From c41c5b2ad3d97db9a5a9708ff70d0eaa3939a0dc Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: =?UTF-8?q?Jure=20=C5=A0orn?= Date: Wed, 11 Oct 2023 05:23:22 +0200 Subject: [PATCH 001/359] String and Regex update --- README.md | 34 ++++++++++++++++++---------------- index.html | 46 +++++++++++++++++++++------------------------- 2 files changed, 39 insertions(+), 41 deletions(-) diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index ba3d0bdea..cf2ac92d0 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -300,9 +300,11 @@ True String ------ +**Immutable sequence of characters.** + ```python = .strip() # Strips all whitespace characters from both ends. - = .strip('') # Strips all passed characters from both ends. + = .strip('') # Strips passed characters. Also lstrip/rstrip(). ``` ```python @@ -321,6 +323,7 @@ String ``` ```python + = .lower() # Changes the case. Also upper/capitalize/title(). = .replace(old, new [, count]) # Replaces 'old' with 'new' at most 'count' times. = .translate() # Use `str.maketrans()` to generate table. ``` @@ -329,38 +332,37 @@ String = chr() # Converts int to Unicode character. = ord() # Converts Unicode character to int. ``` -* **Also: `'lstrip()'`, `'rstrip()'` and `'rsplit()'`.** -* **Also: `'lower()'`, `'upper()'`, `'capitalize()'` and `'title()'`.** +* **Use `'unicodedata.normalize("NFC", )'` on strings that may contain characters like `'Ö'` before comparing them, because they can be stored as one or two characters.** ### Property Methods -```text -+---------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ -| | [ !#$%…] | [a-zA-Z] | [¼½¾] | [²³¹] | [0-9] | -+---------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ -| isprintable() | yes | yes | yes | yes | yes | -| isalnum() | | yes | yes | yes | yes | -| isnumeric() | | | yes | yes | yes | -| isdigit() | | | | yes | yes | -| isdecimal() | | | | | yes | -+---------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ +```python + = .isdecimal() # Checks for [0-9]. + = .isdigit() # Checks for [²³¹] and isdecimal(). + = .isnumeric() # Checks for [¼½¾] and isdigit(). + = .isalnum() # Checks for [a-zA-Z] and isnumeric(). + = .isprintable() # Checks for [ !#$%…] and isalnum(). + = .isspace() # Checks for [ \t\n\r\f\v\x1c-\x1f\x85\xa0…]. ``` -* **`'isspace()'` checks for whitespaces: `'[ \t\n\r\f\v\x1c-\x1f\x85\xa0\u1680…]'`.** Regex ----- +**Functions for regular expression matching.** + ```python import re +``` + +```python = re.sub(, new, text, count=0) # Substitutes all occurrences with 'new'. = re.findall(, text) # Returns all occurrences as strings. = re.split(, text, maxsplit=0) # Add brackets around regex to include matches. - = re.search(, text) # Searches for first occurrence of the pattern. + = re.search(, text) # First occurrence of the pattern or None. = re.match(, text) # Searches only at the beginning of the text. = re.finditer(, text) # Returns all occurrences as Match objects. ``` * **Argument 'new' can be a function that accepts a Match object and returns a string.** -* **Search() and match() return None if they can't find a match.** * **Argument `'flags=re.IGNORECASE'` can be used with all functions.** * **Argument `'flags=re.MULTILINE'` makes `'^'` and `'$'` match the start/end of each line.** * **Argument `'flags=re.DOTALL'` makes `'.'` also accept the `'\n'`.** diff --git a/index.html b/index.html index 998f95eca..869da710d 100644 --- a/index.html +++ b/index.html @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@
- +
@@ -290,10 +290,11 @@ ┃ decimal.Decimal │ ✓ │ │ │ │ ┃ ┗━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━┛ -

#String

<str>  = <str>.strip()                       # Strips all whitespace characters from both ends.
-<str>  = <str>.strip('<chars>')              # Strips all passed characters from both ends.
+
#String
Immutable sequence of characters.
<str>  = <str>.strip()                       # Strips all whitespace characters from both ends.
+<str>  = <str>.strip('<chars>')              # Strips passed characters. Also lstrip/rstrip().
 

 
+
 
<list> = <str>.split()                       # Splits on one or more whitespace characters.
 <list> = <str>.split(sep=None, maxsplit=-1)  # Splits on 'sep' str at most 'maxsplit' times.
 <list> = <str>.splitlines(keepends=False)    # On [\n\r\f\v\x1c-\x1e\x85\u2028\u2029] and \r\n.
@@ -305,42 +306,37 @@
 <int>  = <str>.find(<sub_str>)               # Returns start index of the first match or -1.
 <int>  = <str>.index(<sub_str>)              # Same, but raises ValueError if missing.
 

-
<str>  = <str>.replace(old, new [, count])   # Replaces 'old' with 'new' at most 'count' times.
+
<str>  = <str>.lower()                       # Changes the case. Also upper/capitalize/title().
+<str>  = <str>.replace(old, new [, count])   # Replaces 'old' with 'new' at most 'count' times.
 <str>  = <str>.translate(<table>)            # Use `str.maketrans(<dict>)` to generate table.
 

 
<str>  = chr(<int>)                          # Converts int to Unicode character.
 <int>  = ord(<str>)                          # Converts Unicode character to int.
 

 
    
-
  • Also: 'lstrip()', 'rstrip()' and 'rsplit()'.
    • 
-
  • Also: 'lower()', 'upper()', 'capitalize()' and 'title()'.
    • 
+
  • Use 'unicodedata.normalize("NFC", <str>)' on strings that may contain characters like 'Ö' before comparing them, because they can be stored as one or two characters.
    • 
 

-
Property Methods
┏━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━┯━━━━━━━━━━┯━━━━━━━━━━┯━━━━━━━━━━┯━━━━━━━━━━┯━━━━━━━━━━┓
-┃               │ [ !#$%…] │ [a-zA-Z] │  [¼½¾]   │  [²³¹]   │  [0-9]   ┃
-┠───────────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────┼──────────┨
-┃ isprintable() │    ✓     │    ✓     │    ✓     │    ✓     │    ✓     ┃
-┃ isalnum()     │          │    ✓     │    ✓     │    ✓     │    ✓     ┃
-┃ isnumeric()   │          │          │    ✓     │    ✓     │    ✓     ┃
-┃ isdigit()     │          │          │          │    ✓     │    ✓     ┃
-┃ isdecimal()   │          │          │          │          │    ✓     ┃
-┗━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━┛
+
Property Methods
<bool> = <str>.isdecimal()                   # Checks for [0-9].
+<bool> = <str>.isdigit()                     # Checks for [²³¹] and isdecimal().
+<bool> = <str>.isnumeric()                   # Checks for [¼½¾] and isdigit().
+<bool> = <str>.isalnum()                     # Checks for [a-zA-Z] and isnumeric().
+<bool> = <str>.isprintable()                 # Checks for [ !#$%…] and isalnum().
+<bool> = <str>.isspace()                     # Checks for [ \t\n\r\f\v\x1c-\x1f\x85\xa0…].
 

