Papers by Chagai Schlesinger
Law and History Review, 2024
The twentieth-century processes of legal modernization rendered transformations to the concept of... more The twentieth-century processes of legal modernization rendered transformations to the concept of authority and its public perception. This article builds on the complex Weberian articulations of these transformations to analyze a contemporary contentious debate concerning the establishment of a Rabbinical Court of Appeals, in Mandatory Palestine, between 1918 and 1921. This initiative, imposed by the British government and supported by non-religious Jewish leaders, raised a heated controversy between two rabbinical figures-Haim Hirschnson of Hoboken, New Jersey, and Ben-Zion Uziel of Jaffa. Based on a close reading of their texts, juxtaposing them to Weberian conceptualizations of modern authority, and contextualizing them in particular historical circumstances, I argue that both rabbis comprehended the appellate mechanism as transforming the concept of rabbinical authority. By instituting appellate courts, authority shifts from its "charismatic" or "traditional" form to a "legal" institutionalbased form. They harshly disagreed, however, if this transformation is a positive development in the modernization of Jewish law, or, on the contrary, will have a detrimental impact on the public's trust in the judiciary. The rabbinical articulations of these Weberian themes, as I suggest to interpret their texts, shed light on the application of the Weberian theory of bureaucracy to the judicial system and legal profession and also provide illuminating insights into the analysis of current church-law relationships, in Israeli law and elsewhere. Modernity generated gradual but radical transformations in Western societies' legal worlds. The formation of legal bureaucracies, structured codifications, and hierarchic institutions, reconstructed essential social conceptions of legality and authority. How did legal practitioners respond to these shifts? How did they envision the social benefits or costs of these transformations? Were legal agents enthusiastically delighted by the modernization of legal authority, or
BYU Law Review, forthcoming, 2024
Religious exemptions from general laws are everywhere. The Court is expanding its exemption doctr... more Religious exemptions from general laws are everywhere. The Court is expanding its exemption doctrine, systemically preferring religious needs over conflicting considerations. This ignites an ongoing debate between those celebrating religious liberties, and those fearing their societal costs. Assessing this judicial trend, this Article highlights, requires noticing how it is facilitated by a broad deferential approach to religious claims, refraining from evaluating their content. This Article argues that this broad expression of judicial deference is analytically flawed and normatively implausible. The problem lies in the failure to distinguish between two types of religious claims when deferring to them: claims based on religious conscience, and claims protecting communal autonomy. The normative implications of this distinction for judicial deference are currently unrecognized. By examining two representative exemption cases, this Article argues that each type of religious claims triggers a distinct concept of deference. Conscience-based claims evoke a strong argument for secondary deference: a constraint from inquiring into religious content within the process of evaluating the primary conscientious claim. This is because conscience is a subjective-personal matter, whose evaluation in terms of content is constitutionally problematic. By contrast, community-based claims protect religious communal autonomy, not a direct conscientious conviction. Thus, they do not evoke this secondary, procedural deference. Rather, these claims call for deference as the manifestation of the religious right. That is, the court protects the right to autonomy by expressing deference to religion. After establishing this analytical distinction, the Article discusses its normative and doctrinal implications. It demonstrates the detrimental consequences of its conflation by the Court, especially in granting religious institutions foreclosing exemptions from anti-discrimination labor law. Finally, the Article concludes by suggesting a doctrinal alternative. I recognize that despite their analytical distinction, conscience and community considerations are commonly intertwined in practice. Accordingly, the proposed doctrine consists of a two-phased approach, sensitive to these possible reciprocal influences.
The Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence, 2023
When evaluating religious accommodation claims, courts refrain from
examining the relationship be... more When evaluating religious accommodation claims, courts refrain from
examining the relationship between the specific claim and the common
religious practice of the relevant religion. This paper rethinks this
doctrine. I argue that it stems from understanding religious
accommodation as a protection of conscience. This idea itself suffers
from conceptual and practical challenges. These, however, can be
mitigated if we understand religion as a communal function of
conscientious actions. This communal aspect bears practical and moral
significance, and I explore three dimensions of it: its epistemic
implications; its effect on constituting moral obligations toward others;
and its importance as part of one's culture.
This communal-conscientious approach to religion can mitigate many
challenges that confront conscience accommodation. This suggests that
the relationship between the individual's claim and his communal
practice is crucial, and should be evaluated by courts. I conclude with
outlining the main considerations for creating a new, nuanced, doctrine.
