Books by Dr Linda Graham
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has achieved celebrity status in many Western cou... more Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has achieved celebrity status in many Western countries, such that it probably no longer requires introduction. If not already familiar with someone who “has” ADHD, most of us have learned something about the label through regular media controversy over diagnostic and medication rates. Many formulate an opinion as to the “truth” of ADHD based on these reports and, despite considerable effort to prove its existence, ADHD still suffers from a crisis of legitimacy. It is therefore somewhat surprising that diagnosis and prescription of medication has grown at a phenomenal rate since the late 1980s, particularly in the United States, Canada and Australia.
Possible reasons for such growth abound. Children’s dietary, sleeping and television habits are discussed every few weeks in the popular media. Parenting is questioned by social commentators who criticize working and single mothers, the lack of male role models, and the destablizing effect of feminism, childcare and a “have to have it now” consumer culture. The emergence of children’s rights lies dormant under attacks on political correctness, permissiveness, and the demise of corporal punishment. Children’s behavior now elicits commentary from family, friends, care-givers, teachers and even disapproving on-lookers in the local supermarket. Passionate youngsters who don’t appear to have an off-button, are noisy and active, break rules and delicate objects, or seem insensitive or impolite never fail to attract attention.
Eager to step into the fray are the new “Dr Spock’s” – slick salesmen and women who sweep in with naughty circles and family schedules. Clicking their tongues, they magically transform a befuddled family into newly-calibrated robots who gratefully accept their “treatment” out of sheer desperation for social approval and the promise of a happier life. When they fail, focus closes in on the child–their temperament, their abilities and inabilities and, eventually, their particular area of “abnormality.” Under ever-tightening scrutiny, these children edge towards a medical diagnosis. For those who receive a verdict of “ADHD” the journey is just beginning, for it is a path with many false-starts and dead-ends. Ultimately, although most parents don’t realize it, ADHD is a trap.
In many educational jurisdictions across the world, a diagnosis of ADHD fails to secure additional support in schools. Indeed in some, the mere mention of “attentional difficulties” can function to exclude a child from meaningful learning support programs. For children who can be described in these ways, research has shown that support gives way to management and the child’s difficulties in school become described in the language of deviance, leading to categories and placements for behavior disorder or emotional disturbance. As evidenced in the US however, when ADHD is included as a disability category eligible for support in schools, diagnostic and medication rates skyrocket. For educational systems around the world, this conundrum represents the proverbial damned if you do and damned if you don’t scenario.
How this can occur in educational systems that aim to be “inclusive” is complex. It relates, in part, to the conceptual confusion characterizing the ADHD construct, the contested nature of the diagnosis and the ineligibility of such difference, conceived as it is in terms of disruptive behavior disorder as opposed to educational difficulty arising from a mismatch between particular children and curriculum, pedagogy, language and/or culture. Given that the authors of the DSM-IV fail to recognize the consonance between the behaviors said to indicate ADHD and those arising from poverty, anxiety or speech/language impairment, it is not surprising that educational systems find it difficult to formulate an appropriate response.
Still however, the dominance of the medical conceptualization governs how these children are perceived, limiting the range of possibilities. For this reason, the movement by developmental pediatrics and neuroscience into teacher education and professional development is highly problematic. When teachers perceive a child’s difficulties in school to originate from neurological dysfunction, they are discouraged from examining whether their assumptions about child development and learning are realistic. Nor is there any inducement for teachers to reflect on what contribution could be made through adjustments in their own teaching practice. Diagnostic categories mystify and teachers are left in no doubt as to whom the real experts are and how to refer their students to them.
This book aims to provide a more holistic interpretation of how to respond to children who may otherwise be diagnosed with and medicated for “ADHD.” Ultimately the diagnosis, whether scientifically valid or not, has proved unhelpful within the educational context. Numerous accounts explain how ADHD functions as a convenient administrative loop-hole, providing schools with a medical explanation for school failure, medication to sedate “the problem” into submission, or the means to eject children from mainstream classrooms.
