables--assignment-statements)

* [Assignment](#assignment)

* [Deletion](#deletion)

* [Multiple Assignment](#multiple-assignment)

* [Tuple Swapping](#tuple-swapping)

* [Built-in Data Types](#built-in-data-types)

* [Numeric Types](#numeric-types)

* [Integer Numbers](#integer-numbers)

* [Real or Floating-point Numbers](#real-or-floating-point-numbers)

* [Complex Numbers](#complex-numbers)

* [Boolean](#boolean)

* [Sequence Types](#sequence-types)

* [String](#string)

* [List](#list)

* [Tuple](#tuple)

* [Set Type](#set-type)

* [Mapping Type](#mapping-type)

* [Special Type](#special-type)

* [Type Checking](#type-checking)

* [Type Casting](#type-casting)

* [Implicit Type Casting](#implicit-type-casting)

* [Explicit Type Casting](#explicit-type-casting)

* [int()](#int)

* [float()](#float)

* [str()](#str)

* [tuple()](#tuple-1)

* [list()](#list-1)

* [set()](#set)

* [Mutable & Immutable Data Types](#mutable--immutable-data-types)

* [Immutable Data Types](#immutable-data-types)

* [Mutable Data Types](#mutable-data-types)

* [Input / Output](#input--output)

* [How to Accept User Input](#how-to-accept-user-input)

* [Displaying Output](#displaying-output)

* [Operators & Expressions](#operators--expressions)

* [Introduction to Operators](#introduction-to-operators)

* [Unary Operators](#unary-operators)

* [Binary Operators](#binary-operators)

* [Operators in Python](#operators-in-python)

* [Arithmetic Operators](#arithmetic-operators)

* [Addition](#addition)

* [Subtraction](#subtraction)

* [Multiplication](#multiplication)

* [Division](#division)

* [Floor Division](#floor-division)

* [Modulus](#modulus)

* [Exponent](#exponent)

* [Relational Operators](#relational-operators)

* [Equals to](#equals-to)

* [Not equal to](#not-equal-to)

* [Greater than](#greater-than)

* [Greater than or equal to](#greater-than-or-equal-to)

* [Less than](#less-than)

* [Less than or equal to](#less-than-or-equal-to)

* [Assignment Operators](#assignment-operators)

* [-=](#-)

* [*=](#-1)

* [/=](#-2)

* [//=](#-3)

* [**=](#-4)

* [%=](#-5)

* [Logical Operators](#logical-operators)

* [Logical State of Operands](#logical-state-of-operands)

* [not](#not)

* [or](#or)

* [and](#and)

* [Identity Operators](#identity-operators)

* [Membership Operators](#membership-operators)

* [Expressions](#expressions)

* [Chained Expression](#chained-expression)

* [Conditional Expression](#conditional-expression)

* [Operator Precedence with Examples](#operator-precedence-with-examples)

* [Exercises](#exercises)

* [Example 1](#example-1)

* [Example 2](#example-2)

* [Example 3](#example-3)

* [Example 4](#example-4)

* [Example 5](#example-5)

* [Example 6](#example-6)

* [Errors & Exception Handling](#errors--exception-handling)

* [Error Types](#error-types)

* [Syntax Error](#syntax-error)

* [Script Mode](#script-mode)

* [Interactive Mode](#interactive-mode)

* [Runtime Error](#runtime-error)

* [Examples](#examples)

* [ZeroDivisionError](#zerodivisionerror)

* [NameError](#nameerror)

* [KeyError](#keyerror)

* [TypeError](#typeerror)

* [Logical Error](#logical-error)

* [Example](#example)

* [Exceptions](#exceptions)

* [raise](#raise)

* [assert](#assert)

* [Exception Handling](#exception-handling)

* [Control Flow](#control-flow)

* [Introduction to Control Flow](#introduction-to-control-flow)

* [Sequential Flow](#sequential-flow)

* [Selection Statements: if .. else](#selection-statements-if--else)

