Researchers have observed variation in levels of body image disturbance and eating pathology amon... more Researchers have observed variation in levels of body image disturbance and eating pathology among women from different Western countries. Examination of cross-cultural differences in the established risk factors (i.e., thin-ideal internalization, muscular-ideal internalization, and appearance pressures from family, peers, and media) for negative outcomes may help to elucidate the prominence of specific risk factors within a given Western society and guide associated interventions. Women from the United States (US), Italy, England, and Australia completed the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4 (SATAQ-4). Analysis of covariance controlling for age and BMI indicated significant cross-country differences for all SATAQ-4 subscales. Results typically indicated higher levels of appearance-ideal internalization and appearance pressures in the US and lower levels in Italy; however, associated effect sizes were generally small. A medium effect of country was observed ...
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1521 Jscp 2009 28 9 1100, Nov 1, 2009
We are indebted to Colin Leach, Rupert Brown, and Robin Banerjee for their constructive comments ... more We are indebted to Colin Leach, Rupert Brown, and Robin Banerjee for their constructive comments on an earlier draft of this article. The first author would like to thank Aevar Thorolfsson for his invaluable help in collecting data for Study 1b.
Levels of debt have reached an unprecedented extreme in Iceland. This rise has occurred in the co... more Levels of debt have reached an unprecedented extreme in Iceland. This rise has occurred in the context of a consumer culture highlighting supposed psychological benefits of buying consumer goods. Over-indebtedness can have serious financial, social and psychological consequences, thus studying its antecedents is vital. This paper reports findings from two studies examining materialistic and motivational precursors to various financial outcomes. The first study (n = 271) showed that people who endorse materialistic values have more financial worries, have more tendency towards compulsive buying and spending and have higher credit-card debt, but this is particularly true for lower earners. The second study (n = 304) showed that people in lower income brackets who buy goods for mood related purposes are more likely to have higher consumer debt.
... the unemployed themselves. Finally, the business commuters themselves were most concerned wit... more ... the unemployed themselves. Finally, the business commuters themselves were most concerned with photos and mementoes of sentimental value, much more prominently than the other two groups thought. Instead, a variety ...
Previous experimental research indicates that the use of average-size women models in advertising... more Previous experimental research indicates that the use of average-size women models in advertising prevents the well-documented negative effect of thin models on women's body image, while such adverts are perceived as equally effective (Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004). The current study extends this work by: (a) seeking to replicate the finding of no difference in advertising effectiveness between average-size and thin models (b) examining level of ideal-body internalization as an individual, internal factor that moderates women's vulnerability to thin media models, in the context of (c) comparing women in professions that differ radically in their focus on, and promotion of, the sociocultural ideal of thinness for women--employees in fashion advertising (n = 75) and teachers in secondary schools (n = 75). Adverts showing thin, average-size and no models were perceived as equally effective. High internalizers in both groups of women felt worse about their body image after exposure to thin models compared to other images. Profession affected responses to average-size models. Teachers reported significantly less body-focused anxiety after seeing average-size models compared to no models, while there was no difference for fashion advertisers. This suggests that women in professional environments with less focus on appearance-related ideals can experience increased body-esteem when exposed to average-size models, whereas women in appearance-focused professions report no such relief.
Research on body image has neglected adolescents' ideals beyond thinness, particularly those of a... more Research on body image has neglected adolescents' ideals beyond thinness, particularly those of adolescent boys. Two studies are reported which examine a range of qualities in order to capture English adolescents' images of ideal bodies for same-and other-gender individuals. Study 1 used a qualitative approach, where 58 pupils aged 12-16 years discussed photograph arrays of ''good-looking'' media personalities of both genders and then chose descriptors for ''ideal'' women and men. Adolescents' preferences for qualities in either an ''ideal woman'' or an ''ideal man,'' and possible influences on those preferences, were assessed quantitatively in Study 2, which used a questionnaire with 458 pupils in the same age range. With few exceptions, all respondents were white Caucasian and roughly equally split between working-class and middle-class backgrounds. The main findings were that body-image ideals are multidimensional, show systematic gender differences, and become more conventional with age (closer to cultural ideals). Adolescents' own body mass is linked systematically to body-image preferences, but only with respect to the ''ideal woman,'' where heavier adolescents of both genders (higher BMI) distance themselves from conventional notions of female beauty. Research on adolescent body image shows some limitations. Less is known about the body image of adolescent boys than that of adolescent girls, which has received considerable attention. The predominant focus has been on thinness as a culturally valued dimension of (female) bodies, possibly 1 We would like to thank the teachers and pupils at a South East England comprehensive school for their cooperation and support.