Training teachers to recognise and identify “ADHD symptoms” or to understand the functions, brand names and estimated half-life of restricted pharmaceuticals will only serve to increase the number of children identified and the sale of psychoactive medications. Research has shown that such activities will not help those children learn, nor will it empower their classroom teachers to take responsibility for teaching such children well. On this however, teachers need guidance. It is with this in mind that we have crafted this book. The aim is to offer an alternative perspective to limiting and reductive medical stereotypes and to remind teachers of the value and potential of what they already know (Graham, 2010, pp. ix-xi).
Papers by Dr Linda Graham
Cambridge Journal of Education, 41(4), 163-176., 2012
A significant gap exists in the Australian research literature on the disproportionate over-repre... more A significant gap exists in the Australian research literature on the disproportionate over-representation of minority groups in special education. The aim of this paper is to make a contribution to the research evidence-base by sketching an outline of the issue as it presents in Australia’s largest education system in the state of New South Wales. Findings from this research show that Indigenous students are equally represented in special schools enrolling students with autism, physical, sensory, and intellectual disabilities, but significantly over-represented in special schools enrolling students under the categories of emotional disturbance, behaviour disorder and juvenile detention. Factors that might influence the disproportionate over-representation of Indigenous children and young people are discussed, and based on these observations, some practical implications for policy and practice are provided.
The relationship between social background and achievement has preoccupied educational researcher... more The relationship between social background and achievement has preoccupied educational researchers since the mid-20th century with major studies in the area reaching prominence in the late 60s. Despite five decades of research and innovation since, recent studies using OECD data have shown that the relationship is strengthening rather than weakening. In this paper, the systematic destabilisation of public education in Australia is examined as a philosophical problem stemming from a fundamental shift in political orientation, where “choice” and “aspiration” work to promote and disguise survivalism. The problem for education however extends far deeper than the inequity in Federal government funding. Whilst this is a major problem, critical scrutiny must also focus on what states can do to turn back aspects of their own education policy that work to exacerbate and entrench social disadvantage.
"Much has been written on Michel Foucault’s reluctance to clearly delineate a research method, pa... more "Much has been written on Michel Foucault’s reluctance to clearly delineate a research method, particularly with respect to genealogy (Harwood 2000; Meadmore et al. 2000; Tamboukou 1999). Foucault (1994, p. 288) himself disliked prescription stating, “I take care not to dictate how things should be” and wrote provocatively to disrupt equilibrium and certainty, so that “all those who speak for others or to others” no longer know what to do. It is doubtful, however, that Foucault ever intended for researchers to be stricken by that malaise to the point of being unwilling to make an intellectual commitment as to me thodological possibilities. Taking criticism of “Foucauldian” discourse analysis as a convenient point of departure to discuss the objectives of postructural analysis, this paper develops what might be called a discursive analytic; a methodological plan to approach the analysis of discourses through the location of statements
that function with constitutive effects."
The contemporary philosopher Judith Butler has been instrumental in extending Foucault’s work in ... more The contemporary philosopher Judith Butler has been instrumental in extending Foucault’s work in the constitution of the subject. In this chapter, I use Butlerian notions to theorise the cost of opportunity, namely the idea that to become an acceptable subject one must be recognisable as such. In order to become a recognisably acceptable subject then, one must submit to the normative (re)shaping of self; thus, the subject who seeks recognisability in order to be eligible for opportunity must risk “death” in the hope for a successful rebirth. As a catalyst to think about this as a potential cost of opportunity, I use events filmed during one series of “Jamie’s Kitchen” which took place in the city of Melbourne, Australia - paying particular attention to the roads travelled by two students, Erin and Amos. In pondering this question, I ask another: that is, what of the cost of opportunity? Can the price of taking up the opportunity on offer be too much for some to bear?
