Jacob Lucas Samoraj
A well-trained, independent, Polish-British, analytic academic (B.A., M.A.) with primary interests in new developments in International Relations Theory and ways in which theory could have a practical impact on modern strategy and contemporary diplomacy especially among Great Powers. Application of updated the English School Theory of International Society alongside with synthetic tools of analysis such as analytic eclecticism are applied not only to build bridges with other paradigms but to address the realities of power politics, discuss normative and ethical aspects of leadership, develop ideas for America's renewal and invent solutions to global-scale problems of the 21st Century. Analytic eclecticism is a technique by which several strands of competing theories are incorporated to gain a detailed understanding of practical problems. The theory and practice offered reflect my firm belief that there is a possibility of building order that rises well above the permanent struggle for power. Academic research is focused on the future of humanity and preservation of civilisation for the next generations. Justification for seeking knowledge is to devote and concentrate energies to the service of a good cause and greater common good. Analytic research aims to select leading intellectuals, distinguished professors and bring excellent scholarship alongside innovative tools of discovery such as mathematics, philosophy, and science to bear on big-picture questions about humanity and its long-term prospects. Equally, my academic work investigates possibilities in which resilient, local communities can use smart and sustainable development strategies to harness ecosystem services to promote the physical, social, environmental and economic well-being while adapting to a changing climate on Earth and resolving novel, global challenges of the 21st Century intelligently.
Interdisciplinary research interests are in: problem-solving approaches to climate change, environment and sustainability; English language and learning development; Physics and science; philosophy of mind; creative thinking and problem-solving; plus new directions in American foreign policy initiated and implemented by President Barack Obama. Research aims to offer 'the audacity of hope' and maximum trust for problem-solving talent amongst the prevailing, low-spirit, academic discourse about the possibilities of the end of 400-year Western domination of the world. While the concept of 'the shift of the centre of economic gravity' from the West to East is gaining popularity, it is not predetermined that America is in a state of absolute decline or that it will be replaced as the world's leader by China. Although such scenario is possible, at some point in the future, any currently produced, reliable forecasts could be extrapolated in the context of global power sharing. It is in the vested interest of all Great Powers to initiate fair planetary management focusing on preservation of global public goods. The potential absence of energetic and meaningful American leadership alongside other Great Powers through creating 'a more inclusive system of global power management' (gpm) could fatally undermine the essential communality of the global commons because the superiority and ubiquity of American power creates order where there would normally be conflict. America could activate leadership of the West to act as a conciliator with the new rising East including Russia and China. Evaluation of President Obama's foreign policy suggests that it is possible to modernize the practice of diplomacy and bring new tools and approaches to effectively address climate change. For success to be complete in foreign affairs strategy, short-sighted policy impulses need to be channelled into a broader and more far-sighted vision of global stability.
Academic goal: to empower global leaders to apply innovative, well-thought-out ideas alongside verifiable strategies to address humanity's grand challenges (population, poverty, material overconsumption). Global leaders need to start to think in 'a bigger picture', in categories of the whole Planet to secure a long-term future for Earth. This can be accomplished by investing in solar electricity and clean power-plants, converting vehicles to electricity, halting all fossil fuel developments, cutting subsidies to the fossil fuel industry, providing funds so that everyone has access to clean drinking water and stop destroying the very foundation of the environment on which human civilisation was built. Academic papers aim to advance the idea of the greater use of international organizations, soft and smart power. More opportunity needs to be given to the Global South while promoting a peaceful, balanced and just 21st century. A century, in which human civilisation could flourish. A century, in which young generations of global citizens could gain access to education and shape the future with vision.