Consumer culture is characterized by two prominent ideals: the 'body perfect' and the material 'g... more Consumer culture is characterized by two prominent ideals: the 'body perfect' and the material 'good life'. Although the impact of these ideals has been investigated in separate research literatures, no previous research has examined whether materialism is linked to women's responses to thin-ideal media. Data from several studies confirm that the internalization of materialistic and body-ideal values is positively linked in women. After developing a prime for materialism (N = 50), we present an experimental examination (N = 155) of the effects of priming materialism on women's responses to thin-ideal media, using multiple outcome measures of state body dissatisfaction. Priming materialism affects women's body dissatisfaction after exposure to thin media models, but differently depending on the dimension of body image measured. The two main novel findings are that (1) priming materialism heightens the centrality of appearance to women's self-concept and (2) priming materialism influences the activation of bodyrelated self-discrepancies (BRSDs), particularly for highly materialistic women. Exposure to materialistic media has a clear influence on women's body image, with trait materialism a further vulnerability factor for negative exposure effects in response to idealized, thin media models.
ABSTRACT Group-serving biases in evaluating and explaining harmful behavior were investigated. Me... more ABSTRACT Group-serving biases in evaluating and explaining harmful behavior were investigated. Members of the Italian Communist party judged and explained an in-group or an out-group actor's harmful behavior toward an in-group or an out-group victim. The results support the notion of an in-group bias: Out-group actors were perceived as more aggressive and intentional in their actions than in-group actors. An in-group bias was also observed with regard to predictions about whether the victim would attempt retaliation. Group-based explanations were used more often when the group identities of actor and victim were different than when they were the same.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1521 Jscp 2005 24 8 1081, Jan 19, 2006
... [CrossRef] 7. Bryony Bamford, Emma Halliwell. 2009. Investigating the role of attachment in s... more ... [CrossRef] 7. Bryony Bamford, Emma Halliwell. 2009. Investigating the role of attachment in social comparison theories of eating disorders within a non-clinical female population. European Eating Disorders Review 17:5, 371-379. [CrossRef] 8.Travis A. Ryan, Todd Morrison. ...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2014
This paper presents a systematic attempt to examine the associations of materialism with learning... more This paper presents a systematic attempt to examine the associations of materialism with learning in 9-to 11-year old children in two countries of similar economic development, but different cultural heritage. Using cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental methods, we test a theoretically driven model of associations among materialism, learning motivations, and learning outcomes. Convergent findings suggest that a materialist orientation in elementary school children lowers intrinsic learning motivations, fosters extrinsic learning motivations, and leads to poorer learning outcomes. Materialism was linked directly to lower exam performance, and this link was mediated by lower mastery and heightened performance goals, with patterns not differing between British and Hong Kong Chinese children (Study 1). A follow-up showed that initial materialism predicted worse exam grades one year later, suggesting a detrimental long-term effect on Chinese children"s school performance (Study 2). We then tested relationships between materialism and learning experimentally, by priming a momentary (state) orientation towards materialism. Writing about material possessions and money affected Chinese children"s learning motivations, so that they endorsed lower mastery and higher performance goals (Study 3). A video-diary materialism prime had significant effects on actual learning behaviours, leading British children to (a) choose a performanceoriented learning task over a mastery-oriented task and (b) give up on the task more quickly (Study 4). This research has important implications for personality psychology, educational policy, and future research.