ืฆืคืื ืืืชืคืจืกื ืืืฉืคืืื ื ื; Hebrew U. L. Rev. (forthcoming), 2023
ืืคืจืฉืช ืงืืื ืืื ืกืงื ืคืกื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืงืืงื ืจืืฉืืช ืืฉื ืคืื ืืืืื ืืืงืืงื. ืืกืืืืช ืืขืฉืืช ืื ืืื ื ืืขืืื ืช ืืืคื... more ืืคืจืฉืช ืงืืื ืืื ืกืงื ืคืกื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืงืืงื ืจืืฉืืช ืืฉื ืคืื ืืืืื ืืืงืืงื. ืืกืืืืช ืืขืฉืืช ืื ืืื ื ืืขืืื ืช ืืืคืืจืฉ ืืืงืืงืช ืืกืื, ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืขื ืืืื ืืืงืืจ ืกืืืืชื, ืืขืืจ ืืืชืืกืกืืช ืขื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืขืืคืืช ืฉืงืืขื ืืขืืจ ืื ืกืืืืช ืืื ืงืืืืช. ืชืืคืขื ืื ืืขื ืืื ืช ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืชื ืคืกืง ืืืื, ืืฉืืคื ืกืืืืจื, ืฉืืคืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืื ืืงืฉืจืื ืืฉืืคื 'ืฉืืจื' ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืขืืช ืจืืื ืืืช.
ืืืืืจ ืืชืืงื ืืืจ ืืฉืืจืฉืื ืืฉืืจื ืืื ืฉื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืขืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืืช ืื ืืืืง ืืกืืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ืืืคื ืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืืฉืจืื ืืขืงืืืชืื. ืืืืืจ ืืืขื ืื ืืคื ืื ืื ืืื ื ืงืืฉืื ืจืืืจื, ืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืชืคืืกืช ืืชืืื ืืืืงืชื ืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืฉืื ืงืืืืช 'ืืงืื ื' ืืืืงื. ืชืคืืกื ืื ื ืืืขืช ืืขืืื ืฉืืจื ืืช ืืกืืืจื ืฉืชืคืงืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืคืงื ืืขืืงืจ ืขื ืืืืื ืืคืืืช ืขื ืชืืื ืืืืจืขื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืงืชื ืืคืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืชืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืื ื ืขื ื ืืจืืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช, ืืฉืงืฃ ืขืืืืช ืืคื ืชืคืืกืช ืขืืื ืื. ืคืจืกืคืงืืืื ืื ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืชืืื ื ืขื ืืกืืืืืฆืื ืืขื ืืงืื ื ืืืฆืืืงื ืืฉืืื. ืืชืจื ืืื, ืืฉื ืืฉืืืชื ืคืื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืืฉืจืื โ ืคื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืืฉืงืคืช ืืืฆืืืืช ืืกืืืืช ื'ืขืจืืื ืฉืืจื ืืื'. ืื ืืื, ืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืืืงืืจืช ืฉืืคืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืื ืขืืืื ืคืืจืืื ืืฆืื. ืชืืคืขื ืื ืืืฆืจืช ืคืจืืืงืก ืฉืืจื ื ืืขื ืืื, ืืืืืืจ ืขืืื ืขื ืืงืืจืืชืื, ืงืฉืืื, ืืืคืืื ืฆืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืคืืชืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืงืชื.
In the Kvantinsky case, the Israeli Supreme Court struck down a legislation, for the first time, due to flaws in the legislative process. The authority to do so is not mentioned in basic laws, and the court barely discusses its authority (except for relying on precedents). This is especially interesting noticing that the ruling was given by Justice Noam Sohlberg, who identifies himself as a โconservativeโ judge, who tends to respect majoritarian decisions.
This article traces the conservative roots of the Kvantinsky ruling by examining how the court anchored its authority on the Foundation of Law Act, 1980, and, following it, on Halakhic sources. The article argues that this reference is not merely a rhetorical ornament, but rather indicates the perception of institutional constitutional law as a realm in which there is a 'lacuna' in the constitution, which urgently requires filling. This perception stems from a conservative position that holds the role of the judiciary to oversee mainly the procedure and less the content of the majoritarian decisions. The existing Israeli constitution law, in which the protection of human rights is more developed than the protection of institutional norms, reflects a distortion according to this worldview. This distortion leads Justice Solberg to view the situation before him as a lacuna, and to complete it he turns to Halakhic sources โ an appeal that in itself reflects adherence to 'conservative values'. This phenomenon creates an interesting conservative paradox, and the article discusses its origins, difficulties, and its potential for the future development of Israeli constitutional law.
14 Haifa Law Review 413; ืืื ืืืืจืื ืื, 2021
ืืืื ืืจืกื ืืขืืืื ืช ืฉื ืืืืจ ืฉืืชืคืจืกื ืืกืคืจ ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื (2020).