International Journal of Inclusive Education, Jan 1, 2008
in the media, and thus much popular discourse, typically revolves around the possible causes of d... more in the media, and thus much popular discourse, typically revolves around the possible causes of disruptive behaviour and the "behaviourally disordered" child. The usual suspects -too much television and video games, food additives, bad parenting, lack of discipline and single mothers -feature prominently as potential contributors to the spiralling rate of ADHD diagnosis in Western industrialised nations, especially the United States and Australia. Conspicuously absent from the field of investigation, however, is the scene of schooling and the influence that the discourses and practices of schooling might bring to bear upon the constitution of "disorderly behaviour" and subsequent recognition of particular children as a particular kind of "disorderly". This paper reviews a sample of the literature surrounding ADHD, in order to question the function of this absence and, ultimately, make an argument for an interrogation of the school as a site for the production of disorderly objects.
Journal of Education Policy, Jan 1, 2011
Over the last two decades, moves toward ‘inclusion’ have prompted change in the formation of educ... more Over the last two decades, moves toward ‘inclusion’ have prompted change in the formation of education policies, schooling structures and pedagogical practice. Yet, exclusion through the categorisation and segregation of students with diverse abilities has grown, particularly for students with challenging behaviour. This paper considers what has happened to inclusive education by focusing on three educational jurisdictions known to be experiencing different rates of growth in the identification of special educational needs: New South Wales (Australia), Alberta (Canada) and Finland (Europe). In our analysis, we consider the effects of competing policy forces that appear to thwart the development of inclusive schools in two of our case study regions.
International Journal of Inclusive Education, Jan 1, 2006
The Department of Education in the Australian state of Queensland promotes inclusiveness and stat... more The Department of Education in the Australian state of Queensland promotes inclusiveness and states a commitment to all students achieving to their full potential (Inclusive Learning, 2004, p. 17). Paradoxically, comprehensive review of Queensland Government education department policy indicates the vision of inclusive education is subordinate to the problematic of ‘inclusion as calculus’ (Ware, 2002, p.149). Arguably the implications of conceptualising inclusive education via such limited notions of inclusion needs consideration. The question posed in this paper asks what effects the practices involved might have upon those children whose difference remains outside institutionally ‘recognised’ forms of Otherness1. Interestingly the psychiatric category at the foci of this discussion, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is not deemed eligible for educational support in Queensland. Such avoidance through the non‐recognition of ADHD is remarkable given that diagnosis of ADHD and/or disruptive behaviour disorder is increasing across all states in Australia at an exponential rate (Davis et al., 2001; OECD, 2003; Prosser et al., 2002; Swan, 2000). So too is the prescription rate for stimulant medication (Mackey & Kopras, 2001). It appears then that any role schooling plays in the psycho‐pathologisation of children (Panksepp, 1998; Thomas & Glenny, 2000) is implicit in nature since there is no formal identification process responsible for locating ADHD/behaviour disorder in Queensland schools. Utilising a conceptual framework derived from the work of Foucault, this paper engages with this problematic to question what processes and practices might inform the construction of ‘disorderly’ schooling identities and further, may legitimise the differential treatment of such children within the Queensland context.
International Journal of Inclusive Education, Jan 1, 2011
The last few decades have witnessed a broad international movement towards the development of inc... more The last few decades have witnessed a broad international movement towards the development of inclusive schools through targeted special education funding and resourcing policies. Student placement statistics are often used as a barometer of policy success but they may also be an indication of system change. In this paper, trends in student enrolments from the Australian state of New South Wales are considered in an effort to understand what effect inclusive education has had in this particular region of the world.
In offering a critical review of the problem we call ‘ADHD’ (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Diso... more In offering a critical review of the problem we call ‘ADHD’ (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder), this paper progresses in three stages. The first two parts feature the dominant voices emanating from the literature in medicine and psychology which, when juxtaposed, highlight an interdependency between these otherwise competing interest groups. In Part 3, the nature of the relationship between these groups and the institution of the school is considered, as is the role that the school may play in the psycho-pathologisation of fidgety, distractible, active children who prove hard to teach. In so doing, the author provides an insight as to why the problem we call ‘ADHD’ has achieved celebrity status in Australia and what the effects of that may be for children who come to be described in these ways.
