Table 1.
Exposure, outcome and control variables used in analyses
| Measure | Description |
|---|---|
| Family Functioning | Family functioning was assessed using six items drawn from the general functioning scale of the Family Assessment Device (FAD)(Epstein, Baldwin, & Bishop, 1983; Miller, Epstein, Bishop, & Keitner, 1985) Adolescents were asked, “How strongly do you agree with the following statements? For these questions, think about your family in general (including your parents and your brothers and sisters)… [Strongly disagree, Somewhat disagree, Somewhat agree, Strongly agree] (a) Family members are accepted for who they are; (b) Making decisions is a problem for the family; (c) We don’t get along well together; (d) We can express feelings to each other; (e) Planning family activities is difficult because we misunderstand each other; (f) We confide in each other (By ‘confide’ we mean to trust your family members enough to tell them something that is important to you).” Responses were assigned values 1–4 and all statements were converted to the positive form before the values were summed. The range of responses for this scale was 6–24, with higher scores representing higher family functioning (Cronbach’s alpha = .70). |
| Parenting Practices: | |
| Parent Connection | Adolescents were asked the following questions separately for mothers and fathers:(Blum, McKay, & Resnick, 1989; Resnick, Harris, & Blum, 1993) (1) “How much do you feel your mother/father cares about you?” and (2) “How much do you feel you can you talk to your mother/father about your problems?”. Both questions had response options ranging from “not at all” to “very much” on a 5-point scale. Adolescents’ responses to these two questions were summed together for each parent (Mother: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.61, r=0.79; Father: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.60, r=0.83). |
| Parental Knowledge | Adolescents were asked the following questions separately for mothers and fathers:(Barber & Schluterman, 2008; Barber, Stolz, & Olsen, 2005) How much does your mother/father REALLY know…(1) who your friends are?; (2) where you go at night?; (3) where you are most afternoons after school?. Response options included: doesn’t know, knows a little, knows a lot. The responses to these three items were summed together for each parent (Mother: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.75, r=0.79; Father: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.87, r=0.85). |
| Psychological Control | Adolescents were asked the following questions separately for mothers and fathers:(Barber & Schluterman, 2008; Barber, et al., 2005) My mother/father is a person who… (1) is always trying to change how I feel or think about things; (2) brings up past mistakes when she/he criticizes me; (3) is less friendly with me if I do not see things her/his way. Response options included: not like her/him, somewhat like her/him, and a lot like her/him. The responses to these three items were summed together for each parent (Mother: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.67, r=0.70; Father: Cronbach’s alpha = 0.72, r=0.68). |
| Dieting | Dieting was assessed with the question (Javaras, Austin, Field, 2011; Neumark-Sztainer, Wall, Hannan, et al., 2003) “How often have you gone on a diet during the last year? By “diet” we mean changing the way you eat so you can lose weight.” Responses included: never, one to four times, five to 10 times, more than 10 times, and I am always dieting. Responses were dichotomized as never versus ever during last year (Test-retest agreement [nondieter versus dieter] = 82%). |
| Unhealthy Weight Control Behaviors (UWCBs) and Extreme Unhealthy Weight Control Behaviors | Unhealthy and extreme weight control behaviors were assessed with the question (Neumark-Sztainer, Wall, Story, & Perry, 2003): “Have you done any of the following things in order to lose weight or keep from gaining weight during the past year? (yes or no for each method).” Unhealthy weight control behaviors (UWCBs) included: (1) fasted, (2) ate very little food, (3) used a food substitute (powder or a special drink), (4) skipped meals, and (5) smoked more cigarettes. Extreme weight control behaviors included: (1) took diet pills, (2) made myself vomit, (3) used laxatives, and (4) used diuretics. Responses were used to create two dichotomous indicators of having done any of the UWCBs (Test-retest agreement = 85%) and any of the extreme UWCBs (Test-retest agreement=96%). |
| Binge Eating | Binge eating with loss of control was assessed using items adapted from a scale by Yanovski (Yanovski, Nelson, Dubbert, & Spitzer, 1993). The two questions included: “In the past year, have you ever eaten so much food in a short period of time that you would be embarrassed if others saw you (binge-eating)?” [Yes/No] (Test-retest agreement = 90%), and “During the times when you ate this way, did you feel you couldn’t stop eating or control what or how much you were eating?” [Yes/No] (Test-retest agreement = 75%). Binge eating with loss of control was coded as a dichotomous indicator; values for adolescents responding yes to both questions were coded as 1 and all others were coded as 0. |
| Race/Ethnicity | Race/ethnicity was assessed with one survey item: ‘Do you think of yourself as 1) white, 2) black or African-American, 3) Hispanic or Latino, 4) Asian-American, 5) Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, 6) American Indian or Native American, or 7) Other. Respondents were asked to check all that apply. The responses “Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander” and “Other” were coded as “mixed/other” due to small numbers. |
| SES | Classification tree methodology(Breiman, Friedman, Olshen, & Stone, 1984) was used to generate five categories of SES (Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Hannan, & Croll, 2002). The prime determinant of SES was the higher education level of either parent. Subsidiary variables were family eligibility for free/reduced lunch, family receipt of public assistance, and parent employment status. |
| Age | Age was calculated using self-reported birth date and survey completion date. |
| BMI z-score | Students’ heights and weights were measured at school by trained research staff in a private area with standardized equipment and procedures. Body Mass Index (BMI) z-score was calculated according to the following formula: weight (kg)/height (meters)2 and converted to z-scores, standardized for gender and age (Kuczmarski, et al., 2002). |