Two experiments examined the impact of attention on sensorimotor skills. In Experiment 1, experie... more Two experiments examined the impact of attention on sensorimotor skills. In Experiment 1, experienced golfers putted under dual-task conditions designed to distract attention from putting and under skillfocused conditions that prompted attention to step-by-step putting performance. Dual-task condition putting was more accurate. In Experiment 2, right-footed novice and experienced soccer players dribbled through a slalom course under dual-task or skill-focused conditions. When using their dominant right foot, experts again performed better in the dual-task condition. However, when using their less proficient left foot, experts performed better in the skill-focused condition. Novices performed better under skill-focus regardless of foot. Whereas novices and the less-proficient performances of experts benefit from online attentional monitoring of step-by-step performance, high-level skill execution is harmed.
Recent work in the area of sport expertise suggests that practice patterns can also play a critic... more Recent work in the area of sport expertise suggests that practice patterns can also play a critical role in maintaining athletic performance. This article examines the contribution of both physiological changes and practice patterns to swimming performances of master-, international-, junior-national-, and varsity-level swimmers. A comparison of the practice patterns of these groups suggests that master athletes spend significantly less time per week training for competition, and their training focus is on endurance, not strength. Younger swimmers train for endurance, strength, speed, and power. The authors suggest that these differences might be partly responsible for age-related performance changes. Performance changes for semilongitudinal and cross-sectional samples are characterized by significant quadratic beta weight, indicating increasing declines in performance starting at around 60 years of age. These data are discussed with respect to the role that practice plays in explaining performance changes with age.
This experiment assessed the efficacy of proprioceptive and visual information for the performanc... more This experiment assessed the efficacy of proprioceptive and visual information for the performance of “vertical position” by synchronized swimmers. Three skill groups of 5 senior, 5 intermediate, and 5 novice synchronized swimmers performed 40 vertical positions under four conditions. The conditions were: self-initiated with and without vision, and following experimenter perturbation, with and without vision. The dependent measure was degrees of error from true vertical. Analysis indicated that either proprioception or proprioception and vision may be used in performing vertical positions. A significant main effect was found among skill groups.
Adults are able to use a visual target to reduce quiet-standing postural sway (Lee & Lish... more Adults are able to use a visual target to reduce quiet-standing postural sway (Lee & Lishman, 1975). The present study was designed to determine whether children, under varying postural conditions, are also able to use a visual target to reduce postural sway. A second purpose was to determine the ability of children to visually fixate under different postural conditions. An inability to visually fixate may limit the usefulness of a visual target. The results indicate that, like adults, children are able to reduce sway in the presence of a visual target. Young children are less able than older children and adults to visually fixate. In addition, children show more spontaneous visual saccades in the no-target condition than in the target condition and more saccades in the Romberg stance than in a feet-together stance. The fact that saccades decrease with increasing age, even in the seated, head-stabilized condition, precludes the possibility that increased instability of the young children is the only cause of increased number of saccades.
... 138 FRAN ALLARD AND JANET L. STARKES player cannot function without understanding his or her ... more ... 138 FRAN ALLARD AND JANET L. STARKES player cannot function without understanding his or her role in the structure of the ... COGNITION AND OPEN SKILLS WITH SPEED STRESS Given the differences described for basketball and hockey, it should not be surprising to ...
... Page 3. COGNITIVE ISSUES IN MOTOR EXPERTISE Page 4. ADVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY 102 Editors: GE ST... more ... Page 3. COGNITIVE ISSUES IN MOTOR EXPERTISE Page 4. ADVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY 102 Editors: GE STELMACH PA VROON NORTH-HOLLAND AMSTERDAM LONDON NEW YORK TOKYO Page 5. COGNITIVE ...
Publisher Summary Microsurgery is an ideal venue for the study of motor skill for a number of rea... more Publisher Summary Microsurgery is an ideal venue for the study of motor skill for a number of reasons. In general, very little is known about the acquisition of movement skills performed at the microscopic level. Even researchers in human factors have given little effort to the empirical study of micro-movements. In microsurgery, very little about the acquisition or development of skill, or the transfer (positive and negative) of skill from macrosurgery is known. The chapter discusses whether the dependent measures used in the case studies reflect expertise and changes with experience. The present study reveals that it is not just the most basic procedures of microsurgery that become efficient but all of the requisite skills. There are number of attempts to develop more standardized tests of learning and transfer that will eventually allow novice-expert group comparisons. One of the curious aspects of motor performance under the microscope is why the motor system should be so adaptable as to be able to function efficiently at high levels of magnification that far exceed the normal range of vision. As all sensory systems have an absolute range it is amazing that motor system capabilities should far exceed the limits imposed by the normal range of vision.