Talks by Dr Linda Graham
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Books by Dr Linda Graham
Possible reasons for such growth abound. Children’s dietary, sleeping and television habits are discussed every few weeks in the popular media. Parenting is questioned by social commentators who criticize working and single mothers, the lack of male role models, and the destablizing effect of feminism, childcare and a “have to have it now” consumer culture. The emergence of children’s rights lies dormant under attacks on political correctness, permissiveness, and the demise of corporal punishment. Children’s behavior now elicits commentary from family, friends, care-givers, teachers and even disapproving on-lookers in the local supermarket. Passionate youngsters who don’t appear to have an off-button, are noisy and active, break rules and delicate objects, or seem insensitive or impolite never fail to attract attention.
Eager to step into the fray are the new “Dr Spock’s” – slick salesmen and women who sweep in with naughty circles and family schedules. Clicking their tongues, they magically transform a befuddled family into newly-calibrated robots who gratefully accept their “treatment” out of sheer desperation for social approval and the promise of a happier life. When they fail, focus closes in on the child–their temperament, their abilities and inabilities and, eventually, their particular area of “abnormality.” Under ever-tightening scrutiny, these children edge towards a medical diagnosis. For those who receive a verdict of “ADHD” the journey is just beginning, for it is a path with many false-starts and dead-ends. Ultimately, although most parents don’t realize it, ADHD is a trap.
In many educational jurisdictions across the world, a diagnosis of ADHD fails to secure additional support in schools. Indeed in some, the mere mention of “attentional difficulties” can function to exclude a child from meaningful learning support programs. For children who can be described in these ways, research has shown that support gives way to management and the child’s difficulties in school become described in the language of deviance, leading to categories and placements for behavior disorder or emotional disturbance. As evidenced in the US however, when ADHD is included as a disability category eligible for support in schools, diagnostic and medication rates skyrocket. For educational systems around the world, this conundrum represents the proverbial damned if you do and damned if you don’t scenario.
How this can occur in educational systems that aim to be “inclusive” is complex. It relates, in part, to the conceptual confusion characterizing the ADHD construct, the contested nature of the diagnosis and the ineligibility of such difference, conceived as it is in terms of disruptive behavior disorder as opposed to educational difficulty arising from a mismatch between particular children and curriculum, pedagogy, language and/or culture. Given that the authors of the DSM-IV fail to recognize the consonance between the behaviors said to indicate ADHD and those arising from poverty, anxiety or speech/language impairment, it is not surprising that educational systems find it difficult to formulate an appropriate response.
Still however, the dominance of the medical conceptualization governs how these children are perceived, limiting the range of possibilities. For this reason, the movement by developmental pediatrics and neuroscience into teacher education and professional development is highly problematic. When teachers perceive a child’s difficulties in school to originate from neurological dysfunction, they are discouraged from examining whether their assumptions about child development and learning are realistic. Nor is there any inducement for teachers to reflect on what contribution could be made through adjustments in their own teaching practice. Diagnostic categories mystify and teachers are left in no doubt as to whom the real experts are and how to refer their students to them.
This book aims to provide a more holistic interpretation of how to respond to children who may otherwise be diagnosed with and medicated for “ADHD.” Ultimately the diagnosis, whether scientifically valid or not, has proved unhelpful within the educational context. Numerous accounts explain how ADHD functions as a convenient administrative loop-hole, providing schools with a medical explanation for school failure, medication to sedate “the problem” into submission, or the means to eject children from mainstream classrooms.
Training teachers to recognise and identify “ADHD symptoms” or to understand the functions, brand names and estimated half-life of restricted pharmaceuticals will only serve to increase the number of children identified and the sale of psychoactive medications. Research has shown that such activities will not help those children learn, nor will it empower their classroom teachers to take responsibility for teaching such children well. On this however, teachers need guidance. It is with this in mind that we have crafted this book. The aim is to offer an alternative perspective to limiting and reductive medical stereotypes and to remind teachers of the value and potential of what they already know (Graham, 2010, pp. ix-xi).
Papers by Dr Linda Graham
that function with constitutive effects."