ืืืืจ ืื ืืืงืฉ ืื ืชื ืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฉืขืฉื ื... more ืืืื ืืจืกื ืืขืืืื ืช ืฉื ืืืืจ ืฉืืชืคืจืกื ืืกืคืจ ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื (2020).
ืืืืจ ืื ืืืงืฉ ืื ืชื ืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฉืขืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื ืืืงืืจืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืกืืจืช ืคืกืืงืชื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ื ืืชืื ืกืคืจืืชื-ืืงืกืืืืื ืฉื
ืฉืืื ื ืคืกืงื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืกืก ืืืืจืขืชื ืื ืขื ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืจ
ืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืคืืจืกืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืืคืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืง ืขื
ืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื, ืื ื ืืืขื ืื ืฉืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืื ืืื
"ืืืืืืืื" ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื: ืืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืกืก ืืช ืืืื
ืืืฉืจืืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืืจื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืจืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืื
ืืืฆืจ ืชืจืืืชื-ืขืจืื, ืฉืขืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืฆืคื ืืฉืืคื ืืฆืืชืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืขืืืืชื
ืืฉืืคืืืืช. ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืคืื ื ืืคืื ืื ืื ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืืจื ืขืฆืื,
ืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืขืจืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืขื ืืืืงืืจืื ื.
ืืืื ืช ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืืืชื, ืื ื ืขืืจืืื ืขืืื ืืงืกืืืืื ืืกืคืจืืชื ืืคืกืงื ืืื
ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื, ืืขืืกืงืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืืื, ืืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืขืืืง ืื ืืืืืื
ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืื ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ืืฉืืคื ืืืฆื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืืืื ืชืืืฉืช ืืฆืืง ืืคื ืืืืช
ืฉืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืก ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืงืจื ืืงืื ืงืจืื ืขืชืืงืช
ืืืืื; ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ื ืชืงื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืขืื ืื, ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืื ืคื ื ืื
ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืชืืื ืคืชืจืื ืขืจืื ืืกืืืืืฆืื. ืชืืคืขื ืื
ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืืช ืืขืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืืืง ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื, ืฉืืื
ืฉืืคืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืขืืฉืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืืงืืจืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื
ืืขืืจื, ืืืืืขืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืคืกืงื ืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืจืขื ืขืจืืืช, ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืจ ื ืืจืฉ ืืชื ืคืจืฉื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืงืืงื ืื ืืืืฉื
ืฉืกืชืื.
51 Mishpatim 499 (2021); ืืฉืคืืื ื ื, 499
ืขืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฉืชืืฉ ืชืืืจ ืืืืงืืช, ืืขื ืืื ื ื ืืื ืืกืคืจืืช ืืชืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืจืืืช ืื... more ืขืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืฉืชืืฉ ืชืืืจ ืืืืงืืช, ืืขื ืืื ื ื ืืื ืืกืคืจืืช ืืชืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืืืืจ ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืจืืืช ืืืฆื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืงื ืขืฉืื ืืกืืืข ืืืื ืื ื ืฉื ืจืืืื ื ืืจืืืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืืฆืืจืชื ืฉื ืขืืื ื ืืจืืืืื ืฉืื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืื ืืื ืืืจืขืืช ื ืืจืืืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืืืงื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืชืืงืืช ืืฉืืื ืืขืืืืชืืช (ืื ืืืจืข), ืืืื ืงืืืขืชื ืขืฉืืื ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ืฉืืงืืืื ื ืืจืืืืืืื. ืืคื ืืคื ืื ืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืงื ืืืฉืืืข ืืืจืขื ื ืืจืืืืืืช ืืกืืืืช, ืื ืื ืืื ืืงืืืข ื ืืจืื ืืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืืืจืขื ื ืืจืืืืืืช ืืืจืช. ืชืืฆืื ืื ืืกืืืขืช ืืฉืืงื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืจืขื ืื ืืจืืืืืืช ืืื "ืืจืืืช", ืืืืืจ ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื ืงืืื ืงืืฉื ืืงืืืช ืื ืืืจืขื ืืื ืืจืืช ืฉืืื.