 
-
    
-
  • 'isspace()' checks for whitespaces: '[ \t\n\r\f\v\x1c-\x1f\x85\xa0\u1680…]'.
    • 
-

-
#Regex
import re
-<str>   = re.sub(<regex>, new, text, count=0)  # Substitutes all occurrences with 'new'.
+
#Regex
Functions for regular expression matching.
import re
+

+
+
+
<str>   = re.sub(<regex>, new, text, count=0)  # Substitutes all occurrences with 'new'.
 <list>  = re.findall(<regex>, text)            # Returns all occurrences as strings.
 <list>  = re.split(<regex>, text, maxsplit=0)  # Add brackets around regex to include matches.
-<Match> = re.search(<regex>, text)             # Searches for first occurrence of the pattern.
+<Match> = re.search(<regex>, text)             # First occurrence of the pattern or None.
 <Match> = re.match(<regex>, text)              # Searches only at the beginning of the text.
 <iter>  = re.finditer(<regex>, text)           # Returns all occurrences as Match objects.
-

-
+

 
    
 
  • Argument 'new' can be a function that accepts a Match object and returns a string.
    • 
-
  • Search() and match() return None if they can't find a match.
    • 
 
  • Argument 'flags=re.IGNORECASE' can be used with all functions.
    • 
 
  • Argument 'flags=re.MULTILINE' makes '^' and '$' match the start/end of each line.
    • 
 
  • Argument 'flags=re.DOTALL' makes '.' also accept the '\n'.
    • 
@@ -2929,7 +2925,7 @@ 
    Format
-

Write Rows to CSV File

def write_to_csv_file(filename, rows, dialect='excel', **params):
-    with open(filename, 'w', encoding='utf-8', newline='') as file:
+
Write Rows to CSV File
def write_to_csv_file(filename, rows, mode='w', dialect='excel', **params):
+    with open(filename, mode, encoding='utf-8', newline='') as file:
         writer = csv.writer(file, dialect, **params)
         writer.writerows(rows)
 

@@ -1979,7 +1979,7 @@ 
Format
#Curses
Runs a basic file explorer in the terminal:
import curses, os
+
#Curses
Runs a basic file explorer in the console:
import curses, os
 from curses import A_REVERSE, KEY_DOWN, KEY_UP, KEY_LEFT, KEY_RIGHT, KEY_ENTER
 
 def main(screen):
@@ -2141,7 +2141,7 @@ 
Format
Call and Flame Graphs
$ pip3 install gprof2dot snakeviz; apt/brew install graphviz
 $ tail -n 4 test.py > test.py
 $ python3 -m cProfile -o test.prof test.py
-$ gprof2dot -f pstats test.prof | dot -Tpng -o test.png; xdg-open/open test.png
+$ gprof2dot -f pstats test.prof | dot -T png -o test.png; xdg-open/open test.png
 $ snakeviz test.prof
 

 
@@ -2262,7 +2262,7 @@ 
Format
<Image> = <Image>.filter(<Filter>)                # `<Filter> = ImageFilter.<name>([<args>])`
 <Image> = <Enhance>.enhance(<float>)              # `<Enhance> = ImageEnhance.<name>(<Image>)`
 

-
<array> = np.array(<Image>)                       # Creates NumPy array from the image.
+
<array> = np.array(<Image>)                       # Creates a NumPy array from the image.
 <Image> = Image.fromarray(np.uint8(<array>))      # Use <array>.clip(0, 255) to clip values.
 

 
Modes
    
@@ -2638,7 +2638,7 @@ 
    Format
    <Sr/DF> = <DF>[column_key/s]                   # Or: <DF>.column_key
 <DF>    = <DF>[row_bools]                      # Keeps rows as specified by bools.
-<DF>    = <DF>[<DF_of_bools>]                  # Assigns NaN to values that are False in bools.
+<DF>    = <DF>[<DF_of_bools>]                  # Assigns NaN to items that are False in bools.
 

 
<DF>    = <DF> > <el/Sr/DF>                    # Returns DF of bools. Sr is treated as a row.
 <DF>    = <DF> + <el/Sr/DF>                    # Items with non-matching keys get value NaN.
@@ -2925,7 +2925,7 @@ 
Format
', ) # SQLite3/SQLAlchemy connection (see #SQLite). - = pd.read_clipboard() # Reads a copied table from the clipboard. ``` ```python @@ -3371,6 +3370,7 @@ c 7 8 6 = .groupby(column_key/s) # Splits DF into groups based on passed column. = .apply() # Maps each group. Func can return DF, Sr or el. = [column_key] # Single column GB. All operations return a Sr. + = .size() # A Sr of group sizes. Keys are group "names". ``` #### GroupBy — Aggregate, Transform, Map: diff --git a/index.html b/index.html index 73a8ad31e..5c7198ca8 100644 --- a/index.html +++ b/index.html @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@
- +
@@ -2198,6 +2198,7 @@

Format

'obj[i, j]' to 'obj[(i, j)]'! +
  • ':' returns a slice of all dimension's indexes. Omitted dimensions default to ':'.
  • Any value that is broadcastable to the indexed shape can be assigned to the selection.

    • Broadcasting

    Set of rules by which NumPy functions operate on arrays of different sizes and/or dimensions.

    left  = [[0.1], [0.6], [0.8]]                           # Shape: (3, 1)
@@ -2232,9 +2233,7 @@ 
    Format
    0. ,  0.5,  0.7],
  [ 0.5,  0. ,  0.2],
  [ 0.7,  0.2,  0. ]]
->>> i = np.arange(3)
-[0, 1, 2]
->>> distances[i, i] = np.inf
+>>> distances[range(3), range(3)] = np.inf
 [[ inf,  0.5,  0.7],
  [ 0.5,  inf,  0.2],
  [ 0.7,  0.2,  inf]]
@@ -2253,11 +2252,11 @@ 
    Format
    # Selects format based on the path extension.
 <Image>.show()                                    # Opens image in the default preview app.
    -
    <int/tuple> = <Image>.getpixel((x, y))            # Returns a pixel.
-<Image>.putpixel((x, y), <int/tuple>)             # Writes a pixel to the image.
-<ImagingCore> = <Image>.getdata()                 # Returns a flattened view of the pixels.
-<Image>.putdata(<list/ImagingCore>)               # Writes a flattened sequence of pixels.
-<Image>.paste(<Image>, (x, y))                    # Writes passed image to the image.
+
    <int/tuple> = <Image>.getpixel((x, y))            # Returns pixel's color.
+<Image>.putpixel((x, y), <int/tuple>)             # Changes pixel's color.
+<ImagingCore> = <Image>.getdata()                 # Returns a flattened view of all pixels.
+<Image>.putdata(<list/ImagingCore>)               # Updates pixels with a copy of the sequence.
+<Image>.paste(<Image>, (x, y))                    # Draws passed image at specified location.
 
