This article analyses Moses Maimonides' account of the AfterDeath and, more specifically, of ... more This article analyses Moses Maimonides' account of the AfterDeath and, more specifically, of olam ha-ba’ (lit.: the world to come), the state of ultimate human happiness and perfection (in contrast to this world). Maimonides is unequivocal about what olam ha-ba’ is not. Contrary to a competing medieval Jewish tradition, it is utterly incorporeal and, contrary to rabbinic tradition, it is not a motivational reward nor compensation for undeserved suffering in a theodicy. Instead, Maimonides gives two positive accounts of the metaphysics of olam ha-ba’. The first is an intellectualist account on which the denizens of olam ha-ba’ are perfected intellects engaged in intellectual apprehension of the deity. The second is sceptical: it denies that humans have any understanding or knowledge (‘ilm, episteme) of olam ha-ba’ and claims that all language used to describe it is purely equivocal or homonymous, although it allows that some immutable thing, whatever it is, survives death. Instea...
Mind <html_ent glyph="@amp;" ascii="&amp;"/> Language, 2006
This paper examines the place of metaphorical interpretation in the current Contextualist-Literal... more This paper examines the place of metaphorical interpretation in the current Contextualist-Literalist controversy over the role of context in the determination of truth-conditions in general. Although there has been considerable discussion of ' non-literal ' language by both sides of this dispute, the language analyzed involves either so-called implicit indexicality, loose or loosened use, enriched interpretations, or semantic transfer, not metaphor itself. In the fi rst half of the paper, I critically evaluate Recanati ' s ( ) recent Contextualist account and show that it cannot account for the metaphorical-literal dependence characteristic of metaphor. I then turn to Carston ' s (2002) , and Bezuidenhout ' s (2001) Contextualist accounts and show that they place no constraints on metaphorical interpretations. In the second half of the paper I sketch a Literalist theory of metaphor elaborated in and respond to two kinds of Contextualist criticisms of that account by .
Abrahamic Reflections on Randomness and Providence, 2021
This chapter addresses Saadia’s theodicies in his Doctrines and Beliefs, a treatise of Jewish the... more This chapter addresses Saadia’s theodicies in his Doctrines and Beliefs, a treatise of Jewish theology, and his seminal commentary on the Book of Job whose aim, I argue, is not to investigate the theological problem of evil but to give a phenomenology of people’s mental reactions to suffering. On Saadia’s radically naturalistic interpretation of Job, according to which Job’s human adversary Satan challenges his piety—that Job is pious only because he is prosperous—Job is made to suffer to justify his piety. But Job’s reaction to this suffering manifests the ambiguity, isolation, and uncertainty of one who suffers without understanding why.
Metaphor is a crucially context-dependent linguistic phenomenon. This fact was not clearly recogn... more Metaphor is a crucially context-dependent linguistic phenomenon. This fact was not clearly recognized until some time in the 1970's. Until then, most theorists assumed that a sentence must have a fixed set of metaphorical meanings, if it had any at all. Often, they also assumed that metaphoricity was the product of grammatical deviance, in the form of a category mistake. To compensate for this deviance, they thought, at least one of the sentence's constituent terms underwent a meaning-changing 'metaphorical twist', which deleted the objectionable selection restriction or semantic marker (e.g., Levin 1977) or turned one of the term's fixed set of connotations into its denotation (e.g., Beardsley 1962). This situation changed as theorists began to pay more serious attention to how metaphors actually function. First, it was pointed out that not all sentences used metaphorically are logically or even pragmatically absurd (Cohen 1975). Second, it became increasingly obvious that in the context of different sentences, and in the context of the same sentence as uttered by different speakers on different occasions, the same word could be used metaphorically to express many, very different meanings. Semantic theories became increasingly bloated as theorists attempted to encompass all this variety within the lexicon. Eventually, semantic theories of metaphor were largely abandoned. Instead, theorists generally maintained either that metaphors are a type of speaker meaning, on which a speaker says one thing in order to mean something else (e.g., Grice 1975, Searle 1979), or else that metaphors don't have any distinctive 'meaning' at all, but simply cause certain distinctive effects in their hearers (e.g., Davidson 1984, Rorty 1987). Philosophers of language have devoted much energy in the last 30 years to investigating the various ways in which context can affect communicated