ืืช ืืืขื ื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืงืช ืืืกืืื ืืช ืฉื ืคืืจืฅ ืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืคื ืฉืขืืฆืื ืืชืืืื. ืจืืฉืืช, ืืจืื ืืืฆื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืื ืืจืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืงืฃ ืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืขืฆืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืงืฉืื ืืืืจืืข ืืืจืขื ื ืืจืืืืืืช ืืื, ืืืืฆื ืืืืงืงืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืขื ืงืืฉื ืื, ืืจืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืื ืื ืื ืืืืงื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืืืืงื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืฆื ืขืืฆืืื โ ืืืืฉืืจ ืื ืืจืืืืื ืืืกืคืจืืชื โ ืืืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืฉื ืจืืืื ื ืืจืืืืื ืืกืืืื ืื. ืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืฆืืืข ืขื ืืืงืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืงื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืืฆืจ ืจืืืื ื ืืจืืืืื โ ืื ืื ืื ืืืคืจืื ืืืงืืกืืืช ืืขื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืื. ืืืกืืฃ ืืชืืืืก ืืคืขืจืื ืืคืฉืจืืื ืืื ืืืงืช ืืืกืืื ืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืงืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืจื ื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืื ืืขืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืชืืคืขื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืขืืื ืืืืงืืช ืืืืืจื ื.
Yaakov Turkel Festschrift; ืกืคืจ ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื, 2020
ืืืืจ ืื ืืืงืฉ ืื ืชื ืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฉืขืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื ืืืงืืจืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืกืืจืช ืคืกืืงืชื, ืืืืฆืขืืช... more ืืืืจ ืื ืืืงืฉ ืื ืชื ืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฉืขืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื ืืืงืืจืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืกืืจืช ืคืกืืงืชื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ื ืืชืื ืกืคืจืืชื-ืืงืกืืืืื ืฉื
ืฉืืื ื ืคืกืงื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืกืก ืืืืจืขืชื ืื ืขื ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืจ
ืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืคืืจืกืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืืคืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืง ืขื
ืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื, ืื ื ืืืขื ืื ืฉืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืื ืืื
"ืืืืืืืื" ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื: ืืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืกืก ืืช ืืืื
ืืืฉืจืืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืืจื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืจืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืื
ืืืฆืจ ืชืจืืืชื-ืขืจืื, ืฉืขืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืฆืคื ืืฉืืคื ืืฆืืชืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืขืืืืชื
ืืฉืืคืืืืช. ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืคืื ื ืืคืื ืื ืื ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืืจื ืขืฆืื,
ืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืขืจืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืขื ืืืืงืืจืื ื.
ืืืื ืช ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืืืชื, ืื ื ืขืืจืืื ืขืืื ืืงืกืืืืื ืืกืคืจืืชื ืืคืกืงื ืืื
ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื, ืืขืืกืงืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืืื, ืืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืขืืืง ืื ืืืืืื
ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืื ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ืืฉืืคื ืืืฆื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืืืื ืชืืืฉืช ืืฆืืง ืืคื ืืืืช
ืฉืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืก ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืงืจื ืืงืื ืงืจืื ืขืชืืงืช
ืืืืื; ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ื ืชืงื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืขืื ืื, ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืื ืคื ื ืื
ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืชืืื ืคืชืจืื ืขืจืื ืืกืืืืืฆืื. ืชืืคืขื ืื
ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืืช ืืขืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืืืง ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื, ืฉืืื
ืฉืืคืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืขืืฉืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืืงืืจืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื
ืืขืืจื, ืืืืืขืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืคืกืงื ืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืจืขื ืขืจืืืช, ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืจ ื ืืจืฉ ืืชื ืคืจืฉื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืงืืงื ืื ืืืืฉื
ืฉืกืชืื.
Jewish Law Annual; ืฉื ืชืื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื, 2018
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Papers by Chagai Schlesinger
examining the relationship between the specific claim and the common
religious practice of the relevant religion. This paper rethinks this
doctrine. I argue that it stems from understanding religious
accommodation as a protection of conscience. This idea itself suffers
from conceptual and practical challenges. These, however, can be
mitigated if we understand religion as a communal function of
conscientious actions. This communal aspect bears practical and moral
significance, and I explore three dimensions of it: its epistemic
implications; its effect on constituting moral obligations toward others;
and its importance as part of one's culture.
This communal-conscientious approach to religion can mitigate many
challenges that confront conscience accommodation. This suggests that
the relationship between the individual's claim and his communal
practice is crucial, and should be evaluated by courts. I conclude with
outlining the main considerations for creating a new, nuanced, doctrine.