    
 
    <Image> = <Image>.filter(<Filter>)                # `<Filter> = ImageFilter.<name>([<args>])`
 <Image> = <Enhance>.enhance(<float>)              # `<Enhance> = ImageEnhance.<name>(<Image>)`
@@ -2727,9 +2726,9 @@ 
    Format
    <DF> = pd.read_json/html('<str/path/url>')     # Run `$ pip3 install beautifulsoup4 lxml`.
-<DF> = pd.read_csv/pickle/excel('<path/url>')  # Use `sheet_name=None` to get all Excel sheets.
+<DF> = pd.read_csv('<path/url>')               # Also `names=<list>, parse_dates=False`.
+<DF> = pd.read_pickle/excel('<path/url>')      # Use `sheet_name=None` to get all Excel sheets.
 <DF> = pd.read_sql('<table/query>', <conn.>)   # SQLite3/SQLAlchemy connection (see #SQLite).
-<DF> = pd.read_clipboard()                     # Reads a copied table from the clipboard.
 
    
 
    <dict> = <DF>.to_dict(['d/l/s/…'])             # Returns columns as dicts, lists or series.
 <str>  = <DF>.to_json/html/csv([<path>])       # Also to_markdown/latex([<path>]).
@@ -2747,6 +2746,7 @@ 
    Format
    <GB> = <DF>.groupby(column_key/s)              # Splits DF into groups based on passed column.
 <DF> = <GB>.apply(<func>)                      # Maps each group. Func can return DF, Sr or el.
 <GB> = <GB>[column_key]                        # Single column GB. All operations return a Sr.
+<Sr> = <GB>.size()                             # A Sr of group sizes. Keys are group "names".
 
    
 
    GroupBy — Aggregate, Transform, Map:
    <DF> = <GB>.sum/max/mean/idxmax/all()          # Or: <GB>.agg(lambda <Sr>: <el>)
 <DF> = <GB>.rank/diff/cumsum/ffill()           # Or: <GB>.transform(lambda <Sr>: <Sr>)
@@ -2925,7 +2925,7 @@ 
    Format
    
 
@@ -2762,11 +2761,11 @@ 
    Format
    ┏━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━┯━━━━━━━━━━━━━┯━━━━━━━━━━━━━┯━━━━━━━━━━━━━┯━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━┓
 ┃                 │    'sum'    │    'rank'   │   ['rank']  │ {'x': 'rank'} ┃
 ┠─────────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┨
-┃ gb.agg(…)       │      x   y  │      x  y   │      x    y │        x      ┃
-┃                 │  z          │   a  1  1   │   rank rank │     a  1      ┃
-┃                 │  3   1   2  │   b  1  1   │ a    1    1 │     b  1      ┃
-┃                 │  6  11  13  │   c  2  2   │ b    1    1 │     c  2      ┃
-┃                 │             │             │ c    2    2 │               ┃
+┃ gb.agg(…)       │      x   y  │             │      x    y │               ┃
+┃                 │  z          │      x  y   │   rank rank │        x      ┃
+┃                 │  3   1   2  │   a  1  1   │ a    1    1 │     a  1      ┃
+┃                 │  6  11  13  │   b  1  1   │ b    1    1 │     b  1      ┃
+┃                 │             │   c  2  2   │ c    2    2 │     c  2      ┃
 ┠─────────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┨
 ┃ gb.transform(…) │      x   y  │      x  y   │             │               ┃
 ┃                 │  a   1   2  │   a  1  1   │             │               ┃
@@ -2925,7 +2924,7 @@ 
    Format

    = - # Ignores jumps. Convert to UTC for actual delta. = - # Ignores time jumps if they share tzinfo object. = ± # Returned datetime can fall into missing hour. - = * # Also: = abs() and = ±% . + = * # Also: = abs() and = ±% . = / # How many weeks/years there are in TD. Also //. ``` diff --git a/index.html b/index.html index 38de5f700..069820740 100644 --- a/index.html +++ b/index.html @@ -579,7 +579,7 @@ <TD> = <D/DTn> - <D/DTn> # Ignores jumps. Convert to UTC for actual delta. <TD> = <DTa> - <DTa> # Ignores time jumps if they share tzinfo object. <D/DT> = <D/DT> ± <TD> # Returned datetime can fall into missing hour. -<TD> = <TD> * <int/float> # Also: <TD> = abs(<TD>) and <TD> = <TD> ±% <TD>. +<TD> = <TD> * <float> # Also: <TD> = abs(<TD>) and <TD> = <TD> ±% <TD>. <float> = <TD> / <TD> # How many weeks/years there are in TD. Also //. From 58ad56cb80be2d1073c31b31733b9cb40ec07f3d Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: =?UTF-8?q?Jure=20=C5=A0orn?= Date: Sun, 12 Nov 2023 17:13:01 +0100 Subject: [PATCH 006/359] Plotly --- README.md | 20 +++++++++++--------- index.html | 24 +++++++++++++----------- web/covid_cases.js | 2 +- 3 files changed, 25 insertions(+), 21 deletions(-) diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index 24e97c6f9..b9e7c5d61 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -3428,7 +3428,7 @@ import pandas as pd, plotly.express as ex #### Displays a line chart of total coronavirus deaths per million grouped by continent: ![Covid Deaths](web/covid_deaths.png) -
    +
    ```python covid = pd.read_csv('https://covid.ourworldindata.org/data/owid-covid-data.csv', @@ -3447,25 +3447,26 @@ ex.line(df, x='Date', y='Total Deaths per Million', color='Continent').show() #### Displays a multi-axis line chart of total coronavirus cases and changes in prices of Bitcoin, Dow Jones and gold: ![Covid Cases](web/covid_cases.png) -
    +
    ```python import pandas as pd, plotly.graph_objects as go def main(): - display_data(wrangle_data(*scrape_data())) + covid, bitcoin, gold, dow = scrape_data() + display_data(wrangle_data(covid, bitcoin, gold, dow)) def scrape_data(): - def scrape_covid(): + def get_covid_cases(): url = 'https://covid.ourworldindata.org/data/owid-covid-data.csv' df = pd.read_csv(url, usecols=['location', 'date', 'total_cases']) return df[df.location == 'World'].set_index('date').total_cases - def scrape_yahoo(slug): - url = (f'https://query1.finance.yahoo.com/v7/finance/download/{slug}?' + def get_ticker(symbol): + url = (f'https://query1.finance.yahoo.com/v7/finance/download/{symbol}?' 'period1=1579651200&period2=9999999999&interval=1d&events=history') df = pd.read_csv(url, usecols=['Date', 'Close']) return df.set_index('Date').Close - out = scrape_covid(), scrape_yahoo('BTC-USD'), scrape_yahoo('GC=F'), scrape_yahoo('^DJI') + out = get_covid_cases(), get_ticker('BTC-USD'), get_ticker('GC=F'), get_ticker('^DJI') return map(pd.Series.rename, out, ['Total Cases', 'Bitcoin', 'Gold', 'Dow Jones']) def wrangle_data(covid, bitcoin, gold, dow): @@ -3485,8 +3486,9 @@ def display_data(df): figure.update_layout( yaxis1=dict(title='Total Cases', rangemode='tozero'), yaxis2=dict(title='%', rangemode='tozero', overlaying='y', side='right'), - legend=dict(x=1.1), - height=450 + legend=dict(x=1.08), + width=944, + height=423 ) figure.show() diff --git a/index.html b/index.html index 069820740..5c5251ff8 100644 --- a/index.html +++ b/index.html @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@
    - +
    @@ -2786,7 +2786,7 @@

    Format

    '<path>') # Also <Figure>.show().