Sociocultural theory attributes the high levels of body image concerns and disordered eating in W... more Sociocultural theory attributes the high levels of body image concerns and disordered eating in Western women to the promotion of an unrealistically thin body ideal. This study investigated body dissatisfaction, restrained eating, and attitudes toward appearance in visually impaired and sighted women. There were 21 congenitally blind, 11 blinded later in life, and 60 sighted. Blind women were more satisfied with their body and dieted less than sighted women. Appearance attitudes, particularly thin-ideal internalization, accounted for differences in body dissatisfaction and dieting among the three groups of women. Possible explanations for our findings are considered, including the importance of visual exposure to the media's thin ideal, as well as the usefulness of future research on blind women.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1521 Jscp 2007 26 3 334, Mar 1, 2007
Compulsive buying of consumer goods increasingly occurs in conventional shops and stores, but has... more Compulsive buying of consumer goods increasingly occurs in conventional shops and stores, but has also started to emerge when people buy online. Extending previous research (e.g., Dittmar, 2005a, b), a model of vulnerability factors is proposed whereby the endorsement of materialistic values predicts individuals' seeking to enhance their emotions and identity when they buy goods, which, in turn, predicts tendencies toward compulsive buying. This model is tested with respect to the Internet, a fast-growing alternative to conventional buying. A preliminary survey (n = 110) confirmed emotional enhancement and identity gains (in addition to economic concerns and efficiency) as distinct online buying dimensions. The findings of the main survey (n = 126) provided good initial support for the proposed model, showing that materialistic individuals who seek to enhance their emotions and identity when buying goods online reported the strongest tendencies toward compulsive buying on the Internet. Implications for intervention are discussed.
Compulsive buying of consumer goods increasingly occurs in conventional shops and stores, but has... more Compulsive buying of consumer goods increasingly occurs in conventional shops and stores, but has also started to emerge when people buy online. Extending previous research (e.g., Dittmar, 2005a, b), a model of vulnerability factors is proposed whereby the endorsement of materialistic values predicts individuals' seeking to enhance their emotions and identity when they buy goods, which, in turn, predicts tendencies toward compulsive buying. This model is tested with respect to the Internet, a fast-growing alternative to conventional buying. A preliminary survey (n = 110) confirmed emotional enhancement and identity gains (in addition to economic concerns and efficiency) as distinct online buying dimensions. The findings of the main survey (n = 126) provided good initial support for the proposed model, showing that materialistic individuals who seek to enhance their emotions and identity when buying goods online reported the strongest tendencies toward compulsive buying on the Internet. Implications for intervention are discussed.
This study investigates the effect of social comparisons with media models on women&a... more This study investigates the effect of social comparisons with media models on women's body image based on either self-evaluation or self-improvement motives. Ninety-eight women, for whom appearance was a relevant comparison dimension, viewed advertisements that did, or did not, feature idealised models, after being prompted to engage in self-evaluation or self-improvement comparisons. The results indicate that, when focusing on self-evaluation, comparisons with thin models are associated with higher body-focused anxiety than viewing no model advertisements. In contrast, when focusing on self-improvement, comparisons with thin models are not associated with higher body-focused anxiety than viewing no models. Furthermore, women's general tendency to engage in social comparisons moderated the effects of self-evaluative comparisons with models, so that women who did not habitually engage in social comparisons were most strongly affected. It is suggested that motive for social comparison may explain previous inconsistencies in the experimental exposure literature and warrants more careful attention in future research.
Prioritizing intrinsic life goals (self-development, community involvement, relationships) rather... more Prioritizing intrinsic life goals (self-development, community involvement, relationships) rather than extrinsic ones (money, fame, image) is said to foster not only personal wellbeing, but also pro-social behavior such as protecting the environment. We explored concurrent and prospective links between intrinsic (versus extrinsic) life goals and self-reported environmentally responsible behavior, using correlational and longitudinal data from adult participants in a mass consumer society (UK) and a fast developing nation (Chile). In both countries, the importance of intrinsic (versus extrinsic) life goals was associated cross-sectionally with environmentally responsible behavior, even after controlling for possible effects of environmental worldviews and environmental identification. In longitudinal analyses, life goals prospectively predicted environmentally responsible behavior over a two-year period, whereas, rather unexpectedly, environmental worldviews and environmental identification did not. We conclude that focusing on intrinsic, rather than extrinsic, life goals may be important not just for individuals' well-being, but also for the well-being of future generations.
... emma StirliNg University of Sussex, UK ... Further evidence comes from studies demonstrating ... more ... emma StirliNg University of Sussex, UK ... Further evidence comes from studies demonstrating that activation of appearance-related cognitive structures can mediate some effects of exposure to thin models (Brown & Dittmar, 2005; Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2002). ...