Relative age effects are pervasive throughout sport; however, little is known about how relative ... more Relative age effects are pervasive throughout sport; however, little is known about how relative age interacts with other mechanisms of expert performance such as sports characterized by young ages for peak performance. The purpose of this study was to examine relative age effects in gymnastics, a sport where athletes reach peak performance during puberty. Examining the birthdates of 921 female gymnasts, we discovered no relative age effects for the collective sample. Dividing the sample into two groups, we noted a relative age effect for under-15 gymnasts, but a reverse effect for over-15 gymnasts. Inspecting competitive standards, we noted over-representations of over-15 athletes born in the fourth quartile at all standards except national. In the discussion, we highlight the complexity of relative age effects by incorporating deliberate practice and competition standard as variables for consideration.
The relative age effect (RAE) has been demonstrated in many youth and professional sports. In thi... more The relative age effect (RAE) has been demonstrated in many youth and professional sports. In this study, we hypothesized that there would also be a RAE among youth chess players who are typically involved in a complex cognitive task without significant physical requirements. While typical RAEs have been observed in adult chess players, in this paper we wanted to focus primarily on youth chess players. In addition, we also examined RAEs in both participation rates and performance levels in a national chess championship. Therefore, the RAE was examined in a complex cognitive task that has no significant physical requirements, more specifically among youth chess players. Data were analyzed (1) for all registered Belgian youth chess players over a 5-year period (2009-2013) and (2) for participants of the Belgian youth championship 2013. Results indicated an overall RAE among all Belgian youth chess players over the last 5 years. The likelihood of participation was significantly greater for players born in the first birthdate quartile (χ² = 10.21, p < .05; r = −.77, p < .01; w = .07) and the likelihood of participation decreased when youth chess players were born in the last quartile of the year. These effects were most prominent in the under-8 and under-10 year olds. There also appeared to be a performance-related RAE. Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests (p < .05) showed that players born in the first months of the selection year were significantly more often in the top 10 players for each age level of the Belgian Youth Championship 2013. Highlights (1) The relative age effect was examined in youth chess players' participation and performance (2) We hypothesized that the relative age effect is most prominent in younger age groups
Two experiments examined the impact of attention on sensorimotor skills. In Experiment 1, experie... more Two experiments examined the impact of attention on sensorimotor skills. In Experiment 1, experienced golfers putted under dual-task conditions designed to distract attention from putting and under skillfocused conditions that prompted attention to step-by-step putting performance. Dual-task condition putting was more accurate. In Experiment 2, right-footed novice and experienced soccer players dribbled through a slalom course under dual-task or skill-focused conditions. When using their dominant right foot, experts again performed better in the dual-task condition. However, when using their less proficient left foot, experts performed better in the skill-focused condition. Novices performed better under skill-focus regardless of foot. Whereas novices and the less-proficient performances of experts benefit from online attentional monitoring of step-by-step performance, high-level skill execution is harmed.
Recent work in the area of sport expertise suggests that practice patterns can also play a critic... more Recent work in the area of sport expertise suggests that practice patterns can also play a critical role in maintaining athletic performance. This article examines the contribution of both physiological changes and practice patterns to swimming performances of master-, international-, junior-national-, and varsity-level swimmers. A comparison of the practice patterns of these groups suggests that master athletes spend significantly less time per week training for competition, and their training focus is on endurance, not strength. Younger swimmers train for endurance, strength, speed, and power. The authors suggest that these differences might be partly responsible for age-related performance changes. Performance changes for semilongitudinal and cross-sectional samples are characterized by significant quadratic beta weight, indicating increasing declines in performance starting at around 60 years of age. These data are discussed with respect to the role that practice plays in explaining performance changes with age.
This experiment assessed the efficacy of proprioceptive and visual information for the performanc... more This experiment assessed the efficacy of proprioceptive and visual information for the performance of “vertical position” by synchronized swimmers. Three skill groups of 5 senior, 5 intermediate, and 5 novice synchronized swimmers performed 40 vertical positions under four conditions. The conditions were: self-initiated with and without vision, and following experimenter perturbation, with and without vision. The dependent measure was degrees of error from true vertical. Analysis indicated that either proprioception or proprioception and vision may be used in performing vertical positions. A significant main effect was found among skill groups.