* [Examples](#examples-1)

* [Absolute Value](#absolute-value)

* [Sorting 3 Numbers](#sorting-3-numbers)

* [Divisibility](#divisibility)

* [Iteration: for](#iteration-for)

* [List Iteration](#list-iteration)

* [Tuple Iteration](#tuple-iteration)

* [String Iteration](#string-iteration)

* [Range Iteration](#range-iteration)

* [Example #1](#example-1-1)

* [Example #2](#example-2-1)

* [Example #3](#example-3-1)

* [Example #4](#example-4-1)

* [Exercises](#exercises-1)

* [Compound Interest](#compound-interest)

* [Factorial](#factorial)

* [Iteration: while](#iteration-while)

* [Exercises](#exercises-2)

* [Compound Interest](#compound-interest-1)

* [Factorial](#factorial-1)

* [Jump Statements](#jump-statements)

* [pass](#pass)

* [Syntactical Requirement](#syntactical-requirement)

* [Skipping Code Execution](#skipping-code-execution)

* [Placeholders](#placeholders)

* [break](#break)

* [continue](#continue)

* [Nested Loops](#nested-loops)

* [Factorial](#factorial-2)

* [Nested Loop - break](#nested-loop---break)

* [Strings](#strings)

* [Strings: Introduction & Creation](#strings-introduction--creation)

* [Escape Characters](#escape-characters)

* [Unicode Support](#unicode-support)

* [Other Types to String](#other-types-to-string)

* [Accessing Characters of a String](#accessing-characters-of-a-string)

* [Length of String](#length-of-string)

* [String Operations](#string-operations)

* [Slicing](#slicing)

* [Membership](#membership)

* [Concatenation](#concatenation)

* [Repetition](#repetition)

* [Introduction to String Methods](#introduction-to-string-methods)

* [Convert Case of Strings](#convert-case-of-strings)

* [lower()](#lower)

* [upper()](#upper)

* [swapcase()](#swapcase)

* [capitalize()](#capitalize)

* [title()](#title)

* [Check Characters of a String](#check-characters-of-a-string)

* [isalpha()](#isalpha)

* [isdigit()](#isdigit)

* [isalnum()](#isalnum)

* [isascii()](#isascii)

* [islower()](#islower)

* [isupper()](#isupper)

* [isspace()](#isspace)

* [istitle()](#istitle)

* [Split a String](#split-a-string)

* [partition()](#partition)

* [split()](#split)

* [Strip Characters from a String](#strip-characters-from-a-string)

* [lstrip()](#lstrip)

* [rstrip()](#rstrip)

* [strip()](#strip)

* [Check Prefix or Suffix in a String](#check-prefix-or-suffix-in-a-string)

* [Find & Replace Characters in a String](#find--replace-characters-in-a-string)

* [count()](#count)

* [find()](#find)

* [rfind()](#rfind)

* [index()](#index)

* [rindex()](#rindex)

* [replace()](#replace)

* [Traversing a String](#traversing-a-string)

* [for](#for)

* [while](#while)

* [List](#list-2)

* [What is a Python List? How to Create a List?](#what-is-a-python-list-how-to-create-a-list)

* [Accessing Items of a List](#accessing-items-of-a-list)

* [Length of List](#length-of-list)

* [Negative Indexing](#negative-indexing)

* [Modifying a List](#modifying-a-list)

* [Removing Item from a List](#removing-item-from-a-list)

* [List Operations](#list-operations)

* [Membership](#membership-1)

* [Concatenation](#concatenation-1)

* [Repetition](#repetition-1)

* [Slicing](#slicing-1)

* [Traversing a List](#traversing-a-list)

* [Direct Traversal](#direct-traversal)

* [Location or Index Based Traversal](#location-or-index-based-traversal)

* [Built-in Functions that can be used for a List](#built-in-functions-that-can-be-used-for-a-list)

* [Introduction to List Methods](#introduction-to-list-methods)

* [Adding Items to a List](#adding-items-to-a-list)