    -

    Displays a line chart of total coronavirus deaths per million grouped by continent:

    covid = pd.read_csv('https://covid.ourworldindata.org/data/owid-covid-data.csv',
+
    Displays a line chart of total coronavirus deaths per million grouped by continent:
    covid = pd.read_csv('https://covid.ourworldindata.org/data/owid-covid-data.csv',
                     usecols=['iso_code', 'date', 'total_deaths', 'population'])
 continents = pd.read_csv('https://gist.githubusercontent.com/stevewithington/20a69c0b6d2ff'
                          '846ea5d35e5fc47f26c/raw/country-and-continent-codes-list-csv.csv',
@@ -2801,22 +2801,23 @@ 
    Format
    Displays a multi-axis line chart of total coronavirus cases and changes in prices of Bitcoin, Dow Jones and gold:
    import pandas as pd, plotly.graph_objects as go
+
    Displays a multi-axis line chart of total coronavirus cases and changes in prices of Bitcoin, Dow Jones and gold:
    import pandas as pd, plotly.graph_objects as go
 
 def main():
-    display_data(wrangle_data(*scrape_data()))
+    covid, bitcoin, gold, dow = scrape_data()
+    display_data(wrangle_data(covid, bitcoin, gold, dow))
 
 def scrape_data():
-    def scrape_covid():
+    def get_covid_cases():
         url = 'https://covid.ourworldindata.org/data/owid-covid-data.csv'
         df = pd.read_csv(url, usecols=['location', 'date', 'total_cases'])
         return df[df.location == 'World'].set_index('date').total_cases
-    def scrape_yahoo(slug):
-        url = (f'https://query1.finance.yahoo.com/v7/finance/download/{slug}?'
+    def get_ticker(symbol):
+        url = (f'https://query1.finance.yahoo.com/v7/finance/download/{symbol}?'
                'period1=1579651200&period2=9999999999&interval=1d&events=history')
         df = pd.read_csv(url, usecols=['Date', 'Close'])
         return df.set_index('Date').Close
-    out = scrape_covid(), scrape_yahoo('BTC-USD'), scrape_yahoo('GC=F'), scrape_yahoo('^DJI')
+    out = get_covid_cases(), get_ticker('BTC-USD'), get_ticker('GC=F'), get_ticker('^DJI')
     return map(pd.Series.rename, out, ['Total Cases', 'Bitcoin', 'Gold', 'Dow Jones'])
 
 def wrangle_data(covid, bitcoin, gold, dow):
@@ -2836,8 +2837,9 @@ 
    Format
    'Total Cases', rangemode='tozero'),
         yaxis2=dict(title='%', rangemode='tozero', overlaying='y', side='right'),
-        legend=dict(x=1.1),
-        height=450
+        legend=dict(x=1.08),
+        width=944,
+        height=423
     )
     figure.show()
 
@@ -2924,7 +2926,7 @@ 
    Format
    
 
 
    <Formatter> = logging.Formatter('<format>')          # Creates a Formatter.
-<Handler> = logging.FileHandler(<path>)              # Creates a Handler.
+<Handler> = logging.FileHandler(<path>, mode='a')    # Creates a Handler. Also `encoding=None`.
 <Handler>.setFormatter(<Formatter>)                  # Adds Formatter to the Handler.
 <Handler>.setLevel(<int/str>)                        # Processes all messages by default.
 <Logger>.addHandler(<Handler>)                       # Adds Handler to the Logger.
@@ -2036,10 +2036,10 @@ 
    Format
    'handlers.RotatingFileHandler' creates and deletes log files based on 'maxBytes' and 'backupCount' arguments.
 
 
    Creates a logger that writes all messages to file and sends them to the root's handler that prints warnings or higher:
    >>> logger = logging.getLogger('my_module')
->>> handler = logging.FileHandler('test.log')
+>>> handler = logging.FileHandler('test.log', encoding='utf-8')
 >>> formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(levelname)s:%(name)s:%(message)s')
->>> logger.addHandler(handler)
 >>> handler.setFormatter(formatter)
+>>> logger.addHandler(handler)
 >>> logging.basicConfig(level='DEBUG')
 >>> logging.root.handlers[0].setLevel('WARNING')
 >>> logger.critical('Running out of disk space.')
@@ -2926,7 +2926,7 @@ 
    Format
    		 = - # Ignores time jumps if they share tzinfo object. = ± # Returned datetime can fall into missing hour. = * # Also: = abs() and = ±% . - = / # How many weeks/years there are in TD. Also //. + = / # How many hours/weeks/years are in TD. Also //. ``` @@ -1459,7 +1459,7 @@ BaseException +-- OSError # Errors such as FileExistsError/PermissionError (see #Open). | +-- ConnectionError # Errors such as BrokenPipeError/ConnectionAbortedError. +-- RuntimeError # Raised by errors that don't fall into other categories. - | +-- NotImplementedErr # Can be raised by abstract methods or by unfinished code. + | +-- NotImplementedEr… # Can be raised by abstract methods or by unfinished code. | +-- RecursionError # Raised when the maximum recursion depth is exceeded. +-- StopIteration # Raised by next() when run on an empty iterator. +-- TypeError # Raised when an argument is of the wrong type. @@ -1482,7 +1482,7 @@ BaseException ```python raise TypeError('Argument is of the wrong type!') raise ValueError('Argument has the right type but an inappropriate value!') -raise RuntimeError('None of above!') +raise RuntimeError('I am too lazy to define my own exception!') ``` ### User-defined Exceptions diff --git a/index.html b/index.html index 7d8e0f6e3..d53c2c650 100644 --- a/index.html +++ b/index.html @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@
    - +
    @@ -580,7 +580,7 @@ <TD> = <DTa> - <DTa> # Ignores time jumps if they share tzinfo object. <D/DT> = <D/DT> ± <TD> # Returned datetime can fall into missing hour. <TD> = <TD> * <float> # Also: <TD> = abs(<TD>) and <TD> = <TD> ±% <TD>. -<float> = <TD> / <TD> # How many weeks/years there are in TD. Also //. +<float> = <TD> / <TD> # How many hours/weeks/years are in TD. Also //.

    #Arguments

    Inside Function Call

    func(<positional_args>)                           # func(0, 0)
@@ -1244,7 +1244,7 @@
       ├── OSError                 # Errors such as FileExistsError/PermissionError (see #Open).
       │    └── ConnectionError    # Errors such as BrokenPipeError/ConnectionAbortedError.
       ├── RuntimeError            # Raised by errors that don't fall into other categories.
-      │    ├── NotImplementedErr  # Can be raised by abstract methods or by unfinished code.
+      │    ├── NotImplementedEr…  # Can be raised by abstract methods or by unfinished code.
       │    └── RecursionError     # Raised when the maximum recursion depth is exceeded.
       ├── StopIteration           # Raised by next() when run on an empty iterator.
       ├── TypeError               # Raised when an argument is of the wrong type.
@@ -1263,7 +1263,7 @@
 
 
    Useful built-in exceptions:
    raise TypeError('Argument is of the wrong type!')
 raise ValueError('Argument has the right type but an inappropriate value!')
-raise RuntimeError('None of above!')
+raise RuntimeError('I am too lazy to define my own exception!')
 