Talks by Dr Linda Graham
Possible reasons for such growth abound. Children’s dietary, sleeping and television habits are discussed every few weeks in the popular media. Parenting is questioned by social commentators who criticize working and single mothers, the lack of male role models, and the destablizing effect of feminism, childcare and a “have to have it now” consumer culture. The emergence of children’s rights lies dormant under attacks on political correctness, permissiveness, and the demise of corporal punishment. Children’s behavior now elicits commentary from family, friends, care-givers, teachers and even disapproving on-lookers in the local supermarket. Passionate youngsters who don’t appear to have an off-button, are noisy and active, break rules and delicate objects, or seem insensitive or impolite never fail to attract attention.
Eager to step into the fray are the new “Dr Spock’s” – slick salesmen and women who sweep in with naughty circles and family schedules. Clicking their tongues, they magically transform a befuddled family into newly-calibrated robots who gratefully accept their “treatment” out of sheer desperation for social approval and the promise of a happier life. When they fail, focus closes in on the child–their temperament, their abilities and inabilities and, eventually, their particular area of “abnormality.” Under ever-tightening scrutiny, these children edge towards a medical diagnosis. For those who receive a verdict of “ADHD” the journey is just beginning, for it is a path with many false-starts and dead-ends. Ultimately, although most parents don’t realize it, ADHD is a trap.
In many educational jurisdictions across the world, a diagnosis of ADHD fails to secure additional support in schools. Indeed in some, the mere mention of “attentional difficulties” can function to exclude a child from meaningful learning support programs. For children who can be described in these ways, research has shown that support gives way to management and the child’s difficulties in school become described in the language of deviance, leading to categories and placements for behavior disorder or emotional disturbance. As evidenced in the US however, when ADHD is included as a disability category eligible for support in schools, diagnostic and medication rates skyrocket. For educational systems around the world, this conundrum represents the proverbial damned if you do and damned if you don’t scenario.
How this can occur in educational systems that aim to be “inclusive” is complex. It relates, in part, to the conceptual confusion characterizing the ADHD construct, the contested nature of the diagnosis and the ineligibility of such difference, conceived as it is in terms of disruptive behavior disorder as opposed to educational difficulty arising from a mismatch between particular children and curriculum, pedagogy, language and/or culture. Given that the authors of the DSM-IV fail to recognize the consonance between the behaviors said to indicate ADHD and those arising from poverty, anxiety or speech/language impairment, it is not surprising that educational systems find it difficult to formulate an appropriate response.
Still however, the dominance of the medical conceptualization governs how these children are perceived, limiting the range of possibilities. For this reason, the movement by developmental pediatrics and neuroscience into teacher education and professional development is highly problematic. When teachers perceive a child’s difficulties in school to originate from neurological dysfunction, they are discouraged from examining whether their assumptions about child development and learning are realistic. Nor is there any inducement for teachers to reflect on what contribution could be made through adjustments in their own teaching practice. Diagnostic categories mystify and teachers are left in no doubt as to whom the real experts are and how to refer their students to them.
This book aims to provide a more holistic interpretation of how to respond to children who may otherwise be diagnosed with and medicated for “ADHD.” Ultimately the diagnosis, whether scientifically valid or not, has proved unhelpful within the educational context. Numerous accounts explain how ADHD functions as a convenient administrative loop-hole, providing schools with a medical explanation for school failure, medication to sedate “the problem” into submission, or the means to eject children from mainstream classrooms.
Training teachers to recognise and identify “ADHD symptoms” or to understand the functions, brand names and estimated half-life of restricted pharmaceuticals will only serve to increase the number of children identified and the sale of psychoactive medications. Research has shown that such activities will not help those children learn, nor will it empower their classroom teachers to take responsibility for teaching such children well. On this however, teachers need guidance. It is with this in mind that we have crafted this book. The aim is to offer an alternative perspective to limiting and reductive medical stereotypes and to remind teachers of the value and potential of what they already know (Graham, 2010, pp. ix-xi).
that function with constitutive effects."