* [Removing Items from a List](#removing-items-from-a-list)

* [Counting or Locating Items in a List](#counting-or-locating-items-in-a-list)

* [Reversing Items](#reversing-items)

* [Sorting a List](#sorting-a-list)

* [Copying a List](#copying-a-list)

* [Nested List](#nested-list)

* [List Comprehension](#list-comprehension)

* [Member-wise Operation](#member-wise-operation)

* [Filtering or Subsequence](#filtering-or-subsequence)

* [Sample Programs](#sample-programs)

* [Min, Max and Mean](#min-max-and-mean)

* [Without Using Built-in Functions](#without-using-built-in-functions)

* [Using Built-in Functions](#using-built-in-functions)

* [Linear Search](#linear-search)

* [Frequency of Elements](#frequency-of-elements)

* [Without Using Built-in Functions](#without-using-built-in-functions-1)

* [Using Built-in Functions](#using-built-in-functions-1)

* [Tuple](#tuple-2)

* [List vs Tuple](#list-vs-tuple)

* [How to Create Tuple?](#how-to-create-tuple)

* [tuple()](#tuple-3)

* [What is a Singleton?](#what-is-a-singleton)

* [Accessing Items of a Tuple](#accessing-items-of-a-tuple)

* [Length of Tuple](#length-of-tuple)

* [Negative Indexing](#negative-indexing-1)

* [Tuples are Immutable](#tuples-are-immutable)

* [Tuple Operations](#tuple-operations)

* [Membership](#membership-2)

* [Concatenation](#concatenation-2)

* [Repetition](#repetition-2)

* [Tuple Slicing](#tuple-slicing)

* [Traversing a Tuple](#traversing-a-tuple)

* [Direct Traversal](#direct-traversal-1)

* [Location or Index Based Traversal](#location-or-index-based-traversal-1)

* [Built-in Functions that can be used for a Tuple](#built-in-functions-that-can-be-used-for-a-tuple)

* [Locating Items in a Tuple](#locating-items-in-a-tuple)

* [Counting the Occurrence of an Item](#counting-the-occurrence-of-an-item)

* [New Tuple with Reversed Items](#new-tuple-with-reversed-items)

* [New Tuple with Sorted Items](#new-tuple-with-sorted-items)

* [Nested Tuple](#nested-tuple)

* [Understanding the Immutable Nature of Tuples](#understanding-the-immutable-nature-of-tuples)

* [Dictionary](#dictionary)

* [What is a Dictionary?](#what-is-a-dictionary)

* [How to Create a Dictionary](#how-to-create-a-dictionary)

* [Key: Value Pairs](#key-value-pairs)

* [Sequence of (key, value) Tuples](#sequence-of-key-value-tuples)

* [Keyword/Named Arguments](#keywordnamed-arguments)

* [Key and Value Lists](#key-and-value-lists)

* [Keys with Default Value](#keys-with-default-value)

* [Accessing Items (Key:Value) of a Dictionary](#accessing-items-keyvalue-of-a-dictionary)

* [Index Operator []](#index-operator-)

* [get()](#get)

* [Updating a Dictionary](#updating-a-dictionary)

* [Index Operator []](#index-operator--1)

* [update()](#update)

* [setdefault()](#setdefault)

* [Removing an Item (Key:Value) from a Dictionary](#removing-an-item-keyvalue-from-a-dictionary)

* [del](#del)

* [clear()](#clear)

* [pop()](#pop)

* [popitem()](#popitem)

* [Dictionary Operations](#dictionary-operations)

* [Membership](#membership-3)

* [Union](#union)

* [Traversing a Dictionary](#traversing-a-dictionary)

* [Direct Traversal](#direct-traversal-2)

* [Traversing Using Dictionary Methods](#traversing-using-dictionary-methods)

* [Built-in Functions for a Dictionary](#built-in-functions-for-a-dictionary)

* [Number of Items](#number-of-items)

* [Min and Max](#min-and-max)