    
 
 
    User-defined Exceptions
    class MyError(Exception): pass
@@ -2933,7 +2933,7 @@ 
    Format
    
 
 
    Inheritance
    class Person:
-    def __init__(self, name, age):
+    def __init__(self, name):
         self.name = name
-        self.age  = age
 
 class Employee(Person):
-    def __init__(self, name, age, staff_num):
-        super().__init__(name, age)
+    def __init__(self, name, staff_num):
+        super().__init__(name)
         self.staff_num = staff_num
 
    
 

From 8efaa5fd435e75ca38cf483a6b4304a69af0f334 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: =?UTF-8?q?Jure=20=C5=A0orn?= 
Date: Sun, 7 Jan 2024 00:24:00 +0100
Subject: [PATCH 024/359] Switched Logging and Introspection, Array

---
 README.md       | 55 +++++++++++++++++++++++++------------------------
 index.html      | 43 +++++++++++++++++++-------------------
 parse.js        |  2 +-
 web/script_2.js |  6 +++---
 4 files changed, 54 insertions(+), 52 deletions(-)

diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index c86b86a11..1c0737c97 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ Contents
 **   ** **3. Syntax:** **         **  **[`Args`](#arguments)**__,__ **[`Inline`](#inline)**__,__ **[`Import`](#imports)**__,__ **[`Decorator`](#decorator)**__,__ **[`Class`](#class)**__,__ **[`Duck_Types`](#duck-types)**__,__ **[`Enum`](#enum)**__,__ **[`Exception`](#exceptions)**__.__  
 **   ** **4. System:** **        **  **[`Exit`](#exit)**__,__ **[`Print`](#print)**__,__ **[`Input`](#input)**__,__ **[`Command_Line_Arguments`](#command-line-arguments)**__,__ **[`Open`](#open)**__,__ **[`Path`](#paths)**__,__ **[`OS_Commands`](#os-commands)**__.__  
 **   ** **5. Data:** **             **  **[`JSON`](#json)**__,__ **[`Pickle`](#pickle)**__,__ **[`CSV`](#csv)**__,__ **[`SQLite`](#sqlite)**__,__ **[`Bytes`](#bytes)**__,__ **[`Struct`](#struct)**__,__ **[`Array`](#array)**__,__ **[`Memory_View`](#memory-view)**__,__ **[`Deque`](#deque)**__.__  
-**   ** **6. Advanced:** **   **  **[`Threading`](#threading)**__,__ **[`Operator`](#operator)**__,__ **[`Match_Stmt`](#match-statement)**__,__ **[`Introspection`](#introspection)**__,__ **[`Logging`](#logging)**__,__ **[`Coroutines`](#coroutines)**__.__  
+**   ** **6. Advanced:** **   **  **[`Threading`](#threading)**__,__ **[`Operator`](#operator)**__,__ **[`Match_Stmt`](#match-statement)**__,__ **[`Logging`](#logging)**__,__ **[`Introspection`](#introspection)**__,__ **[`Coroutines`](#coroutines)**__.__  
 **   ** **7. Libraries:** **      **  **[`Progress_Bar`](#progress-bar)**__,__ **[`Plots`](#plot)**__,__ **[`Tables`](#table)**__,__ **[`Curses`](#curses)**__,__ **[`GUIs`](#pysimplegui)**__,__ **[`Scraping`](#scraping)**__,__ **[`Web`](#web)**__,__ **[`Profiling`](#profiling)**__.__  
 **   ** **8. Multimedia:** **  **  **[`NumPy`](#numpy)**__,__ **[`Image`](#image)**__,__ **[`Animation`](#animation)**__,__ **[`Audio`](#audio)**__,__ **[`Synthesizer`](#synthesizer)**__,__ **[`Pygame`](#pygame)**__,__ **[`Pandas`](#pandas)**__,__ **[`Plotly`](#plotly)**__.__
 
@@ -2037,6 +2037,7 @@ from array import array
  = array('', )    # Array from collection of numbers.
  = array('', )         # Array from bytes object.
  = array('', )         # Treats array as a sequence of numbers.
+.fromfile(, n_items)              # Appends items. Raises EOFError on end.
  = bytes()                       # Or: .tobytes()
 .write()                          # Writes array to the binary file.
 ```
@@ -2224,32 +2225,6 @@ match :
 ```
 
 
-Introspection
--------------
-```python
- = dir()                             # Names of local variables, functions, classes, etc.
- = vars()                            # Dict of local variables, etc. Also locals().
- = globals()                         # Dict of global vars, etc. (incl. '__builtins__').
-```
-
-```python
- = dir()                     # Names of object's attributes (including methods).
- = vars()                    # Dict of writable attributes. Also .__dict__.
- = hasattr(, '')  # Checks if getattr() raises an AttributeError.
-value  = getattr(, '')  # Raises AttributeError if attribute is missing.
-setattr(, '', value)    # Only works on objects with '__dict__' attribute.
-delattr(, '')           # Same. Also `del .`.
-```
-
-```python
-  = inspect.signature()     # Function's Signature object.
- = .parameters                  # Dict of Parameter objects.
- = .kind                      # Member of ParameterKind enum.
-  = .default                   # Default value or Parameter.empty.
- = .annotation                # Type or Parameter.empty.
-```
-
-
 Logging
 -------
 ```python
@@ -2303,6 +2278,32 @@ CRITICAL:my_module:Running out of disk space.
 ```
 
 
+Introspection
+-------------
+```python
+ = dir()                             # Names of local variables, functions, classes, etc.
+ = vars()                            # Dict of local variables, etc. Also locals().
+ = globals()                         # Dict of global vars, etc. (incl. '__builtins__').
+```
+
+```python
+ = dir()                     # Names of object's attributes (including methods).
+ = vars()                    # Dict of writable attributes. Also .__dict__.
+ = hasattr(, '')  # Checks if getattr() raises an AttributeError.
+value  = getattr(, '')  # Raises AttributeError if attribute is missing.
+setattr(, '', value)    # Only works on objects with '__dict__' attribute.
+delattr(, '')           # Same. Also `del .`.
+```
+
+```python
+  = inspect.signature()     # Function's Signature object.
+ = .parameters                  # Dict of Parameter objects.
+ = .kind                      # Member of ParameterKind enum.
+  = .default                   # Default value or Parameter.empty.
+ = .annotation                # Type or Parameter.empty.
+```
+
+
 Coroutines
 ----------
 * **Coroutines have a lot in common with threads, but unlike threads, they only give up control when they call another coroutine and they don’t use as much memory.**
diff --git a/index.html b/index.html
index 4f71a5676..8c3eebedf 100644
--- a/index.html
+++ b/index.html
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@
 
 
   
    
-    
+    
     
   
    
 
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@
     '3. Syntax':      [Args, Inline, Import, Decorator, Class, Duck_Types, Enum, Exception],
     '4. System':      [Exit, Print, Input, Command_Line_Arguments, Open, Path, OS_Commands],
     '5. Data':        [JSON, Pickle, CSV, SQLite, Bytes, Struct, Array, Memory_View, Deque],
-    '6. Advanced':    [Threading, Operator, Match_Stmt, Introspection, Logging, Coroutines],
+    '6. Advanced':    [Threading, Operator, Match_Stmt, Logging, Introspection, Coroutines],
     '7. Libraries':   [Progress_Bar, Plots, Tables, Curses, GUIs, Scraping, Web, Profiling],
     '8. Multimedia':  [NumPy, Image, Animation, Audio, Synthesizer, Pygame, Pandas, Plotly]
 }
@@ -1685,6 +1685,7 @@ 
    Format
    '<typecode>', <collection>)    # Array from collection of numbers.
 <array> = array('<typecode>', <bytes>)         # Array from bytes object.
 <array> = array('<typecode>', <array>)         # Treats array as a sequence of numbers.
+<array>.fromfile(<file>, n_items)              # Appends items. Raises EOFError on end.
 <bytes> = bytes(<array>)                       # Or: <array>.tobytes()
 <file>.write(<array>)                          # Writes array to the binary file.
 