<jats:p>One of the most influential medieval Jewish thinkers to engage with the philosophic... more <jats:p>One of the most influential medieval Jewish thinkers to engage with the philosophical tradition, Nahmanides was also a leading Talmudist, biblical exegete, and a founding figure of the Jewish mystical tradition (Kabbalah) that emerged in thirteenth-century Spain. Generally critical of Aristotle, he was deeply influenced by predecessors such as Moses Maimonides. As the leading rabbi in Catalonia, Nahmanides played a central role in the 'Maimonidean controversy' of 1232–3, a dispute that raged over the permissibility of philosophical study. He was also at the centre of the 'Barcelona disputation' of 1263, conducted with the apostate Pablo Christiani over the issue of philosophically motivated allegories.</jats:p> <jats:p>Unlike his Provençal contemporaries, Nahmanides wrote neither free-standing philosophical treatises nor commentaries on Graeco-Arabic philosophical texts. Instead, he developed his original metaphysical views in sermons and his highlt influential biblical commentaries treating such topics as miracles, providence and idolatry. The commentaries proved especially influential through their thematic treatments of philosophical questions raised by the biblical text and for their suggestive expositions of mystical and theosophical ideas.</jats:p>
KeynoteL ecturea tt he Grand Opening of the Maimonides Centre forA dvanced Studies on 29 October,... more KeynoteL ecturea tt he Grand Opening of the Maimonides Centre forA dvanced Studies on 29 October,2 015 My late teacherProfessor Sidney Morgenbesser often taught his studentsthe 'laws' of JewishP hilosophyor, more specifically, of Jewishlogic,Jewishepistemology,Jewish metaphysics,and so on. Forexample, the laws of general logic are tautologies like 'If p, then p' or 'If it is the casethat if p, then q, then not-q,then not-p.' The first lawof Jewish Logic is: 'If p, whyn ot q(spoken with aY iddish accent)?'¹ The question-What is Jewish Philosophy?-is typicallya nswered by describing Jewishp hilosophies,i .e,the books, theories, and doctrines of canonicalJ ewishp hilosophers, such as,S aadiah Gaon, Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides), Judah Halevi, Levi ben Gershon(Gersonides). Indeed the distinguisheds cholar of Jewishp hilosophy, Julius Guttmann, entitled his classic history, Philosophies of Judaism.² But Jewish philosophyismore than asequence of doctrines or books. Like all philosophy, it is an activity,something one 'does.'³ Forsome it is an intellectual exercise that solves theoretical puzzles. Foro thers these exercises are practices that constituteawayo f life, practices that give central place to the intellect and reasoning but aim at apractical end, the achievement of happiness or aharmonious life in which one'sJ udaism and intellect are in sync.⁴ In either case, philosophyisapursuit in which one engages, not onlyasubjectm atter or the results of the pursuit. Then ameo ft he subject 'Jewish Philosophy' first emergedi nG ermany in thel ate seventeenth centuryand earlyeighteenthcentury when we find the firsthistories of philosophy-andthe very idea that philosophyhas ahistory.The earliest histories areinthe doxographical tradition, portraying certain historical figuresa sp aradigms of what was then considered to be philosophical wisdom.Slightlylaterhistoriesweredevelopmental * Manythanks to Michael Fagenblat,Zev Harvey,and David Shatz for very helpful conversations and comments on earlier drafts of this paper. And of Jewish epistemology: 'Your mother always knows best.' And of Jewish metaphysics: 'To be is to be in tzures ("pain, suffering").' And of Jewish aesthetics: 'Beauty is for the goyim.' But onlyinthe English translation which was not authorizedbyhim; the title of the German original uses the singular: Die Philosophie des Judentums.
Baltic International Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication, 2007
This paper addresses two issues: (1) what it is for a metaphor to be either alive or dead and (2)... more This paper addresses two issues: (1) what it is for a metaphor to be either alive or dead and (2) what a metaphor must be in order to be either alive or dead. Both issues, in turn, bear on the contemporary debate whether metaphor is a pragmatic or semantic phenomenon and on the dispute between Contextualists and Literalists. In the first part of the paper, I survey examples of what I take to be live metaphors and dead metaphors in order to establish that there is a phenomenon here to be explained. I then propose an explanation of metaphorical vitality (and by implication of metaphorical death) in terms of the dependence of the interpretation of a metaphor on a family or network of expressions specific to its context of utterance. I then argue that only a Literalist account of metaphor-one that posits metaphorical expressions (a la Stern (2000))-and not Contextualist and Gricean approaches can accommodate this explanation. Finally, I discuss some objections to my Literalist account and sketch an explanation of types to counter Platonistic objections to my metaphorical expression types.