ืืืืืจ ืืชืืงื ืืืจ ืืฉืืจืฉืื ืืฉืืจื ืืื ืฉื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืขืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืืช ืื ืืืืง ืืกืืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ืืืคื ืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืืฉืจืื ืืขืงืืืชืื. ืืืืืจ ืืืขื ืื ืืคื ืื ืื ืืื ื ืงืืฉืื ืจืืืจื, ืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืชืคืืกืช ืืชืืื ืืืืงืชื ืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืฉืื ืงืืืืช 'ืืงืื ื' ืืืืงื. ืชืคืืกื ืื ื ืืืขืช ืืขืืื ืฉืืจื ืืช ืืกืืืจื ืฉืชืคืงืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืคืงื ืืขืืงืจ ืขื ืืืืื ืืคืืืช ืขื ืชืืื ืืืืจืขื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืงืชื ืืคืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืชืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืื ื ืขื ื ืืจืืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช, ืืฉืงืฃ ืขืืืืช ืืคื ืชืคืืกืช ืขืืื ืื. ืคืจืกืคืงืืืื ืื ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืชืืื ื ืขื ืืกืืืืืฆืื ืืขื ืืงืื ื ืืืฆืืืงื ืืฉืืื. ืืชืจื ืืื, ืืฉื ืืฉืืืชื ืคืื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืืฉืจืื โ ืคื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืืฉืงืคืช ืืืฆืืืืช ืืกืืืืช ื'ืขืจืืื ืฉืืจื ืืื'. ืื ืืื, ืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืืืงืืจืช ืฉืืคืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืื ืขืืืื ืคืืจืืื ืืฆืื. ืชืืคืขื ืื ืืืฆืจืช ืคืจืืืงืก ืฉืืจื ื ืืขื ืืื, ืืืืืืจ ืขืืื ืขื ืืงืืจืืชืื, ืงืฉืืื, ืืืคืืื ืฆืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืคืืชืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืงืชื.
In the Kvantinsky case, the Israeli Supreme Court struck down a legislation, for the first time, due to flaws in the legislative process. The authority to do so is not mentioned in basic laws, and the court barely discusses its authority (except for relying on precedents). This is especially interesting noticing that the ruling was given by Justice Noam Sohlberg, who identifies himself as a โconservativeโ judge, who tends to respect majoritarian decisions.
This article traces the conservative roots of the Kvantinsky ruling by examining how the court anchored its authority on the Foundation of Law Act, 1980, and, following it, on Halakhic sources. The article argues that this reference is not merely a rhetorical ornament, but rather indicates the perception of institutional constitutional law as a realm in which there is a 'lacuna' in the constitution, which urgently requires filling. This perception stems from a conservative position that holds the role of the judiciary to oversee mainly the procedure and less the content of the majoritarian decisions. The existing Israeli constitution law, in which the protection of human rights is more developed than the protection of institutional norms, reflects a distortion according to this worldview. This distortion leads Justice Solberg to view the situation before him as a lacuna, and to complete it he turns to Halakhic sources โ an appeal that in itself reflects adherence to 'conservative values'. This phenomenon creates an interesting conservative paradox, and the article discusses its origins, difficulties, and its potential for the future development of Israeli constitutional law.
ืืืืจ ืื ืืืงืฉ ืื ืชื ืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฉืขืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื ืืืงืืจืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืกืืจืช ืคืกืืงืชื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ื ืืชืื ืกืคืจืืชื-ืืงืกืืืืื ืฉื
ืฉืืื ื ืคืกืงื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืกืก ืืืืจืขืชื ืื ืขื ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืจ
ืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืคืืจืกืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืืคืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืง ืขื
ืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื, ืื ื ืืืขื ืื ืฉืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืื ืืื
"ืืืืืืืื" ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื: ืืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืกืก ืืช ืืืื
ืืืฉืจืืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืืจื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืจืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืื
ืืืฆืจ ืชืจืืืชื-ืขืจืื, ืฉืขืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืฆืคื ืืฉืืคื ืืฆืืชืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืขืืืืชื
ืืฉืืคืืืืช. ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืคืื ื ืืคืื ืื ืื ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืืจื ืขืฆืื,
ืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืขืจืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืขื ืืืืงืืจืื ื.
ืืืื ืช ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืืืชื, ืื ื ืขืืจืืื ืขืืื ืืงืกืืืืื ืืกืคืจืืชื ืืคืกืงื ืืื
ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื, ืืขืืกืงืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืืื, ืืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืขืืืง ืื ืืืืืื
ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืื ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ืืฉืืคื ืืืฆื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืืืื ืชืืืฉืช ืืฆืืง ืืคื ืืืืช
ืฉืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืก ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืงืจื ืืงืื ืงืจืื ืขืชืืงืช
ืืืืื; ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ื ืชืงื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืขืื ืื, ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืื ืคื ื ืื
ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืชืืื ืคืชืจืื ืขืจืื ืืกืืืืืฆืื. ืชืืคืขื ืื
ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืืช ืืขืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืืืง ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื, ืฉืืื
ืฉืืคืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืขืืฉืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืืงืืจืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื
ืืขืืจื, ืืืืืขืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืคืกืงื ืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืจืขื ืขืจืืืช, ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืจ ื ืืจืฉ ืืชื ืคืจืฉื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืงืืงื ืื ืืืืฉื
ืฉืกืชืื.