    
@@ -1835,24 +1836,6 @@ 
    Format
    'README.md is a readme file that belongs to user gto.'
 
    
 
-
    #Introspection
    <list> = dir()                             # Names of local variables, functions, classes, etc.
-<dict> = vars()                            # Dict of local variables, etc. Also locals().
-<dict> = globals()                         # Dict of global vars, etc. (incl. '__builtins__').
-
    
-
-
    <list> = dir(<object>)                     # Names of object's attributes (including methods).
-<dict> = vars(<object>)                    # Dict of writable attributes. Also <obj>.__dict__.
-<bool> = hasattr(<object>, '<attr_name>')  # Checks if getattr() raises an AttributeError.
-value  = getattr(<object>, '<attr_name>')  # Raises AttributeError if attribute is missing.
-setattr(<object>, '<attr_name>', value)    # Only works on objects with '__dict__' attribute.
-delattr(<object>, '<attr_name>')           # Same. Also `del <object>.<attr_name>`.
-
    
-
    <Sig>  = inspect.signature(<function>)     # Function's Signature object.
-<dict> = <Sig>.parameters                  # Dict of Parameter objects.
-<memb> = <Param>.kind                      # Member of ParameterKind enum.
-<obj>  = <Param>.default                   # Default value or Parameter.empty.
-<type> = <Param>.annotation                # Type or Parameter.empty.
-
    
 
    #Logging
    import logging
 
    
 
@@ -1896,6 +1879,24 @@ 
    Format
    #Introspection
    <list> = dir()                             # Names of local variables, functions, classes, etc.
+<dict> = vars()                            # Dict of local variables, etc. Also locals().
+<dict> = globals()                         # Dict of global vars, etc. (incl. '__builtins__').
+
    
+
+
    <list> = dir(<object>)                     # Names of object's attributes (including methods).
+<dict> = vars(<object>)                    # Dict of writable attributes. Also <obj>.__dict__.
+<bool> = hasattr(<object>, '<attr_name>')  # Checks if getattr() raises an AttributeError.
+value  = getattr(<object>, '<attr_name>')  # Raises AttributeError if attribute is missing.
+setattr(<object>, '<attr_name>', value)    # Only works on objects with '__dict__' attribute.
+delattr(<object>, '<attr_name>')           # Same. Also `del <object>.<attr_name>`.
+
    
+
    <Sig>  = inspect.signature(<function>)     # Function's Signature object.
+<dict> = <Sig>.parameters                  # Dict of Parameter objects.
+<memb> = <Param>.kind                      # Member of ParameterKind enum.
+<obj>  = <Param>.default                   # Default value or Parameter.empty.
+<type> = <Param>.annotation                # Type or Parameter.empty.
+
    
 
    #Coroutines
      
 
    • Coroutines have a lot in common with threads, but unlike threads, they only give up control when they call another coroutine and they don’t use as much memory.
      • 
 
    • Coroutine definition starts with 'async' and its call with 'await'.
      • 
@@ -2932,7 +2933,7 @@ 
      Format
      
-
-
+
    
 
 

    
 
