Answer: These are all ways in which ICT can contribute to learning and teaching history: ICT ca... more Answer: These are all ways in which ICT can contribute to learning and teaching history: ICT can help lessen the constraints of writing and allow students to concentrate on the specific topic or discussion. This encourages reflection, analysis and understanding. ICT gives teachers and students access to a wide range of information, historical sources and media types. It can enable teachers to present historical materials to students in a way most suited to individual and personal needs. It can provide students with opportunities to interpret sources properly, construct narratives, and identify patterns in large quantities of data. Computer stimulations allow complex historical processes to be represented in a more dynamic way, and allow students to gain a better understanding of how key decisions in history were affected by the environment and the pressure of time. 4. Name any three branches of government of the Grebo state on the Grain Coast. Answer: The three branches of the Grebo government on the Grain Coast are: Nyekhade : is the advisory body and its most senior member is the high priest or Bodio, the mouth peace of the gods. Sidibo: This branch exercised both legislative and executive powers and is responsible for the security of the state. Kinibo: This branch carried out the decision of the Sidibo as they relate to health and sanitation. 5. Outline any four factors responsible for the slow pece of economic development in the Colony of Liberia. Answer: Economic progress was slow in Liberia between 1822 and 1839 for a number of reasons.
Definition of Decentralization Decentralization may be defined as the transfer of authority and r... more Definition of Decentralization Decentralization may be defined as the transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions from the central government to subordinate or quasi-independent government organizations and/or the private sector-is a complex multifaceted concept. Different types of decentralization should be distinguished because they have different characteristics, policy implications, and conditions for success. Types of Decentralization Types of decentralization include political, administrative, fiscal, and market decentralization. Drawing distinctions between these various concepts is useful for highlighting the many dimensions to successful decentralization and the need for coordination among them. Nevertheless, there is clearly overlap in defining any of these terms and the precise definitions are not as important as the need for a comprehensive approach. Political, administrative, fiscal and market decentralization can also appear in different forms and combinations across countries, within countries and even within sectors. Political Decentralization Political decentralization aims to give citizens or their elected representatives more power in public decision-making. It is often associated with pluralistic politics and representative government, but it can also support democratization by giving citizens, or their representatives, more influence in the formulation and implementation of policies. Advocates of political decentralization assume that decisions made with greater participation will be better informed and more relevant to diverse interests in society than those made only by national political authorities. The concept implies that the selection of representatives from local electoral jurisdictions allows citizens to know better their political representatives and allows elected officials to know better the needs and desires of their constituents. Political decentralization often requires constitutional or statutory reforms, the development of pluralistic political parties, the strengthening of legislatures, creation of local political units, and the encouragement of effective public interest groups. Administrative Decentralization Administrative decentralization seeks to redistribute authority, responsibility and financial resources for providing public services among different levels of government. It is the transfer of responsibility for the planning, financing and management of certain public functions from the central government and its agencies to field units of government agencies, subordinate units or levels of government, semi-autonomous public authorities or corporations, or areawide, regional or functional authorities. The three major forms of administrative decentralization are; deconcentration, delegation, and devolution each have different characteristics. Deconcentration-which is often considered to be the weakest form of decentralization and is used most frequently in unitary states-redistributes decision making authority and financial and management responsibilities among different levels of the central government. It can merely shift responsibilities from central government officials in the capital city to those working in regions, provinces or districts, or it can create strong field administration or local administrative capacity under the supervision of central government ministries. Delegation-is a more extensive form of decentralization. Through delegation central governments transfer responsibility for decision-making and administration of public functions to semi-autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the central government, but ultimately accountable to it. Governments delegate responsibilities when they create