Researchers have observed variation in levels of body image disturbance and eating pathology amon... more Researchers have observed variation in levels of body image disturbance and eating pathology among women from different Western countries. Examination of cross-cultural differences in the established risk factors (i.e., thin-ideal internalization, muscular-ideal internalization, and appearance pressures from family, peers, and media) for negative outcomes may help to elucidate the prominence of specific risk factors within a given Western society and guide associated interventions. Women from the United States (US), Italy, England, and Australia completed the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4 (SATAQ-4). Analysis of covariance controlling for age and BMI indicated significant cross-country differences for all SATAQ-4 subscales. Results typically indicated higher levels of appearance-ideal internalization and appearance pressures in the US and lower levels in Italy; however, associated effect sizes were generally small. A medium effect of country was observed ...
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1521 Jscp 2009 28 9 1100, Nov 1, 2009
We are indebted to Colin Leach, Rupert Brown, and Robin Banerjee for their constructive comments ... more We are indebted to Colin Leach, Rupert Brown, and Robin Banerjee for their constructive comments on an earlier draft of this article. The first author would like to thank Aevar Thorolfsson for his invaluable help in collecting data for Study 1b.
Levels of debt have reached an unprecedented extreme in Iceland. This rise has occurred in the co... more Levels of debt have reached an unprecedented extreme in Iceland. This rise has occurred in the context of a consumer culture highlighting supposed psychological benefits of buying consumer goods. Over-indebtedness can have serious financial, social and psychological consequences, thus studying its antecedents is vital. This paper reports findings from two studies examining materialistic and motivational precursors to various financial outcomes. The first study (n = 271) showed that people who endorse materialistic values have more financial worries, have more tendency towards compulsive buying and spending and have higher credit-card debt, but this is particularly true for lower earners. The second study (n = 304) showed that people in lower income brackets who buy goods for mood related purposes are more likely to have higher consumer debt.
... the unemployed themselves. Finally, the business commuters themselves were most concerned wit... more ... the unemployed themselves. Finally, the business commuters themselves were most concerned with photos and mementoes of sentimental value, much more prominently than the other two groups thought. Instead, a variety ...
Previous experimental research indicates that the use of average-size women models in advertising... more Previous experimental research indicates that the use of average-size women models in advertising prevents the well-documented negative effect of thin models on women's body image, while such adverts are perceived as equally effective (Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004). The current study extends this work by: (a) seeking to replicate the finding of no difference in advertising effectiveness between average-size and thin models (b) examining level of ideal-body internalization as an individual, internal factor that moderates women's vulnerability to thin media models, in the context of (c) comparing women in professions that differ radically in their focus on, and promotion of, the sociocultural ideal of thinness for women--employees in fashion advertising (n = 75) and teachers in secondary schools (n = 75). Adverts showing thin, average-size and no models were perceived as equally effective. High internalizers in both groups of women felt worse about their body image after exposure to thin models compared to other images. Profession affected responses to average-size models. Teachers reported significantly less body-focused anxiety after seeing average-size models compared to no models, while there was no difference for fashion advertisers. This suggests that women in professional environments with less focus on appearance-related ideals can experience increased body-esteem when exposed to average-size models, whereas women in appearance-focused professions report no such relief.
Research on body image has neglected adolescents' ideals beyond thinness, particularly those of a... more Research on body image has neglected adolescents' ideals beyond thinness, particularly those of adolescent boys. Two studies are reported which examine a range of qualities in order to capture English adolescents' images of ideal bodies for same-and other-gender individuals. Study 1 used a qualitative approach, where 58 pupils aged 12-16 years discussed photograph arrays of ''good-looking'' media personalities of both genders and then chose descriptors for ''ideal'' women and men. Adolescents' preferences for qualities in either an ''ideal woman'' or an ''ideal man,'' and possible influences on those preferences, were assessed quantitatively in Study 2, which used a questionnaire with 458 pupils in the same age range. With few exceptions, all respondents were white Caucasian and roughly equally split between working-class and middle-class backgrounds. The main findings were that body-image ideals are multidimensional, show systematic gender differences, and become more conventional with age (closer to cultural ideals). Adolescents' own body mass is linked systematically to body-image preferences, but only with respect to the ''ideal woman,'' where heavier adolescents of both genders (higher BMI) distance themselves from conventional notions of female beauty. Research on adolescent body image shows some limitations. Less is known about the body image of adolescent boys than that of adolescent girls, which has received considerable attention. The predominant focus has been on thinness as a culturally valued dimension of (female) bodies, possibly 1 We would like to thank the teachers and pupils at a South East England comprehensive school for their cooperation and support.