Adults are able to use a visual target to reduce quiet-standing postural sway (Lee &amp; Lish... more Adults are able to use a visual target to reduce quiet-standing postural sway (Lee &amp; Lishman, 1975). The present study was designed to determine whether children, under varying postural conditions, are also able to use a visual target to reduce postural sway. A second purpose was to determine the ability of children to visually fixate under different postural conditions. An inability to visually fixate may limit the usefulness of a visual target. The results indicate that, like adults, children are able to reduce sway in the presence of a visual target. Young children are less able than older children and adults to visually fixate. In addition, children show more spontaneous visual saccades in the no-target condition than in the target condition and more saccades in the Romberg stance than in a feet-together stance. The fact that saccades decrease with increasing age, even in the seated, head-stabilized condition, precludes the possibility that increased instability of the young children is the only cause of increased number of saccades.
... 138 FRAN ALLARD AND JANET L. STARKES player cannot function without understanding his or her ... more ... 138 FRAN ALLARD AND JANET L. STARKES player cannot function without understanding his or her role in the structure of the ... COGNITION AND OPEN SKILLS WITH SPEED STRESS Given the differences described for basketball and hockey, it should not be surprising to ...
... Page 3. COGNITIVE ISSUES IN MOTOR EXPERTISE Page 4. ADVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY 102 Editors: GE ST... more ... Page 3. COGNITIVE ISSUES IN MOTOR EXPERTISE Page 4. ADVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY 102 Editors: GE STELMACH PA VROON NORTH-HOLLAND AMSTERDAM LONDON NEW YORK TOKYO Page 5. COGNITIVE ...
Publisher Summary Microsurgery is an ideal venue for the study of motor skill for a number of rea... more Publisher Summary Microsurgery is an ideal venue for the study of motor skill for a number of reasons. In general, very little is known about the acquisition of movement skills performed at the microscopic level. Even researchers in human factors have given little effort to the empirical study of micro-movements. In microsurgery, very little about the acquisition or development of skill, or the transfer (positive and negative) of skill from macrosurgery is known. The chapter discusses whether the dependent measures used in the case studies reflect expertise and changes with experience. The present study reveals that it is not just the most basic procedures of microsurgery that become efficient but all of the requisite skills. There are number of attempts to develop more standardized tests of learning and transfer that will eventually allow novice-expert group comparisons. One of the curious aspects of motor performance under the microscope is why the motor system should be so adaptable as to be able to function efficiently at high levels of magnification that far exceed the normal range of vision. As all sensory systems have an absolute range it is amazing that motor system capabilities should far exceed the limits imposed by the normal range of vision.
Relative age effects are pervasive throughout sport; however, little is known about how relative ... more Relative age effects are pervasive throughout sport; however, little is known about how relative age interacts with other mechanisms of expert performance such as sports characterized by young ages for peak performance. The purpose of this study was to examine relative age effects in gymnastics, a sport where athletes reach peak performance during puberty. Examining the birthdates of 921 female gymnasts, we discovered no relative age effects for the collective sample. Dividing the sample into two groups, we noted a relative age effect for under-15 gymnasts, but a reverse effect for over-15 gymnasts. Inspecting competitive standards, we noted over-representations of over-15 athletes born in the fourth quartile at all standards except national. In the discussion, we highlight the complexity of relative age effects by incorporating deliberate practice and competition standard as variables for consideration.
The relative age effect (RAE) has been demonstrated in many youth and professional sports. In thi... more The relative age effect (RAE) has been demonstrated in many youth and professional sports. In this study, we hypothesized that there would also be a RAE among youth chess players who are typically involved in a complex cognitive task without significant physical requirements. While typical RAEs have been observed in adult chess players, in this paper we wanted to focus primarily on youth chess players. In addition, we also examined RAEs in both participation rates and performance levels in a national chess championship. Therefore, the RAE was examined in a complex cognitive task that has no significant physical requirements, more specifically among youth chess players. Data were analyzed (1) for all registered Belgian youth chess players over a 5-year period (2009-2013) and (2) for participants of the Belgian youth championship 2013. Results indicated an overall RAE among all Belgian youth chess players over the last 5 years. The likelihood of participation was significantly greater for players born in the first birthdate quartile (χ² = 10.21, p < .05; r = −.77, p < .01; w = .07) and the likelihood of participation decreased when youth chess players were born in the last quartile of the year. These effects were most prominent in the under-8 and under-10 year olds. There also appeared to be a performance-related RAE. Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests (p < .05) showed that players born in the first months of the selection year were significantly more often in the top 10 players for each age level of the Belgian Youth Championship 2013. Highlights (1) The relative age effect was examined in youth chess players' participation and performance (2) We hypothesized that the relative age effect is most prominent in younger age groups
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