ืืช ืืืขื ื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืงืช ืืืกืืื ืืช ืฉื ืคืืจืฅ ืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืคื ืฉืขืืฆืื ืืชืืืื. ืจืืฉืืช, ืืจืื ืืืฆื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืื ืืจืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืงืฃ ืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืขืฆืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืงืฉืื ืืืืจืืข ืืืจืขื ื ืืจืืืืืืช ืืื, ืืืืฆื ืืืืงืงืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืขื ืงืืฉื ืื, ืืจืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืื ืื ืื ืืืืงื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืืืืงื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืฆื ืขืืฆืืื โ ืืืืฉืืจ ืื ืืจืืืืื ืืืกืคืจืืชื โ ืืืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืฉื ืจืืืื ื ืืจืืืืื ืืกืืืื ืื. ืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืฆืืืข ืขื ืืืงืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืงื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืืฆืจ ืจืืืื ื ืืจืืืืื โ ืื ืื ืื ืืืคืจืื ืืืงืืกืืืช ืืขื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืื. ืืืกืืฃ ืืชืืืืก ืืคืขืจืื ืืคืฉืจืืื ืืื ืืืงืช ืืืกืืื ืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืงืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืจื ื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืื ืืขืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืชืืคืขื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืขืืื ืืืืงืืช ืืืืืจื ื.
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืกืืจืช ืคืกืืงืชื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ื ืืชืื ืกืคืจืืชื-ืืงืกืืืืื ืฉื
ืฉืืื ื ืคืกืงื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืกืก ืืืืจืขืชื ืื ืขื ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืจ
ืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืคืืจืกืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืืคืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืง ืขื
ืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื, ืื ื ืืืขื ืื ืฉืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืื ืืื
"ืืืืืืืื" ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื: ืืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืกืก ืืช ืืืื
ืืืฉืจืืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืืจื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืจืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืื
ืืืฆืจ ืชืจืืืชื-ืขืจืื, ืฉืขืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืฆืคื ืืฉืืคื ืืฆืืชืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืขืืืืชื
ืืฉืืคืืืืช. ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืคืื ื ืืคืื ืื ืื ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืืจื ืขืฆืื,
ืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืขืจืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืขื ืืืืงืืจืื ื.
ืืืื ืช ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืืืชื, ืื ื ืขืืจืืื ืขืืื ืืงืกืืืืื ืืกืคืจืืชื ืืคืกืงื ืืื
ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื, ืืขืืกืงืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืืื, ืืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืขืืืง ืื ืืืืืื
ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืื ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ืืฉืืคื ืืืฆื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืืืื ืชืืืฉืช ืืฆืืง ืืคื ืืืืช
ืฉืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืก ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืงืจื ืืงืื ืงืจืื ืขืชืืงืช
ืืืืื; ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ื ืชืงื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืขืื ืื, ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืื ืคื ื ืื
ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืชืืื ืคืชืจืื ืขืจืื ืืกืืืืืฆืื. ืชืืคืขื ืื
ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืืช ืืขืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืืืง ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื, ืฉืืื
ืฉืืคืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืขืืฉืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืืงืืจืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื
ืืขืืจื, ืืืืืขืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืคืกืงื ืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืจืขื ืขืจืืืช, ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืจ ื ืืจืฉ ืืชื ืคืจืฉื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืงืืงื ืื ืืืืฉื
ืฉืกืชืื.
examining the relationship between the specific claim and the common
religious practice of the relevant religion. This paper rethinks this
doctrine. I argue that it stems from understanding religious
accommodation as a protection of conscience. This idea itself suffers
from conceptual and practical challenges. These, however, can be
mitigated if we understand religion as a communal function of
conscientious actions. This communal aspect bears practical and moral
significance, and I explore three dimensions of it: its epistemic
implications; its effect on constituting moral obligations toward others;
and its importance as part of one's culture.
This communal-conscientious approach to religion can mitigate many
challenges that confront conscience accommodation. This suggests that
the relationship between the individual's claim and his communal
practice is crucial, and should be evaluated by courts. I conclude with
outlining the main considerations for creating a new, nuanced, doctrine.