Consumer culture is characterized by two prominent ideals: the 'body perfect' and the material 'g... more Consumer culture is characterized by two prominent ideals: the 'body perfect' and the material 'good life'. Although the impact of these ideals has been investigated in separate research literatures, no previous research has examined whether materialism is linked to women's responses to thin-ideal media. Data from several studies confirm that the internalization of materialistic and body-ideal values is positively linked in women. After developing a prime for materialism (N = 50), we present an experimental examination (N = 155) of the effects of priming materialism on women's responses to thin-ideal media, using multiple outcome measures of state body dissatisfaction. Priming materialism affects women's body dissatisfaction after exposure to thin media models, but differently depending on the dimension of body image measured. The two main novel findings are that (1) priming materialism heightens the centrality of appearance to women's self-concept and (2) priming materialism influences the activation of bodyrelated self-discrepancies (BRSDs), particularly for highly materialistic women. Exposure to materialistic media has a clear influence on women's body image, with trait materialism a further vulnerability factor for negative exposure effects in response to idealized, thin media models.
ABSTRACT Group-serving biases in evaluating and explaining harmful behavior were investigated. Me... more ABSTRACT Group-serving biases in evaluating and explaining harmful behavior were investigated. Members of the Italian Communist party judged and explained an in-group or an out-group actor's harmful behavior toward an in-group or an out-group victim. The results support the notion of an in-group bias: Out-group actors were perceived as more aggressive and intentional in their actions than in-group actors. An in-group bias was also observed with regard to predictions about whether the victim would attempt retaliation. Group-based explanations were used more often when the group identities of actor and victim were different than when they were the same.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1521 Jscp 2005 24 8 1081, Jan 19, 2006
... [CrossRef] 7. Bryony Bamford, Emma Halliwell. 2009. Investigating the role of attachment in s... more ... [CrossRef] 7. Bryony Bamford, Emma Halliwell. 2009. Investigating the role of attachment in social comparison theories of eating disorders within a non-clinical female population. European Eating Disorders Review 17:5, 371-379. [CrossRef] 8.Travis A. Ryan, Todd Morrison. ...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2014
This paper presents a systematic attempt to examine the associations of materialism with learning... more This paper presents a systematic attempt to examine the associations of materialism with learning in 9-to 11-year old children in two countries of similar economic development, but different cultural heritage. Using cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental methods, we test a theoretically driven model of associations among materialism, learning motivations, and learning outcomes. Convergent findings suggest that a materialist orientation in elementary school children lowers intrinsic learning motivations, fosters extrinsic learning motivations, and leads to poorer learning outcomes. Materialism was linked directly to lower exam performance, and this link was mediated by lower mastery and heightened performance goals, with patterns not differing between British and Hong Kong Chinese children (Study 1). A follow-up showed that initial materialism predicted worse exam grades one year later, suggesting a detrimental long-term effect on Chinese children"s school performance (Study 2). We then tested relationships between materialism and learning experimentally, by priming a momentary (state) orientation towards materialism. Writing about material possessions and money affected Chinese children"s learning motivations, so that they endorsed lower mastery and higher performance goals (Study 3). A video-diary materialism prime had significant effects on actual learning behaviours, leading British children to (a) choose a performanceoriented learning task over a mastery-oriented task and (b) give up on the task more quickly (Study 4). This research has important implications for personality psychology, educational policy, and future research.
Sociocultural theory attributes the high levels of body image concerns and disordered eating in W... more Sociocultural theory attributes the high levels of body image concerns and disordered eating in Western women to the promotion of an unrealistically thin body ideal. This study investigated body dissatisfaction, restrained eating, and attitudes toward appearance in visually impaired and sighted women. There were 21 congenitally blind, 11 blinded later in life, and 60 sighted. Blind women were more satisfied with their body and dieted less than sighted women. Appearance attitudes, particularly thin-ideal internalization, accounted for differences in body dissatisfaction and dieting among the three groups of women. Possible explanations for our findings are considered, including the importance of visual exposure to the media's thin ideal, as well as the usefulness of future research on blind women.