Plato, Gorgias,445c; Republic 526d; Laws 830c; Aristotle, Sleep and Waking (De somno et vigilia) ... more Plato, Gorgias,445c; Republic 526d; Laws 830c; Aristotle, Sleep and Waking (De somno et vigilia) 458a29;P seudo-Aristotle, De spiritu 484b33. Philo, On the Life of Moses (De vita Mosis)2 .225-32. Philo, On Flight and Finding (De fuga et invetione)136: "Forthe best offeringisquietness and suspense of judgement,i nm atters that absolutelyl ack proofs" (ἄριστον γὰρ ἱερεῖον ἡσυχίακ α ὶἐ ποχὴ περὶὧ νπ ά ντως οὔκε ἰ σι πίστεις). Philo, On Flight and Finding,i nOn Flight and Finding.O nt he Changeo fN ames.O nD reams (Philo vol. 5), trans. F. H. Colson, G.H. Whitaker (Cambridge,M A: Har-vardU niversity Press),1934. Cicero, Lucullus 110: sed ut illa habet probabilia non percepta, sic hoc ipsum nihil posse percipi. nam si in hoc haberet cognitionis notam, eadem uteretur in ceteris. Cicero, On Academic Scepticism, trans. Charles Brittain (Indianapolis/Cambrige:H ackett,2 006).
Maimonides’ view of the significance of dying for God, I will argue, is his understanding of the ... more Maimonides’ view of the significance of dying for God, I will argue, is his understanding of the phrase that the rabbis appropriated (at least by the Middle Ages) for dying in martyrdom scenarios—namely, “Qiddush HaShem,” literally: “Sanctification of the Name [of God].” For Maimonides, a holy life is no more but also no less than a life constituted by perfect performance of all commandments in the Mosaic Law without exception. Does this ideal allow for—indeed mandate in specific circumstances—transgressing rather than dying, especially when coerced? Or does a truly holy life require nothing less than perfect performance of all commandments allowing for no violations under any circumstances? The view that demands perfect observance of all commandments in all circumstances, I will call “holiness perfectionism.” Maimonides, I shall argue, offers a critique of this view.
This paper analyzes two transformative conceptions of qedushah (holiness) in medieval Jewish thou... more This paper analyzes two transformative conceptions of qedushah (holiness) in medieval Jewish thought, Moses Maimonides’s and Moses Nahmanides’s. Maimonides reduces qedushah to the Mosaic commandments which he reconceives as communal institutions to constrain bodily desires and promote intellectualist values and as training for perfected individuals to de-corporealize themselves in imitation of God. Nahmanides argues that Maimonides’s legal reduction of qedushah leads to the absurd conclusion that the perfectly scrupulous law-abiding scoundrel who exploits loopholes in the law is qadosh! He therefore reconceives qedushah as a complement to the Mosaic commandments intended to counter the problem of the scoundrel. Thus qedushah is re-born as a corrective to abuse of the Law. Nahmanides then proposes two ways to achieve this goal: i) by rabbinic enactment of more laws to fill in (loop) holes in the Law and ii) by cultivating a virtue-oriented, non-legal conception of holiness as a chara...
Abstract This essay examines the conditions under which the great medieval Jewish rabbinic figure... more Abstract This essay examines the conditions under which the great medieval Jewish rabbinic figure Moses Maimonides (1138–1204) took war to be justified. In particular, it argues that Maimonides did not hold that universal belief in one deity, on the model of a (Christian or Almohad) holy war or religious crusade, is a sufficient condition to justify the pursuit of a war. At most a war is justified if it enables the creation of a monotheistic environment for the Jewish people within their own boundaries or national territory. Among other topics, the essay also analyzes Maimonides' distinction between ‘commanded’ wars and ‘optional wars’, his concept of idolatry, and his account of jus in bellum.