public enterprises or corporations, housing authorities, transportation authorities, special service districts, semi-autonomous school districts, regional development corporations, or special project implementation units. Usually these organizations have a great deal of discretion in decision-making. They may be exempt from constraints on regular civil service personnel and may be able to charge users directly for services. Devolution-A third type of administrative decentralization is devolution. When governments devolve functions, they transfer authority for decision-making, finance, and management to quasi-autonomous units of local government with corporate status. Devolution usually transfers responsibilities for services to municipalities that elect their own mayors and councils, raise their own revenues, and have independent authority to make investment decisions. In a devolved system, local governments have clear and legally recognized geographical boundaries over which they exercise authority and within which they perform public functions. It is this type of administrative decentralization that underlies most political decentralization. Fiscal Decentralization Financial responsibility is a core component of decentralization. If local governments and private organizations are to carry out decentralized functions effectively, they must have an adequate level of revenues-either raised locally or transferred from the central governmentas well as the authority to make decisions about expenditures. Fiscal decentralization can take many forms, including a) self-financing or cost recovery through user charges, b) co-financing or co-production arrangements through which the users participate in providing services and infrastructure through monetary or labor contributions; c) expansion of local revenues through property or sales taxes, or indirect charges; d) intergovernmental transfers that shift general revenues from taxes collected by the central government to local governments for general or specific uses; and e) authorization of municipal borrowing and the mobilization of either national or local government resources through loan guarantees. In many developing countries local governments or administrative units possess the legal authority to impose taxes, but the tax base is so weak and the dependence on central government subsidies so ingrained that no attempt is made to exercise that authority. Economic or Market Decentralization The most complete forms of decentralization from a government's perspective are privatization and deregulation because they shift responsibility for functions from the public to the private sector. Privatization and deregulation are usually, but not always, accompanied by economic liberalization and market development policies. They allow functions that had been primarily or exclusively the responsibility of government to be carried out by businesses, community groups, cooperatives, private voluntary associations, and other non-government organizations. Privatization-can range in scope from leaving the provision of goods and services entirely to the free operation of the market to "public-private partnerships" in which government and the private sector cooperate to provide services or infrastructure. Privatization can include: 1) allowing private enterprises to perform functions that had previously been monopolized by government; 2) contracting out the provision or management of public services or facilities to commercial enterprises indeed, there is a wide range of possible ways in which function can be organized and many examples of within public sector and public-private institutional forms, particularly in infrastructure; 3) financing public sector programs through the capital market (with adequate regulation or measures to prevent situations where the central
Answer: These are all ways in which ICT can contribute to learning and teaching history: ICT ca... more Answer: These are all ways in which ICT can contribute to learning and teaching history: ICT can help lessen the constraints of writing and allow students to concentrate on the specific topic or discussion. This encourages reflection, analysis and understanding. ICT gives teachers and students access to a wide range of information, historical sources and media types. It can enable teachers to present historical materials to students in a way most suited to individual and personal needs. It can provide students with opportunities to interpret sources properly, construct narratives, and identify patterns in large quantities of data. Computer stimulations allow complex historical processes to be represented in a more dynamic way, and allow students to gain a better understanding of how key decisions in history were affected by the environment and the pressure of time. 4. Name any three branches of government of the Grebo state on the Grain Coast. Answer: The three branches of the Grebo government on the Grain Coast are: Nyekhade : is the advisory body and its most senior member is the high priest or Bodio, the mouth peace of the gods. Sidibo: This branch exercised both legislative and executive powers and is responsible for the security of the state. Kinibo: This branch carried out the decision of the Sidibo as they relate to health and sanitation. 5. Outline any four factors responsible for the slow pece of economic development in the Colony of Liberia. Answer: Economic progress was slow in Liberia between 1822 and 1839 for a number of reasons.