Find me on twitter: @JSamoraj
Supervisors: Dr Thomas Kane and Professor Colin Tyler
Interdisciplinary research interests are in: problem-solving approaches to climate change, environment and sustainability; English language and learning development; Physics and science; philosophy of mind; creative thinking and problem-solving; plus new directions in American foreign policy initiated and implemented by President Barack Obama. Research aims to offer 'the audacity of hope' and maximum trust for problem-solving talent amongst the prevailing, low-spirit, academic discourse about the possibilities of the end of 400-year Western domination of the world. While the concept of 'the shift of the centre of economic gravity' from the West to East is gaining popularity, it is not predetermined that America is in a state of absolute decline or that it will be replaced as the world's leader by China. Although such scenario is possible, at some point in the future, any currently produced, reliable forecasts could be extrapolated in the context of global power sharing. It is in the vested interest of all Great Powers to initiate fair planetary management focusing on preservation of global public goods. The potential absence of energetic and meaningful American leadership alongside other Great Powers through creating 'a more inclusive system of global power management' (gpm) could fatally undermine the essential communality of the global commons because the superiority and ubiquity of American power creates order where there would normally be conflict. America could activate leadership of the West to act as a conciliator with the new rising East including Russia and China. Evaluation of President Obama's foreign policy suggests that it is possible to modernize the practice of diplomacy and bring new tools and approaches to effectively address climate change. For success to be complete in foreign affairs strategy, short-sighted policy impulses need to be channelled into a broader and more far-sighted vision of global stability.
Academic goal: to empower global leaders to apply innovative, well-thought-out ideas alongside verifiable strategies to address humanity's grand challenges (population, poverty, material overconsumption). Global leaders need to start to think in 'a bigger picture', in categories of the whole Planet to secure a long-term future for Earth. This can be accomplished by investing in solar electricity and clean power-plants, converting vehicles to electricity, halting all fossil fuel developments, cutting subsidies to the fossil fuel industry, providing funds so that everyone has access to clean drinking water and stop destroying the very foundation of the environment on which human civilisation was built. Academic papers aim to advance the idea of the greater use of international organizations, soft and smart power. More opportunity needs to be given to the Global South while promoting a peaceful, balanced and just 21st century. A century, in which human civilisation could flourish. A century, in which young generations of global citizens could gain access to education and shape the future with vision.
Find me on twitter: @JSamoraj
Supervisors: Dr Thomas Kane and Professor Colin Tyler
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The Obama administration promised dramatic changes regarding climate leadership accepting that tackling climate change is one of America's greatest economic opportunities of the 21st century. More notably, President Obama (2014) promised that a low-carbon, clean energy economy can be an engine of growth for decades to come and that America will build that engine. Although climate change was presented as a market opportunity the momentum occurred late in the second term. President achieved a reasonable degree of success given the lack of sustained support from public opinion, a number of competing national priorities, political gridlock and constraints exerted by the system's structure. He did not manage to change the system’s structure completely, because people did not see and feel that climate change has been adversely affecting their daily lives. As Weitzman (2013: 163) noticed, "When the average person feels that climate change is as immediate a threat to global welfare, as a deep, pronged recession, then strong action will be seriously contemplated." The failure of the present system, which is unfair towards the Earth, is that ''the current trajectory of more-or-less business as usual in politics of climate change is going to continue probably until the frightening actual impact (or perhaps actual real imminent threat) of some scary geoevent mobilizes a genuine popular groundswell of bottom-up demand for action creating a serious worldwide coordinated attack on the problem'' (Ibid: 151). A principled climate action is not in the interest of elites in democratic societies as their motivation is eternal economic growth. The process of adaptation that the climate response demands requires a new approach in politics away from vested interests, so the President encountered strong resistance. His leadership on climate was robust as he pushed towards reshaping of the system towards more accountability, openness and sensibility. He would have succeeded in his climate diplomacy had he matched his vision with a corresponding firmness, consequential and principled action. He would have succeeded had he treated his vigorous climate diplomacy as an energetic, double-edged sword and followed his rhetoric with more transformative policies. Proverbially, he could have made a 'Samurai sword cut' through the gridlocked political system. Domestically, he was constrained due to party politics. Internationally, he attempted to bend the rule-based international order by working through institutions, invigorated alliances and partnerships. Such a strategy would have been more successful had it found enough followers based on a wider social movement as the one initiated later by Greta Thunberg. What was