This article analyses Moses Maimonides' account of the AfterDeath and, more specifically, of ... more This article analyses Moses Maimonides' account of the AfterDeath and, more specifically, of olam ha-ba’ (lit.: the world to come), the state of ultimate human happiness and perfection (in contrast to this world). Maimonides is unequivocal about what olam ha-ba’ is not. Contrary to a competing medieval Jewish tradition, it is utterly incorporeal and, contrary to rabbinic tradition, it is not a motivational reward nor compensation for undeserved suffering in a theodicy. Instead, Maimonides gives two positive accounts of the metaphysics of olam ha-ba’. The first is an intellectualist account on which the denizens of olam ha-ba’ are perfected intellects engaged in intellectual apprehension of the deity. The second is sceptical: it denies that humans have any understanding or knowledge (‘ilm, episteme) of olam ha-ba’ and claims that all language used to describe it is purely equivocal or homonymous, although it allows that some immutable thing, whatever it is, survives death. Instea...
Mind <html_ent glyph="@amp;" ascii="&amp;"/> Language, 2006
This paper examines the place of metaphorical interpretation in the current Contextualist-Literal... more This paper examines the place of metaphorical interpretation in the current Contextualist-Literalist controversy over the role of context in the determination of truth-conditions in general. Although there has been considerable discussion of ' non-literal ' language by both sides of this dispute, the language analyzed involves either so-called implicit indexicality, loose or loosened use, enriched interpretations, or semantic transfer, not metaphor itself. In the fi rst half of the paper, I critically evaluate Recanati ' s ( ) recent Contextualist account and show that it cannot account for the metaphorical-literal dependence characteristic of metaphor. I then turn to Carston ' s (2002) , and Bezuidenhout ' s (2001) Contextualist accounts and show that they place no constraints on metaphorical interpretations. In the second half of the paper I sketch a Literalist theory of metaphor elaborated in and respond to two kinds of Contextualist criticisms of that account by .
Abrahamic Reflections on Randomness and Providence, 2021
This chapter addresses Saadia’s theodicies in his Doctrines and Beliefs, a treatise of Jewish the... more This chapter addresses Saadia’s theodicies in his Doctrines and Beliefs, a treatise of Jewish theology, and his seminal commentary on the Book of Job whose aim, I argue, is not to investigate the theological problem of evil but to give a phenomenology of people’s mental reactions to suffering. On Saadia’s radically naturalistic interpretation of Job, according to which Job’s human adversary Satan challenges his piety—that Job is pious only because he is prosperous—Job is made to suffer to justify his piety. But Job’s reaction to this suffering manifests the ambiguity, isolation, and uncertainty of one who suffers without understanding why.
Metaphor is a crucially context-dependent linguistic phenomenon. This fact was not clearly recogn... more Metaphor is a crucially context-dependent linguistic phenomenon. This fact was not clearly recognized until some time in the 1970's. Until then, most theorists assumed that a sentence must have a fixed set of metaphorical meanings, if it had any at all. Often, they also assumed that metaphoricity was the product of grammatical deviance, in the form of a category mistake. To compensate for this deviance, they thought, at least one of the sentence's constituent terms underwent a meaning-changing 'metaphorical twist', which deleted the objectionable selection restriction or semantic marker (e.g., Levin 1977) or turned one of the term's fixed set of connotations into its denotation (e.g., Beardsley 1962). This situation changed as theorists began to pay more serious attention to how metaphors actually function. First, it was pointed out that not all sentences used metaphorically are logically or even pragmatically absurd (Cohen 1975). Second, it became increasingly obvious that in the context of different sentences, and in the context of the same sentence as uttered by different speakers on different occasions, the same word could be used metaphorically to express many, very different meanings. Semantic theories became increasingly bloated as theorists attempted to encompass all this variety within the lexicon. Eventually, semantic theories of metaphor were largely abandoned. Instead, theorists generally maintained either that metaphors are a type of speaker meaning, on which a speaker says one thing in order to mean something else (e.g., Grice 1975, Searle 1979), or else that metaphors don't have any distinctive 'meaning' at all, but simply cause certain distinctive effects in their hearers (e.g., Davidson 1984, Rorty 1987). Philosophers of language have devoted much energy in the last 30 years to investigating the various ways in which context can affect communicated