ืืืืืจ ืืชืืงื ืืืจ ืืฉืืจืฉืื ืืฉืืจื ืืื ืฉื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืขืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืืช ืื ืืืืง ืืกืืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ืืืคื ืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืืฉืจืื ืืขืงืืืชืื. ืืืืืจ ืืืขื ืื ืืคื ืื ืื ืืื ื ืงืืฉืื ืจืืืจื, ืืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืชืคืืกืช ืืชืืื ืืืืงืชื ืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืฉืื ืงืืืืช 'ืืงืื ื' ืืืืงื. ืชืคืืกื ืื ื ืืืขืช ืืขืืื ืฉืืจื ืืช ืืกืืืจื ืฉืชืคืงืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืคืงื ืืขืืงืจ ืขื ืืืืื ืืคืืืช ืขื ืชืืื ืืืืจืขื ืฉื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืงืชื ืืคืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืฉืื ืืื ื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืชืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืื ื ืขื ื ืืจืืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช, ืืฉืงืฃ ืขืืืืช ืืคื ืชืคืืกืช ืขืืื ืื. ืคืจืกืคืงืืืื ืื ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืชืืื ื ืขื ืืกืืืืืฆืื ืืขื ืืงืื ื ืืืฆืืืงื ืืฉืืื. ืืชืจื ืืื, ืืฉื ืืฉืืืชื ืคืื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืจืฉืช ืืฉืจืื โ ืคื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืืฉืงืคืช ืืืฆืืืืช ืืกืืืืช ื'ืขืจืืื ืฉืืจื ืืื'. ืื ืืื, ืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืืืงืืจืช ืฉืืคืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืื ืืืื ืขืืืื ืคืืจืืื ืืฆืื. ืชืืคืขื ืื ืืืฆืจืช ืคืจืืืงืก ืฉืืจื ื ืืขื ืืื, ืืืืืืจ ืขืืื ืขื ืืงืืจืืชืื, ืงืฉืืื, ืืืคืืื ืฆืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืคืืชืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืงืชื.
In the Kvantinsky case, the Israeli Supreme Court struck down a legislation, for the first time, due to flaws in the legislative process. The authority to do so is not mentioned in basic laws, and the court barely discusses its authority (except for relying on precedents). This is especially interesting noticing that the ruling was given by Justice Noam Sohlberg, who identifies himself as a โconservativeโ judge, who tends to respect majoritarian decisions.
This article traces the conservative roots of the Kvantinsky ruling by examining how the court anchored its authority on the Foundation of Law Act, 1980, and, following it, on Halakhic sources. The article argues that this reference is not merely a rhetorical ornament, but rather indicates the perception of institutional constitutional law as a realm in which there is a 'lacuna' in the constitution, which urgently requires filling. This perception stems from a conservative position that holds the role of the judiciary to oversee mainly the procedure and less the content of the majoritarian decisions. The existing Israeli constitution law, in which the protection of human rights is more developed than the protection of institutional norms, reflects a distortion according to this worldview. This distortion leads Justice Solberg to view the situation before him as a lacuna, and to complete it he turns to Halakhic sources โ an appeal that in itself reflects adherence to 'conservative values'. This phenomenon creates an interesting conservative paradox, and the article discusses its origins, difficulties, and its potential for the future development of Israeli constitutional law.
ืืืืจ ืื ืืืงืฉ ืื ืชื ืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืฉืขืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื ืืืงืืจืืช
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืกืืจืช ืคืกืืงืชื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ื ืืชืื ืกืคืจืืชื-ืืงืกืืืืื ืฉื
ืฉืืื ื ืคืกืงื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืกืก ืืืืจืขืชื ืื ืขื ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืจ
ืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืคืืจืกืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืืคืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืง ืขื
ืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื, ืื ื ืืืขื ืื ืฉืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืื ืืื
"ืืืืืืืื" ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื: ืืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืกืก ืืช ืืืื
ืืืฉืจืืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืืจื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืจืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืื
ืืืฆืจ ืชืจืืืชื-ืขืจืื, ืฉืขืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืฆืคื ืืฉืืคื ืืฆืืชืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืขืืืืชื
ืืฉืืคืืืืช. ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืคืื ื ืืคืื ืื ืื ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืืจื ืขืฆืื,
ืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืขืจืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืขื ืืืืงืืจืื ื.