required was not just a gentle moulding of the existing regime, but rather a shakeup of "'the established institutions out of their current ineffective path'' (Stevenson and Dryzek, 2014: 216). He would have succeeded had he offered a more dynamic leadership championing bottom-up change. In reality, he encountered opposition from the vested interests defending the status quo. Einstein said, "Great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds." However, ''Agency is necessary in fostering, promoting, and implementing change'' (Lakshmi, et al., 2018). ''Collective agency and action emerges from the beliefs, intentions, perspectives, values, and interactions of unique individuals.'' (Ibid.) President has prudently chosen change through evolution within the system. Acting so implied that the results of his work will not be immediate though as the solution may be in the making. To achieve a quicker effect he might have pursued more indirect strategies based on a build-up of a social movement that would provide a change from the bottom-up to empower oppressed populations and resist the more powerful, advantaged elites. When the system is corrupted then a leader can wisely act beyond it. The impression might be that politicians are unsuccessful. As Thunberg (2018) said, ''Our civilisation is being sacrificed for the opportunity of a very small number of people to continue making enormous amounts of money. It is the sufferings of the many which pay for the luxuries of the few.'' And: ''We cannot solve a crisis without treating it as a crisis... if solutions within the system are so impossible to find, then... we should change the system itself.'' (Ibid). Social agency can change the system as a result of a global, social-ecological transformation. Climate change research needs to ''dedicate more analytical attention to social power; not only due to justice and other moral imperatives, but because power relations will determine how societies choose to respond.'' (Ibid) Manuel-Navarette (2010) stated, ''climate change will require socio-political transformations beyond ecological modernization and revamping the energy grid with renewables.'' Thesis aim was to focus on the transformative social action and revitalise the idealist/constructivist tradition in IR Theory. ''Climate change is not a collateral effect of globalization, or a market externality. It is rather a persuasive, global civilising force pushing us towards reframing the rules and power relations under which globalization takes place... Unfortunately, climate change research has been inclined towards either paying little analytical attention to power itself, or embracing a realist stance.'' (Ibid.) Realist tradition to solving climate change ignores a long idealist/humanist tradition which would highlight the potential of climate politics to liberate humanity from elite-based constraints.'' (Ibid.) Often realism-motivated leaders are helpless while politics becomes a pure cynicism or a hopeless denial. Leaders have to start thinking outside the box and have faith that it can be solved. Paraphrasing Fuller (2011), to enact an effective system change humanity has to build a creative order that makes the existing model obsolete. President Obama succeeded in creating the norm of environmental stewardship initiating the norm cascading dynamics by motivating the international community to join in climate followership leading to action. After norm entrepreneurs had persuaded a critical mass of states to become leaders climate norm reaches a threshold and it becomes part of the international law.
The signing of the 2015 Paris Agreement generated unprecedented levels of global solidarity as it bets on the force of social norms and expectations rather than law to achieve its aims (Stern, 2019). Humanity has to act faster though, accelerating collective efforts towards full implementation, encouraging deeper international co-operation, championing principled, coordinated and speedy action in each economic sector focused on deep decarbonisation. The phrase 'Gordian knot' refers to any problem that seems too complicated to solve. As Mr. Reagan (1975) said, "The greatest leader is not necessarily the one who does the greatest things. He is the one who gets the people to do the greatest things." Political agency is the key to tackling climate change, but it is individuals who play a central role in transformations for change. Since the times of Moses social movement leadership has been successful. President Obama tried to solve the problem with the help of peoples. His example shows that decision-makers now take greater responsibility. With the new political resolve, trust and unity global leaders are determined to solve it. The greatest change always begins at the grassroots when citizens are mobilized. President Obama mobilized the normative community with the strength of principled leadership and strategic vision. From history, Alexander the Great simply, skilfully and swiftly cut through the knot with a sword. This did seem to go against the conventional wisdom which suggested the problem will be solved by slow manipulation of the knot. The creation of an informal, transnational climate community resembles persistent efforts towards climate progress offering a long-awaited hope for a spontaneous, instantaneous and unconventional climate solution.
America currently faces serious dilemmas in its global policy and more specifically in the formulation of its foreign policy. These difficulties can be attributed primarily to the loss of international legitimacy. Consequently, America must recover international legitimacy, leadership and respect around the world. Numerous scholars, engaged in a debate over the future of American foreign policy have advanced many suggestions of how to recover international legitimacy. However, there is no clear choice between them as many are incompatible and contradict one another, so none of the suggested theories is sufficiently persuasive.