<jats:p>One of the most influential medieval Jewish thinkers to engage with the philosophic... more <jats:p>One of the most influential medieval Jewish thinkers to engage with the philosophical tradition, Nahmanides was also a leading Talmudist, biblical exegete, and a founding figure of the Jewish mystical tradition (Kabbalah) that emerged in thirteenth-century Spain. Generally critical of Aristotle, he was deeply influenced by predecessors such as Moses Maimonides. As the leading rabbi in Catalonia, Nahmanides played a central role in the 'Maimonidean controversy' of 1232–3, a dispute that raged over the permissibility of philosophical study. He was also at the centre of the 'Barcelona disputation' of 1263, conducted with the apostate Pablo Christiani over the issue of philosophically motivated allegories.</jats:p> <jats:p>Unlike his Provençal contemporaries, Nahmanides wrote neither free-standing philosophical treatises nor commentaries on Graeco-Arabic philosophical texts. Instead, he developed his original metaphysical views in sermons and his highlt influential biblical commentaries treating such topics as miracles, providence and idolatry. The commentaries proved especially influential through their thematic treatments of philosophical questions raised by the biblical text and for their suggestive expositions of mystical and theosophical ideas.</jats:p>
KeynoteL ecturea tt he Grand Opening of the Maimonides Centre forA dvanced Studies on 29 October,... more KeynoteL ecturea tt he Grand Opening of the Maimonides Centre forA dvanced Studies on 29 October,2 015 My late teacherProfessor Sidney Morgenbesser often taught his studentsthe 'laws' of JewishP hilosophyor, more specifically, of Jewishlogic,Jewishepistemology,Jewish metaphysics,and so on. Forexample, the laws of general logic are tautologies like 'If p, then p' or 'If it is the casethat if p, then q, then not-q,then not-p.' The first lawof Jewish Logic is: 'If p, whyn ot q(spoken with aY iddish accent)?'¹ The question-What is Jewish Philosophy?-is typicallya nswered by describing Jewishp hilosophies,i .e,the books, theories, and doctrines of canonicalJ ewishp hilosophers, such as,S aadiah Gaon, Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides), Judah Halevi, Levi ben Gershon(Gersonides). Indeed the distinguisheds cholar of Jewishp hilosophy, Julius Guttmann, entitled his classic history, Philosophies of Judaism.² But Jewish philosophyismore than asequence of doctrines or books. Like all philosophy, it is an activity,something one 'does.'³ Forsome it is an intellectual exercise that solves theoretical puzzles. Foro thers these exercises are practices that constituteawayo f life, practices that give central place to the intellect and reasoning but aim at apractical end, the achievement of happiness or aharmonious life in which one'sJ udaism and intellect are in sync.⁴ In either case, philosophyisapursuit in which one engages, not onlyasubjectm atter or the results of the pursuit. Then ameo ft he subject 'Jewish Philosophy' first emergedi nG ermany in thel ate seventeenth centuryand earlyeighteenthcentury when we find the firsthistories of philosophy-andthe very idea that philosophyhas ahistory.The earliest histories areinthe doxographical tradition, portraying certain historical figuresa sp aradigms of what was then considered to be philosophical wisdom.Slightlylaterhistoriesweredevelopmental * Manythanks to Michael Fagenblat,Zev Harvey,and David Shatz for very helpful conversations and comments on earlier drafts of this paper. And of Jewish epistemology: 'Your mother always knows best.' And of Jewish metaphysics: 'To be is to be in tzures ("pain, suffering").' And of Jewish aesthetics: 'Beauty is for the goyim.' But onlyinthe English translation which was not authorizedbyhim; the title of the German original uses the singular: Die Philosophie des Judentums.
Baltic International Yearbook of Cognition, Logic and Communication, 2007
This paper addresses two issues: (1) what it is for a metaphor to be either alive or dead and (2)... more This paper addresses two issues: (1) what it is for a metaphor to be either alive or dead and (2) what a metaphor must be in order to be either alive or dead. Both issues, in turn, bear on the contemporary debate whether metaphor is a pragmatic or semantic phenomenon and on the dispute between Contextualists and Literalists. In the first part of the paper, I survey examples of what I take to be live metaphors and dead metaphors in order to establish that there is a phenomenon here to be explained. I then propose an explanation of metaphorical vitality (and by implication of metaphorical death) in terms of the dependence of the interpretation of a metaphor on a family or network of expressions specific to its context of utterance. I then argue that only a Literalist account of metaphor-one that posits metaphorical expressions (a la Stern (2000))-and not Contextualist and Gricean approaches can accommodate this explanation. Finally, I discuss some objections to my Literalist account and sketch an explanation of types to counter Platonistic objections to my metaphorical expression types.