Definition of Decentralization Decentralization may be defined as the transfer of authority and r... more Definition of Decentralization Decentralization may be defined as the transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions from the central government to subordinate or quasi-independent government organizations and/or the private sector-is a complex multifaceted concept. Different types of decentralization should be distinguished because they have different characteristics, policy implications, and conditions for success. Types of Decentralization Types of decentralization include political, administrative, fiscal, and market decentralization. Drawing distinctions between these various concepts is useful for highlighting the many dimensions to successful decentralization and the need for coordination among them. Nevertheless, there is clearly overlap in defining any of these terms and the precise definitions are not as important as the need for a comprehensive approach. Political, administrative, fiscal and market decentralization can also appear in different forms and combinations across countries, within countries and even within sectors. Political Decentralization Political decentralization aims to give citizens or their elected representatives more power in public decision-making. It is often associated with pluralistic politics and representative government, but it can also support democratization by giving citizens, or their representatives, more influence in the formulation and implementation of policies. Advocates of political decentralization assume that decisions made with greater participation will be better informed and more relevant to diverse interests in society than those made only by national political authorities. The concept implies that the selection of representatives from local electoral jurisdictions allows citizens to know better their political representatives and allows elected officials to know better the needs and desires of their constituents. Political decentralization often requires constitutional or statutory reforms, the development of pluralistic political parties, the strengthening of legislatures, creation of local political units, and the encouragement of effective public interest groups. Administrative Decentralization Administrative decentralization seeks to redistribute authority, responsibility and financial resources for providing public services among different levels of government. It is the transfer of responsibility for the planning, financing and management of certain public functions from the central government and its agencies to field units of government agencies, subordinate units or levels of government, semi-autonomous public authorities or corporations, or areawide, regional or functional authorities. The three major forms of administrative decentralization are; deconcentration, delegation, and devolution each have different characteristics. Deconcentration-which is often considered to be the weakest form of decentralization and is used most frequently in unitary states-redistributes decision making authority and financial and management responsibilities among different levels of the central government. It can merely shift responsibilities from central government officials in the capital city to those working in regions, provinces or districts, or it can create strong field administration or local administrative capacity under the supervision of central government ministries. Delegation-is a more extensive form of decentralization. Through delegation central governments transfer responsibility for decision-making and administration of public functions to semi-autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the central government, but ultimately accountable to it. Governments delegate responsibilities when they create public enterprises or corporations, housing authorities, transportation authorities, special service districts, semi-autonomous school districts, regional development corporations, or special project implementation units. Usually these organizations have a great deal of discretion in decision-making. They may be exempt from constraints on regular civil service personnel and may be able to charge users directly for services. Devolution-A third type of administrative decentralization is devolution. When governments devolve functions, they transfer authority for decision-making, finance, and management to quasi-autonomous units of local government with corporate status. Devolution usually transfers responsibilities for services to municipalities that elect their own mayors and councils, raise their own revenues, and have independent authority to make investment decisions. In a devolved system, local governments have clear and legally recognized geographical boundaries over which they exercise authority and within which they perform public functions. It is this type of administrative decentralization that underlies most political decentralization. Fiscal Decentralization Financial responsibility is a core component of decentralization. If local governments and private organizations are to carry out decentralized functions effectively, they must have an adequate level of revenues-either raised locally or transferred from the central governmentas well as the authority to make decisions about expenditures. Fiscal decentralization can take many forms, including a) self-financing or cost recovery through user charges, b) co-financing or co-production arrangements through which the users participate in providing services and infrastructure through monetary or labor contributions; c) expansion of local revenues through property or sales taxes, or indirect charges; d) intergovernmental transfers that shift general revenues from taxes collected by the central government to local governments for general or specific uses; and e) authorization of municipal borrowing and the mobilization of either national or local government resources through loan guarantees. In many developing countries local governments or administrative units possess the legal authority to impose taxes, but the tax base is so weak and the dependence on central government subsidies so ingrained that no attempt is made to exercise that authority. Economic or Market Decentralization The most complete forms of decentralization from a government's perspective are privatization and deregulation because they shift responsibility for functions from the public to the private sector. Privatization and deregulation are usually, but not always, accompanied by economic liberalization and market development policies. They allow functions that had been primarily or exclusively the responsibility of government to be carried out by businesses, community groups, cooperatives, private voluntary associations, and other non-government organizations. Privatization-can range in scope from leaving the provision of goods and services entirely to the free operation of the market to "public-private partnerships" in which government and the private sector cooperate to provide services or infrastructure. Privatization can include: 1) allowing private enterprises to perform functions that had previously been monopolized by government; 2) contracting out the provision or management of public services or facilities to commercial enterprises indeed, there is a wide range of possible ways in which function can be organized and many examples of within public sector and public-private institutional forms, particularly in infrastructure; 3) financing public sector programs through the capital market (with adequate regulation or measures to prevent situations where the central
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