This thesis synthesises the most promising ideas within three theories of International Relations: the English School, Constructivism and globalization to suggest ideas for recovering international legitimacy. This synthesis suggests that America’s main tool for restoring its legitimacy will be skilful diplomacy based on the principle of ‘consensual leadership’, which will require an individual to act as ‘a transformational leader’. From American President, Barack Obama’s campaign rhetoric it may be suggested that he aspires to fulfil this role. Equally, one of the main findings of this thesis is based on a combination of both: Realist and Constructivist insights. Constructivism has offered a challenge to Realism with its focus on states and their security. If the nature of international political reality is socially constructed, human beings have in their power to construct a better world thanks to ideas, norms and discourse. The impact of Constructivism on conflict resolution is yet to be discovered, as is its influence on world politics. Consistent with Constructivists, diplomacy is one of the main methods of conflict resolution.
Diplomacy, which traditionally has been preoccupied with advising, shaping and implementing foreign policy, is not a simple concept. And today, it is a far more diverse and challenging process. In the present, interactive, interdependent and unstable world, traditional diplomacy may be not enough. More importantly, the nature of diplomacy is subject to constant change. Therefore, modern diplomatic practices, such as: negotiation, persuasion, agenda setting and coordination must be understood properly and applied adequately in the context of ‘transformational leadership’ and ‘forward-deployed’ diplomacy. This kind of diplomacy could perform its traditional function of contributing to international dialogue, peace and stability. Good diplomacy must rest on the will of the people, display a preference for working with allies and reject the war option.
Different regions of the world assume different importance at different times. The circumstances, in which modern diplomacy takes place, imply that all actors have to adjust their goals and actions to the new, emerging, geopolitical reality of the shift of the centre of economic gravity from Atlantic to Asia-Pacific. One of the central tasks of diplomatic engagement at an international level is a contribution to the pacific settlement of disputes. In the coming decades, diplomacy and its primary function of negotiation could be still useful because of the lack of strategic trust among leaders of great powers. Thus, there is a high risk of militarized responses leading to ‘spirals of insecurity’ and self-perpetuating ‘security dilemmas’.
One task of modern statecraft may be a reform of the United Nations system so that it is more capable of taking on the heavy responsibility of managing the planet’s serious problems, such as climate change. Climate governance implies adopting diplomatic measures that aim at steering advanced civilisations towards preventing, mitigating and adapting to the risks posed by climate change. Improved problem solving on a global scale, however, need not involve the establishment of additional, powerful and formal institutions. It does involve building consensus on norms and showing the unity of efforts in building climate-resilient infrastructure systems that are crucial areas of investment required to adapt to a climate-uncertain future. It will be a long-term project to transform international politics, not to be based on universal principles of morality, but on rules of coexistence, common understanding and environmental sustainability.
Norm-centred constructivism offers a challenge for Realism. If the nature of international political reality is socially constructed, human beings have in their power to construct a better world thanks to norms. Modern diplomatic practices: discussion, persuasion, negotiations, plus agenda setting, coordination and policy pressure can be understood properly and applied adequately in the context of forward-deployed climate diplomacy. It could serve as a first-step for Earth's healing. Renewal of Earth could become possible only when ripe time action is undertaken in the form of immediate policies. And such change must start with America. As Kennedy stated in 1963, “Change is the law of life. And those who look only to the past are certain to miss the future.” As Brzezinski (2012: 185) noted, "Americans must place greater emphasis on other dimensions of national power such as innovation at home, creative education to offer equal start to every child, the ability to balance intelligently force and diplomacy, the quality of political leadership, and the attraction of democratic life-style." The quality of leadership is what has been particularly missing, therefore we have to demand action from our leaders. Skocpol (2013) has powerfully argued that efforts need to be made to construct a broad grassroots coalition to press for climate change legislation: “The only way to counter right-wing elite and popular forces is to build a broad popular movement to tackle climate change.'' (Ibid.). When it comes to solving climate change ''members of the American public have a strong aversion to what they see as pollution of the natural world and about their local environments.'' (Keohane, 2014: 24). However, they do not feel the urge of responsibility for a global issue such as climate. Sometimes, politicizing along the lines of climate change heats up. But there seems to be no coherent strategy, nor a far-sighted plan, nor a policy that would satisfy all. In the absence of unity, leadership and coordination at policy levels, there will be no thoughtful national dialogue nor planning while global civilisation may be getting closer to “crossing the Rubicon.” The current situation of indecision of policymakers puts children and younger generations ready to lead boldly on the global stage. They are the primary although unofficial decision-makers. But this stage must have a larger spotlight and a wider audience to have a real impact.