Plato, Gorgias,445c; Republic 526d; Laws 830c; Aristotle, Sleep and Waking (De somno et vigilia) ... more Plato, Gorgias,445c; Republic 526d; Laws 830c; Aristotle, Sleep and Waking (De somno et vigilia) 458a29;P seudo-Aristotle, De spiritu 484b33. Philo, On the Life of Moses (De vita Mosis)2 .225-32. Philo, On Flight and Finding (De fuga et invetione)136: "Forthe best offeringisquietness and suspense of judgement,i nm atters that absolutelyl ack proofs" (ἄριστον γὰρ ἱερεῖον ἡσυχίακ α ὶἐ ποχὴ περὶὧ νπ ά ντως οὔκε ἰ σι πίστεις). Philo, On Flight and Finding,i nOn Flight and Finding.O nt he Changeo fN ames.O nD reams (Philo vol. 5), trans. F. H. Colson, G.H. Whitaker (Cambridge,M A: Har-vardU niversity Press),1934. Cicero, Lucullus 110: sed ut illa habet probabilia non percepta, sic hoc ipsum nihil posse percipi. nam si in hoc haberet cognitionis notam, eadem uteretur in ceteris. Cicero, On Academic Scepticism, trans. Charles Brittain (Indianapolis/Cambrige:H ackett,2 006).
Maimonides’ view of the significance of dying for God, I will argue, is his understanding of the ... more Maimonides’ view of the significance of dying for God, I will argue, is his understanding of the phrase that the rabbis appropriated (at least by the Middle Ages) for dying in martyrdom scenarios—namely, “Qiddush HaShem,” literally: “Sanctification of the Name [of God].” For Maimonides, a holy life is no more but also no less than a life constituted by perfect performance of all commandments in the Mosaic Law without exception. Does this ideal allow for—indeed mandate in specific circumstances—transgressing rather than dying, especially when coerced? Or does a truly holy life require nothing less than perfect performance of all commandments allowing for no violations under any circumstances? The view that demands perfect observance of all commandments in all circumstances, I will call “holiness perfectionism.” Maimonides, I shall argue, offers a critique of this view.
This paper analyzes two transformative conceptions of qedushah (holiness) in medieval Jewish thou... more This paper analyzes two transformative conceptions of qedushah (holiness) in medieval Jewish thought, Moses Maimonides’s and Moses Nahmanides’s. Maimonides reduces qedushah to the Mosaic commandments which he reconceives as communal institutions to constrain bodily desires and promote intellectualist values and as training for perfected individuals to de-corporealize themselves in imitation of God. Nahmanides argues that Maimonides’s legal reduction of qedushah leads to the absurd conclusion that the perfectly scrupulous law-abiding scoundrel who exploits loopholes in the law is qadosh! He therefore reconceives qedushah as a complement to the Mosaic commandments intended to counter the problem of the scoundrel. Thus qedushah is re-born as a corrective to abuse of the Law. Nahmanides then proposes two ways to achieve this goal: i) by rabbinic enactment of more laws to fill in (loop) holes in the Law and ii) by cultivating a virtue-oriented, non-legal conception of holiness as a chara...
Abstract This essay examines the conditions under which the great medieval Jewish rabbinic figure... more Abstract This essay examines the conditions under which the great medieval Jewish rabbinic figure Moses Maimonides (1138–1204) took war to be justified. In particular, it argues that Maimonides did not hold that universal belief in one deity, on the model of a (Christian or Almohad) holy war or religious crusade, is a sufficient condition to justify the pursuit of a war. At most a war is justified if it enables the creation of a monotheistic environment for the Jewish people within their own boundaries or national territory. Among other topics, the essay also analyzes Maimonides' distinction between ‘commanded’ wars and ‘optional wars’, his concept of idolatry, and his account of jus in bellum.
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Papers by Josef Stern