* [Creating a Copy of a Dictionary](#creating-a-copy-of-a-dictionary)

* [Nested Dictionary](#nested-dictionary)

* [Sample Programs](#sample-programs-1)

* [Frequency of Characters](#frequency-of-characters)

* [Salary Book](#salary-book)

* [Python Standard Library](#python-standard-library)

* [Built-in Functions](#built-in-functions)

* [Mathematical Functions](#mathematical-functions)

* [abs()](#abs)

* [round()](#round)

* [sum()](#sum)

* [min()](#min)

* [max()](#max)

* [pow()](#pow)

* [divmod()](#divmod)

* [Type Functions](#type-functions)

* [Type Checking](#type-checking-1)

* [Built-in Type Functions](#built-in-type-functions)

* [I/O Functions](#io-functions)

* [input()](#input)

* [print()](#print)

* [open()](#open)

* [Base/Unicode Conversion Functions](#baseunicode-conversion-functions)

* [bin()](#bin)

* [oct()](#oct)

* [hex()](#hex)

* [ord()](#ord)

* [chr()](#chr)

* [What are Built-in Modules?](#what-are-built-in-modules)

* [math Module](#math-module)

* [Constants](#constants)

* [Functions](#functions)

* [fabs()](#fabs)

* [gcd()](#gcd)

* [ceil()](#ceil)

* [floor()](#floor)

* [fmod()](#fmod)

* [pow()](#pow-1)

* [sqrt()](#sqrt)

* [sin(), cos() & tan()](#sin-cos--tan)

* [factorial()](#factorial-3)

* [random Module](#random-module)

* [random()](#random)

* [Random Integer from Range](#random-integer-from-range)

* [statistics Module](#statistics-module)

* [Mean](#mean)

* [Median](#median)

* [Mode](#mode)

* [File Handling](#file-handling)

* [File Handling in Python - Introduction & Overview](#file-handling-in-python---introduction--overview)

* [Text Files vs Binary Files - Use Case, File Formats, Examples](#text-files-vs-binary-files---use-case-file-formats-examples)

* [File Opening & Closing](#file-opening--closing)

* [File Reading](#file-reading)

* [Sequential Reading](#sequential-reading)

* [read()](#read)

* [readline()](#readline)

* [readlines()](#readlines)

* [Ad-hoc Reading](#ad-hoc-reading)

* [tell()](#tell)

* [seek()](#seek)

* [Writing a File](#writing-a-file)

* [write()](#write)

* [writelines()](#writelines)

* [Reading & Writing Binary Files using pickle Module](#reading--writing-binary-files-using-pickle-module)

* [Dumping Data](#dumping-data)

* [Loading Data](#loading-data)

* [Example: Traversing a Binary File](#example-traversing-a-binary-file)

* [Reading & Writing a CSV File using csv Module](#reading--writing-a-csv-file-using-csv-module)

* [Reading CSV File](#reading-csv-file)

* [Example 1](#example-1-2)

* [Example 2](#example-2-2)

* [Writing CSV File](#writing-csv-file)

* [Example 3](#example-3-2)

* [User Defined Functions, Modules & Packages](#user-defined-functions-modules--packages)

* [User Defined Functions](#user-defined-functions)

* [Function Structure](#function-structure)

* [Function Header](#function-header)

* [Function Body](#function-body)

* [Parameters and Arguments](#parameters-and-arguments)

* [Scope of Variables](#scope-of-variables)

* [Local Variables](#local-variables)

* [Global Variables](#global-variables)

* [Passing Objects of Mutable Type to a Function](#passing-objects-of-mutable-type-to-a-function)

* [List](#list-3)

* [Dictionary](#dictionary-1)

* [What is a Module? How to Create a Module?](#what-is-a-module-how-to-create-a-module)

* [Executable Scripts / Modules](#executable-scripts--modules)

* [What is a Package? Introduction to PyPi. How to Create a Python Package?](#what-is-a-package-introduction-to-pypi-how-to-create-a-python-package)