    Libraries
    #Progress Bar
    # $ pip3 install tqdm
@@ -2932,7 +2933,7 @@ 
    Format
    		 = - # Ignores jumps. Convert to UTC for actual delta. - = - # Ignores time jumps if they share tzinfo object. + = - # Ignores jumps if they share tzinfo object. = ± # Returned datetime can fall into missing hour. = * # Also: = abs() and = ±% . = / # How many hours/weeks/years are in TD. Also //. @@ -1951,26 +1951,26 @@ Bytes **Bytes object is an immutable sequence of single bytes. Mutable version is called bytearray.** ```python - = b'' # Only accepts ASCII characters and \x00-\xff. - = [] # Returns an int in range from 0 to 255. - = [] # Returns bytes even if it has only one element. - = .join() # Joins elements using bytes as a separator. + = b'' # Only accepts ASCII characters and \x00-\xff. + = [] # Returns an int in range from 0 to 255. + = [] # Returns bytes even if it has only one element. + = .join() # Joins elements using bytes as a separator. ``` ### Encode ```python - = bytes() # Ints must be in range from 0 to 255. - = bytes(, 'utf-8') # Or: .encode('utf-8') - = .to_bytes(n_bytes, …) # `byteorder='big/little', signed=False`. - = bytes.fromhex('') # Hex pairs can be separated by whitespaces. + = bytes() # Ints must be in range from 0 to 255. + = bytes(, 'utf-8') # Or: .encode('utf-8') + = .to_bytes(n_bytes, …) # `byteorder='big/little', signed=False`. + = bytes.fromhex('') # Hex pairs can be separated by whitespaces. ``` ### Decode ```python - = list() # Returns ints in range from 0 to 255. - = str(, 'utf-8') # Or: .decode('utf-8') - = int.from_bytes(, …) # `byteorder='big/little', signed=False`. -'' = .hex() # Returns hex pairs. Accepts `sep=`. + = list() # Returns ints in range from 0 to 255. + = str(, 'utf-8') # Or: .decode('utf-8') + = int.from_bytes(, …) # `byteorder='big/little', signed=False`. +'' = .hex() # Returns hex pairs. Accepts `sep=`. ``` ### Read Bytes from File @@ -2009,12 +2009,12 @@ b'\x00\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03' ### Format #### For standard type sizes and manual alignment (padding) start format string with: * **`'='` - System's byte order (usually little-endian).** -* **`'<'` - Little-endian.** +* **`'<'` - Little-endian (i.e. least significant byte first).** * **`'>'` - Big-endian (also `'!'`).** #### Besides numbers, pack() and unpack() also support bytes objects as part of the sequence: * **`'c'` - A bytes object with a single element. For pad byte use `'x'`.** -* **`'s'` - A bytes object with n elements.** +* **`'s'` - A bytes object with n elements (not effected by byte order).** #### Integer types. Use a capital letter for unsigned type. Minimum and standard sizes are in brackets: * **`'b'` - char (1/1)** @@ -2414,7 +2414,7 @@ plt.clf() # Clears the figure. Table ----- -#### Prints a CSV file as an ASCII table: +#### Prints a CSV spreadsheet to the console: ```python # $ pip3 install tabulate import csv, tabulate @@ -2676,7 +2676,7 @@ import numpy as np = np.tile/repeat(, [, axis]) # Tiles array or repeats its elements. ``` * **Shape is a tuple of dimension sizes. A 100x50 RGB image has shape (50, 100, 3).** -* **Axis is an index of the dimension that gets aggregated. Leftmost dimension has index 0. Summing the RGB image along axis 2 will return a greyscale image with shape (50, 100).** +* **Axis is an index of a dimension. Leftmost dimension has index 0. Summing the RGB image along axis 2 will return a greyscale image with shape (50, 100).** ### Indexing ```perl @@ -2858,21 +2858,21 @@ import wave ``` ```python - = wave.open('', 'rb') # Opens the WAV file. - = .getframerate() # Returns number of frames per second. - = .getnchannels() # Returns number of samples per frame. - = .getsampwidth() # Returns number of bytes per sample. - = .getparams() # Returns collection of listed params. - = .readframes(nframes) # Returns next n frames. All if -1. + = wave.open('', 'rb') # Opens the WAV file. + = .getframerate() # Returns number of frames per second. + = .getnchannels() # Returns number of samples per frame. + = .getsampwidth() # Returns number of bytes per sample. + = .getparams() # Returns namedtuple of all parameters. + = .readframes(nframes) # Returns next n frames. All if -1. ``` ```python - = wave.open('', 'wb') # Opens WAV file for writing. -.setframerate() # Pass 44100 for CD, 48000 for video. -.setnchannels() # Pass 1 for mono, 2 for stereo. -.setsampwidth() # Pass 2 for CD, 3 for hi-res sound. -.setparams() # Sets all parameters. -.writeframes() # Appends frames to the file. + = wave.open('', 'wb') # Creates/truncates a file for writing. +.setframerate() # Pass 44100 for CD, 48000 for video. +.setnchannels() # Pass 1 for mono, 2 for stereo. +.setsampwidth() # Pass 2 for CD, 3 for hi-res sound. +.setparams() # Sets all parameters. +.writeframes() # Appends frames to the file. ``` * **Bytes object contains a sequence of frames, each consisting of one or more samples.** * **In a stereo signal, the first sample of a frame belongs to the left channel.** @@ -3007,7 +3007,7 @@ while not pg.event.get(pg.QUIT): ```python = .collidepoint((x, y)) # Checks if rectangle contains the point. - = .colliderect() # Checks if two rectangles overlap. + = .colliderect() # Checks if the two rectangles overlap. = .collidelist() # Returns index of first colliding Rect or -1. = .collidelistall() # Returns indexes of all colliding rectangles. ``` @@ -3025,7 +3025,7 @@ while not pg.event.get(pg.QUIT): ```python .fill(color) # Tuple, Color('#rrggbb[aa]') or Color(). .set_at((x, y), color) # Updates pixel. Also .get_at((x, y)). -.blit(, (x, y)) # Draws passed surface to the surface. +.blit(, (x, y)) # Draws passed surface at specified location. ``` ```python @@ -3051,7 +3051,7 @@ rect(, color, , width=0) # Also polygon(, color, po ### Sound ```python = pg.mixer.Sound() # WAV file or bytes/array of signed shorts. -.play/stop() # Also .set_volume(). +.play/stop() # Also set_volume(), fadeout(msec). ``` ### Basic Mario Brothers Example @@ -3373,7 +3373,7 @@ c 7 8 6 = .groupby(column_key/s) # Splits DF into groups based on passed column. = .apply() # Maps each group. Func can return DF, Sr or el. = [column_key] # Single column GB. All operations return a Sr. - = .size() # A Sr of group sizes. Keys are group "names". + = .size() # A Sr of group sizes. Same keys as get_group(). ``` #### GroupBy — Aggregate, Transform, Map: diff --git a/index.html b/index.html index 269e48ff2..c0eaea6c1 100644 --- a/index.html +++ b/index.html @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@
    - +
    @@ -576,9 +576,9 @@
  • '%Z' accepts 'UTC/GMT' and local timezone's code and returns timezone's name, 'UTC[±HH:MM]' if timezone is nameless, or an empty string if datetime is naive.

    • Arithmetics

    <bool>   = <D/T/DTn> > <D/T/DTn>            # Ignores time jumps (fold attribute). Also ==.
-<bool>   = <DTa>     > <DTa>                # Ignores time jumps if they share tzinfo object.
+<bool>   = <DTa>     > <DTa>                # Ignores jumps if they share tz object. Broken ==.
 <TD>     = <D/DTn>   - <D/DTn>              # Ignores jumps. Convert to UTC for actual delta.
-<TD>     = <DTa>     - <DTa>                # Ignores time jumps if they share tzinfo object.
+<TD>     = <DTa>     - <DTa>                # Ignores jumps if they share tzinfo object.
 <D/DT>   = <D/DT>    ± <TD>                 # Returned datetime can fall into missing hour.
 <TD>     = <TD>      * <float>              # Also: <TD> = abs(<TD>) and <TD> = <TD> ±% <TD>.
 <float>  = <TD>      / <TD>                 # How many hours/weeks/years are in TD. Also //.
@@ -1614,23 +1614,23 @@
 ┃ oracle     │ oracledb     │ oracledb │ www.pypi.org/project/oracledb    ┃
 ┗━━━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━┷━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━┛
    -

    #Bytes

    Bytes object is an immutable sequence of single bytes. Mutable version is called bytearray.

    <bytes> = b'<str>'                          # Only accepts ASCII characters and \x00-\xff.
-<int>   = <bytes>[<index>]                  # Returns an int in range from 0 to 255.
-<bytes> = <bytes>[<slice>]                  # Returns bytes even if it has only one element.
-<bytes> = <bytes>.join(<coll_of_bytes>)     # Joins elements using bytes as a separator.
+
    #Bytes
    Bytes object is an immutable sequence of single bytes. Mutable version is called bytearray.
    <bytes> = b'<str>'                       # Only accepts ASCII characters and \x00-\xff.
+<int>   = <bytes>[<index>]               # Returns an int in range from 0 to 255.
+<bytes> = <bytes>[<slice>]               # Returns bytes even if it has only one element.
+<bytes> = <bytes>.join(<coll_of_bytes>)  # Joins elements using bytes as a separator.
 
    
 
 
-
    Encode
    <bytes> = bytes(<coll_of_ints>)             # Ints must be in range from 0 to 255.
-<bytes> = bytes(<str>, 'utf-8')             # Or: <str>.encode('utf-8')
-<bytes> = <int>.to_bytes(n_bytes, …)        # `byteorder='big/little', signed=False`.
-<bytes> = bytes.fromhex('<hex>')            # Hex pairs can be separated by whitespaces.
+
    Encode
    <bytes> = bytes(<coll_of_ints>)          # Ints must be in range from 0 to 255.
+<bytes> = bytes(<str>, 'utf-8')          # Or: <str>.encode('utf-8')
+<bytes> = <int>.to_bytes(n_bytes, …)     # `byteorder='big/little', signed=False`.
+<bytes> = bytes.fromhex('<hex>')         # Hex pairs can be separated by whitespaces.
 