Climate change is the type of challenge that America ought to be energised and eager to solve in an accountable and transparent method. This is because the current system is unjust to children. A robust, effective and energetic climate diplomacy usually rests on the will of the people, offers an impetus start and carries on consequentially and consistently through while making critical decision points and displaying a preference for working with allies, listening to people and rejecting the delay in policy implementation to keep the momentum going. America and the world need to change laws and policies through collective political action on a large scale. American decision-makers must remember that ''great challenges are great opportunities, and it is each generation's responsibility to meet those challenges with the same combination of energy, faith and devotion that President Kennedy and his contemporaries displayed decades ago.'' (Schlossberg, 2017). Leaders can solve climate change when they invest in innovation technology and implement policies informed by science. Science is extremely important since it may already have all the answers and solutions. ''There is a critical role that climate change science, broadly defined, can play in developing knowledge and tools to assist decision makers as they act to respond to climate change.'' (NRC, 2010: 1). Above all, global leaders need to show a pioneering spirit and realistic optimism based on the idea the climate change can be solved. Equally, solving it could be treated as an opportunity for civilizational advancement. Leaders will need to take actions that are energetic, flexible and robust (The National Research Council, 2010: 5). They will need to learn from new knowledge and expertise and adjust future actions accordingly to save civilisation. The problems of the world cannot be solved by sceptics and cynics, whose horizons are limited. If leaders are only reactive, not far-sighted or sagacious that might leave them more vulnerable. Current actions just to limit the magnitude and scale of climate change alongside with actions to mitigate/adapt to the impact of climate change are probably not sufficient to comprehensively address this problem. It does not work with leaders who pay attention only to the next election and have short-span political horizons. Nordhaus'es (2013) metaphor of leaders entering a Climate Casino is valid. Pursuing economic growth at the expense of suffering planet is a short-sighted strategy since ''it is producing unintended but perilous changes in the climate and earth system.'' (Ibid.). Such a policy will lead to unforeseeable and dangerous consequences (Ibid.: 3). Leaders who choose to be denialists are rolling the dice in a game of Russian roulette. Soon they will have to accept a basic fact that Gaia is ailing. As early as in the turn to the 20th Century, Aldo Leopold, a pioneer in the development of modern environmental ethics and in the movement for wilderness conservation, suggested a living Earth in his biocentric or holistic ethics regarding land. He argued that ''It is at least not impossible to regard the earth's parts—soil, mountains, rivers, atmosphere etc,—as organs or parts of organs of a coordinated whole, each part with its definite function. And if we could see this whole, as a whole, through a great period, we might perceive not only organs with coordinated functions but possibly also that process of consumption as a replacement which in biology we call metabolism or growth. In a such case, we would have all the visible attributes of a living organism, which we do not realize to be such because it is too big. (Harding, 2003: 44). Another influence for the Gaia theory and the environmental movement, in general, came as a side effect of the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the USA. During the 1960s, the first humans in space could see how the Earth looked like as a whole. The photograph 'Earthrise' taken by astronaut William Anders in 1968 during the Apollo 8 mission became an early symbol for the global ecology movement that crossed borders. At that time, the world understood how small and vulnerable we are as members of a particular species in a particular environment at a particular moment. It was international recognition and agreement on the unity of the globe. Humanity needs a similar global movement so that everybody is convinced about climate change including our decision-makers to make change happen.