Http Dx Doi Org 10 1521 Jscp 2007 26 3 334, Mar 1, 2007
Compulsive buying of consumer goods increasingly occurs in conventional shops and stores, but has... more Compulsive buying of consumer goods increasingly occurs in conventional shops and stores, but has also started to emerge when people buy online. Extending previous research (e.g., Dittmar, 2005a, b), a model of vulnerability factors is proposed whereby the endorsement of materialistic values predicts individuals' seeking to enhance their emotions and identity when they buy goods, which, in turn, predicts tendencies toward compulsive buying. This model is tested with respect to the Internet, a fast-growing alternative to conventional buying. A preliminary survey (n = 110) confirmed emotional enhancement and identity gains (in addition to economic concerns and efficiency) as distinct online buying dimensions. The findings of the main survey (n = 126) provided good initial support for the proposed model, showing that materialistic individuals who seek to enhance their emotions and identity when buying goods online reported the strongest tendencies toward compulsive buying on the Internet. Implications for intervention are discussed.
Compulsive buying of consumer goods increasingly occurs in conventional shops and stores, but has... more Compulsive buying of consumer goods increasingly occurs in conventional shops and stores, but has also started to emerge when people buy online. Extending previous research (e.g., Dittmar, 2005a, b), a model of vulnerability factors is proposed whereby the endorsement of materialistic values predicts individuals' seeking to enhance their emotions and identity when they buy goods, which, in turn, predicts tendencies toward compulsive buying. This model is tested with respect to the Internet, a fast-growing alternative to conventional buying. A preliminary survey (n = 110) confirmed emotional enhancement and identity gains (in addition to economic concerns and efficiency) as distinct online buying dimensions. The findings of the main survey (n = 126) provided good initial support for the proposed model, showing that materialistic individuals who seek to enhance their emotions and identity when buying goods online reported the strongest tendencies toward compulsive buying on the Internet. Implications for intervention are discussed.
This study investigates the effect of social comparisons with media models on women&a... more This study investigates the effect of social comparisons with media models on women's body image based on either self-evaluation or self-improvement motives. Ninety-eight women, for whom appearance was a relevant comparison dimension, viewed advertisements that did, or did not, feature idealised models, after being prompted to engage in self-evaluation or self-improvement comparisons. The results indicate that, when focusing on self-evaluation, comparisons with thin models are associated with higher body-focused anxiety than viewing no model advertisements. In contrast, when focusing on self-improvement, comparisons with thin models are not associated with higher body-focused anxiety than viewing no models. Furthermore, women's general tendency to engage in social comparisons moderated the effects of self-evaluative comparisons with models, so that women who did not habitually engage in social comparisons were most strongly affected. It is suggested that motive for social comparison may explain previous inconsistencies in the experimental exposure literature and warrants more careful attention in future research.
Prioritizing intrinsic life goals (self-development, community involvement, relationships) rather... more Prioritizing intrinsic life goals (self-development, community involvement, relationships) rather than extrinsic ones (money, fame, image) is said to foster not only personal wellbeing, but also pro-social behavior such as protecting the environment. We explored concurrent and prospective links between intrinsic (versus extrinsic) life goals and self-reported environmentally responsible behavior, using correlational and longitudinal data from adult participants in a mass consumer society (UK) and a fast developing nation (Chile). In both countries, the importance of intrinsic (versus extrinsic) life goals was associated cross-sectionally with environmentally responsible behavior, even after controlling for possible effects of environmental worldviews and environmental identification. In longitudinal analyses, life goals prospectively predicted environmentally responsible behavior over a two-year period, whereas, rather unexpectedly, environmental worldviews and environmental identification did not. We conclude that focusing on intrinsic, rather than extrinsic, life goals may be important not just for individuals' well-being, but also for the well-being of future generations.
... emma StirliNg University of Sussex, UK ... Further evidence comes from studies demonstrating ... more ... emma StirliNg University of Sussex, UK ... Further evidence comes from studies demonstrating that activation of appearance-related cognitive structures can mediate some effects of exposure to thin models (Brown & Dittmar, 2005; Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2002). ...
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