    
 
-
    Decode
    <list>  = list(<bytes>)                     # Returns ints in range from 0 to 255.
-<str>   = str(<bytes>, 'utf-8')             # Or: <bytes>.decode('utf-8')
-<int>   = int.from_bytes(<bytes>, …)        # `byteorder='big/little', signed=False`.
-'<hex>' = <bytes>.hex()                     # Returns hex pairs. Accepts `sep=<str>`.
+
    Decode
    <list>  = list(<bytes>)                  # Returns ints in range from 0 to 255.
+<str>   = str(<bytes>, 'utf-8')          # Or: <bytes>.decode('utf-8')
+<int>   = int.from_bytes(<bytes>, …)     # `byteorder='big/little', signed=False`.
+'<hex>' = <bytes>.hex()                  # Returns hex pairs. Accepts `sep=<str>`.
 
    
 
 
    Read Bytes from File
    def read_bytes(filename):
@@ -1659,11 +1659,11 @@
 
    
 
    Format
    For standard type sizes and manual alignment (padding) start format string with:
      
 
    • '=' - System's byte order (usually little-endian).
      • 
-
    • '<' - Little-endian.
      • 
+
    • '<' - Little-endian (i.e. least significant byte first).
      • 
 
    • '>' - Big-endian (also '!').
      • 
 
    Besides numbers, pack() and unpack() also support bytes objects as part of the sequence:
      
 
    • 'c' - A bytes object with a single element. For pad byte use 'x'.
      • 
-
    • '<n>s' - A bytes object with n elements.
      • 
+
    • '<n>s' - A bytes object with n elements (not effected by byte order).
      • 
 
    Integer types. Use a capital letter for unsigned type. Minimum and standard sizes are in brackets:
      
 
    • 'b' - char (1/1)
      • 
 
    • 'h' - short (2/2)
      • 
@@ -1987,7 +1987,7 @@ 
      Format
      # Clears the figure.
 
    
 
-
    #Table
    Prints a CSV file as an ASCII table:
    # $ pip3 install tabulate
+
    #Table
    Prints a CSV spreadsheet to the console:
    # $ pip3 install tabulate
 import csv, tabulate
 with open('test.csv', encoding='utf-8', newline='') as file:
     rows = list(csv.reader(file))
@@ -2197,7 +2197,7 @@ 
    Format
    Indexing
    <el>       = <2d_array>[row_index, column_index]        # <3d_a>[table_i, row_i, column_i]
 <1d_view>  = <2d_array>[row_index]                      # <3d_a>[table_i, row_i]
@@ -2341,19 +2341,19 @@ 
    Format
    #Audio
    import wave
 
    
 
-
    <Wave>   = wave.open('<path>', 'rb')   # Opens the WAV file.
-<int>    = <Wave>.getframerate()       # Returns number of frames per second.
-<int>    = <Wave>.getnchannels()       # Returns number of samples per frame.
-<int>    = <Wave>.getsampwidth()       # Returns number of bytes per sample.
-<params> = <Wave>.getparams()          # Returns collection of listed params.
-<bytes>  = <Wave>.readframes(nframes)  # Returns next n frames. All if -1.
+
    <Wave>  = wave.open('<path>', 'rb')   # Opens the WAV file.
+<int>   = <Wave>.getframerate()       # Returns number of frames per second.
+<int>   = <Wave>.getnchannels()       # Returns number of samples per frame.
+<int>   = <Wave>.getsampwidth()       # Returns number of bytes per sample.
+<tuple> = <Wave>.getparams()          # Returns namedtuple of all parameters.
+<bytes> = <Wave>.readframes(nframes)  # Returns next n frames. All if -1.
 
    
-
    <Wave> = wave.open('<path>', 'wb')     # Opens WAV file for writing.
-<Wave>.setframerate(<int>)             # Pass 44100 for CD, 48000 for video.
-<Wave>.setnchannels(<int>)             # Pass 1 for mono, 2 for stereo.
-<Wave>.setsampwidth(<int>)             # Pass 2 for CD, 3 for hi-res sound.
-<Wave>.setparams(<params>)             # Sets all parameters.
-<Wave>.writeframes(<bytes>)            # Appends frames to the file.
+
    <Wave> = wave.open('<path>', 'wb')    # Creates/truncates a file for writing.
+<Wave>.setframerate(<int>)            # Pass 44100 for CD, 48000 for video.
+<Wave>.setnchannels(<int>)            # Pass 1 for mono, 2 for stereo.
+<Wave>.setsampwidth(<int>)            # Pass 2 for CD, 3 for hi-res sound.
+<Wave>.setparams(<tuple>)             # Sets all parameters.
+<Wave>.writeframes(<bytes>)           # Appends frames to the file.
 
    
 
      
 
    • Bytes object contains a sequence of frames, each consisting of one or more samples.
      • 
@@ -2464,7 +2464,7 @@ 
      Format
      <bool> = <Rect>.collidepoint((x, y))            # Checks if rectangle contains the point.
-<bool> = <Rect>.colliderect(<Rect>)             # Checks if two rectangles overlap.
+<bool> = <Rect>.colliderect(<Rect>)             # Checks if the two rectangles overlap.
 <int>  = <Rect>.collidelist(<list_of_Rect>)     # Returns index of first colliding Rect or -1.
 <list> = <Rect>.collidelistall(<list_of_Rect>)  # Returns indexes of all colliding rectangles.
 
    
@@ -2478,7 +2478,7 @@ 
    Format
    <Surf>.fill(color)                              # Tuple, Color('#rrggbb[aa]') or Color(<name>).
 <Surf>.set_at((x, y), color)                    # Updates pixel. Also <Surf>.get_at((x, y)).
-<Surf>.blit(<Surf>, (x, y))                     # Draws passed surface to the surface.
+<Surf>.blit(<Surf>, (x, y))                     # Draws passed surface at specified location.
 
    
 
    from pygame.transform import scale, ...
 <Surf> = scale(<Surf>, (width, height))         # Returns scaled surface.
@@ -2495,7 +2495,7 @@ 
    Format
    Sound
    <Sound> = pg.mixer.Sound(<path/file/bytes>)     # WAV file or bytes/array of signed shorts.
-<Sound>.play/stop()                             # Also <Sound>.set_volume(<float>).
+<Sound>.play/stop()                             # Also set_volume(<float>), fadeout(msec).
 
    
 
 
    Basic Mario Brothers Example
    import collections, dataclasses, enum, io, itertools as it, pygame as pg, urllib.request
@@ -2761,7 +2761,7 @@ 
    Format
    <GB> = <DF>.groupby(column_key/s)              # Splits DF into groups based on passed column.
 <DF> = <GB>.apply(<func>)                      # Maps each group. Func can return DF, Sr or el.
 <GB> = <GB>[column_key]                        # Single column GB. All operations return a Sr.
-<Sr> = <GB>.size()                             # A Sr of group sizes. Keys are group "names".
+<Sr> = <GB>.size()                             # A Sr of group sizes. Same keys as get_group().
 
    
 
    GroupBy — Aggregate, Transform, Map:
    <DF> = <GB>.sum/max/mean/idxmax/all()          # Or: <GB>.agg(lambda <Sr>: <el>)
 <DF> = <GB>.rank/diff/cumsum/ffill()           # Or: <GB>.transform(lambda <Sr>: <Sr>)
@@ -2933,7 +2933,7 @@ 
    Format