ืืืื ืช ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืืืชื, ืื ื ืขืืจืืื ืขืืื ืืงืกืืืืื ืืกืคืจืืชื ืืคืกืงื ืืื
ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื, ืืขืืกืงืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืืื, ืืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืขืืืง ืื ืืืืืื
ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืื ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ืืฉืืคื ืืืฆื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืืืื ืชืืืฉืช ืืฆืืง ืืคื ืืืืช
ืฉืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืก ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืงืจื ืืงืื ืงืจืื ืขืชืืงืช
ืืืืื; ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ื ืชืงื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืขืื ืื, ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืื ืคื ื ืื
ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืชืืื ืคืชืจืื ืขืจืื ืืกืืืืืฆืื. ืชืืคืขื ืื
ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืืช ืืขืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืืืง ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื, ืฉืืื
ืฉืืคืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืขืืฉืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืืงืืจืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื
ืืขืืจื, ืืืืืขืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืคืกืงื ืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืจืขื ืขืจืืืช, ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืจ ื ืืจืฉ ืืชื ืคืจืฉื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืงืืงื ืื ืืืืฉื
ืฉืกืชืื.
ืืช ืืืขื ื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืงืช ืืืกืืื ืืช ืฉื ืคืืจืฅ ืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืคื ืฉืขืืฆืื ืืชืืืื. ืจืืฉืืช, ืืจืื ืืืฆื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืื ืืจืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืงืฃ ืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืขืฆืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืงืฉืื ืืืืจืืข ืืืจืขื ื ืืจืืืืืืช ืืื, ืืืืฆื ืืืืงืงืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืขื ืงืืฉื ืื, ืืจืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืื ืื ืื ืืืืงื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืืืืงื ืืชืืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืฆื ืขืืฆืืื โ ืืืืฉืืจ ืื ืืจืืืืื ืืืกืคืจืืชื โ ืืืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืฉื ืจืืืื ื ืืจืืืืื ืืกืืืื ืื. ืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืฆืืืข ืขื ืืืงืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืงื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืื ืื ืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืืฆืจ ืจืืืื ื ืืจืืืืื โ ืื ืื ืื ืืืคืจืื ืืืงืืกืืืช ืืขื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืืืื. ืืืกืืฃ ืืชืืืืก ืืคืขืจืื ืืคืฉืจืืื ืืื ืืืงืช ืืืกืืื ืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืงืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืจื ื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืื ืืขืื ืืืงืืจืชืืช ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืชืืคืขื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืขืืื ืืืืงืืช ืืืืืจื ื.
ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืกืืจืช ืคืกืืงืชื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ื ืืชืื ืกืคืจืืชื-ืืงืกืืืืื ืฉื
ืฉืืื ื ืคืกืงื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืกืก ืืืืจืขืชื ืื ืขื ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืจ
ืืืืืืงืช ืืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืคืืจืกืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืืคืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืง ืขื
ืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืืื, ืื ื ืืืขื ืื ืฉืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืื ืืื
"ืืืืืืืื" ืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื: ืืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืกืก ืืช ืืืื
ืืืฉืจืืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืืจื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืจืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืื
ืืืฆืจ ืชืจืืืชื-ืขืจืื, ืฉืขืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืฆืคื ืืฉืืคื ืืฆืืชืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืขืืืืชื
ืืฉืืคืืืืช. ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ืคืื ื ืืคืื ืื ืื ืืืืงืืจืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืืจื ืขืฆืื,
ืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืขืจืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืขื ืืืืงืืจืื ื.
ืืืื ืช ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืืืชื, ืื ื ืขืืจืืื ืขืืื ืืงืกืืืืื ืืกืคืจืืชื ืืคืกืงื ืืื
ืฉื ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื, ืืขืืกืงืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืืื, ืืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืขืืืง ืื ืืืืืื
ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืืืืื ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ืืฉืืคื ืืืฆื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืชืืื ืืื ืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืืืื ืชืืืฉืช ืืฆืืง ืืคื ืืืืช
ืฉืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืก ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืืงืจื ืืงืื ืงืจืื ืขืชืืงืช
ืืืืื; ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืงื ื ืชืงื ืืืชืืืืืช ืืขืื ืื, ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืื ืคื ื ืื
ืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืชืืื ืคืชืจืื ืขืจืื ืืกืืืืืฆืื. ืชืืคืขื ืื
ื ืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืืช ืืขืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืืืง ืืคืกืงื ืืืื ืืืื, ืฉืืื
ืฉืืคืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืขืืฉืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืืงืืจืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืคื
ืืขืืจื, ืืืืืขืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืคืกืงื ืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื
ื ืืจืฉืช ืืืจืขื ืขืจืืืช, ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืจ ื ืืจืฉ ืืชื ืคืจืฉื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืงืืงื ืื ืืืืฉื
ืฉืกืชืื.