Books by Antony Joseph Raj
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
This chapter presents the complete References for the Book "Agroforestry - Theory and Practices (... more This chapter presents the complete References for the Book "Agroforestry - Theory and Practices (2014) by Antony Joseph Raj and S.B.Lal, published by Scientific Publishers, India, 926 pages [ISBN-Hard Bound: 9788172338664 & ISBN-Paper Back: 9788172338671]
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
This book chapter describes the history, structure, functions, headquarters and priority research... more This book chapter describes the history, structure, functions, headquarters and priority research areas of International Organizations of Agroforestry viz. World Agroforestry Centre (formerly International Centre for Research in Agroforestry-ICRAF), Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Area (ICARDA), International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Bioversity International, International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), International Development Research Centre (IDRC) (French: Centre de recherches pour le développement international-CRDI), International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO), International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR), International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), European Forest Institute (EFI) and five Regional Offices of EFI, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), World Bank Group (WBG)-Forests and Forestry, Global Environment Facility (GEF), Commonwealth Forestry Association (CFA), Association for Temperate Agroforestry (AFTA), European Agroforestry Federation (EURAF), Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Network (APAN), Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA), African Network for Agriculture, Agroforestry and Natural Resources Education (ANAFE), Southeast Asian Network for Agroforestry Education (SEANAFE), Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), International Institute of Tropical Forestry (IITF).
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
An Experimental Design is the laying out of a detailed experimental plan in advance of doing the ... more An Experimental Design is the laying out of a detailed experimental plan in advance of doing the experiment. The choice of an experimental design depends on the objectives of the experiment and the number of factors to be investigated. Agroforestry systems are more complex than the mono-cropping system. Several characteristics of the trees like slow growth, long term effects on their surroundings, long life, age of trees, the area over which the influence of trees extend, etc. complicate the issue of designing experiments for these systems. In addition to the basic principles i.e. randomization, replication and local control, there are several other factors that need to be taken care of while planning agroforestry experiments. For example, within one experimental plot there may be crop rows, individual trees or hedges with different treatments applied to each and each component may respond to its own treatment as well as to the treatments applied to other components. The several types of experimental trials in agroforestry are: variety trials, provenance trails, field germplasm trials, multipurpose tree screening and evaluation trials, agroforestry management trials (e.g., mulching effects, crop productivity), livestock integration trials (e.g., feed supplementation, animal productivity), fertilizer trials, cultural/agronomic trials, chemical (other than fertilizer) trials & socio-economic assessment (e.g., economic returns) trials. The most important designs used in agroforestry experimentation are Completely Randomized Design (CRD), Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) or Randomized Block Design (RBD), Latin Square Design (LSD), Incomplete Block Design (Lattice Design), Factorial Design (Factorial CRD, Factorial RBD), Split-Plot Design, Systematic Design (Y - Design, Star Design), Two-Way Systematic Design, Augmented Design.
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
Agroforestry is the intentional integration of woody plants into crop and livestock systems to im... more Agroforestry is the intentional integration of woody plants into crop and livestock systems to improve soil, water, air quality and biodiversity while supporting sustainable production of food, feed, fibre and energy. It represents a significant opportunity for sequestering carbon on agricultural lands in that a substantial proportion of the carbon is sequestered in woody biomass, thus creating a system that sequesters a large amount of carbon per unit area and for longer duration than many other practices. Agroforestry is an appealing option for sequestering carbon on agricultural lands because it can sequester significant amounts of carbon while leaving the bulk of the land in agricultural production. The amount of carbon sequestered per unit area by agroforestry is substantial due to the large amount of carbon sequestered in the woody biomass. However, unlike afforestation, agroforestry plantings do not result in a change in land use to forest. Indeed, the appeal of agroforestry as a carbon sequestering activity on agricultural lands rests in large part on its ability to sequester significant amounts of carbon on a relatively small land base. Agroforestry can give the land owner the biggest net gain of carbon per unit area generally without compromising agricultural activity. Although the carbon fixed within a single agroforestry planting is small, taken within a whole-farm context the amount can become significant. Carbon sequestration is the process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir such as trees and crops. It entails the transfer of atmospheric CO2 and its secure storage in long-lived pools such as tree stems and soil. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, agroforestry offers important opportunities of creating synergies between both adaptation and mitigation actions with a technical mitigation potential of 1.1-2.2 Pg C in terrestrial ecosystems over the next 50 years. Additionally, 630 million ha of unproductive croplands and grasslands could be converted to agroforestry representing a C sequestration potential of 0.586 Tg C/yr by 2040 (1 Tg = 1 million tons).
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
Land degradation and expansion of wastelands are recognized as the main challenges of people livi... more Land degradation and expansion of wastelands are recognized as the main challenges of people living in dryland area and they also receive global attention. Degradation caused by overcultivation, overgrazing, deforestation and inefficient irrigation affects most of the world’s drylands. Land degradation refers to a temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land or its potential for environmental management. Most types of land degradation, however, can be prevented or reversed viz. adding nutrients to nutrient-depleted soil, rebuilding topsoil through soil amendments, re-establishing vegetation (reforestation), buffering soil acidity. The practicality of rehabilitating degraded landscapes depends on the costs relative to the value of output or environmental benefits expected. Where farmers wish to intensify agricultural production on a sustainable basis, it may be necessary to undertake such land-enhancing or land-protecting measures even in non-degraded landscapes. Agroforestry ensures maximum productivity per unit of land on sustainable basis. It improves the soil fertility and productivity, reduces the soil run off and provides more income to land owners than monocropping system. Adoption of agroforestry practices such as agrisilviculture, silvopastoral and agrisilvipastoral systems with an appropriate combination of trees, grasses and agricultural crops develop the wastelands very fast. It ensures moisture improvement, soil improvement and biomass improvement in the wastelands. Tree species suitable for wasteland development in different agro-climatic regions are Faidherbia albida, Acacia tortilis, Acacia senegal, Acacia catechu, Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia ampliceps, Acacia bivenosa, Acacia nilotica, Prosopis cineraria, Prosopis juliflora, Parkinsonia articulata, Tamarix articulata, Ziziphus mauritiana, Zizypus nummularia, Calligonum polygonoides, Cassia siamea, Albizia lebbeck, Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Sesbania sesban, Erythrina spp., Casuarina equisetifolia, Inga dulcis, Grewia tenax, Anogeisus rotundifolia, Euphorbia caducifolia, Tamarix aphylla, Cercidium floridum, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Hardwickia binata, Pongamia pinnata, Tecomella undulata, Azadirachta indica, Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa bambos, Agave sisalana, Agave americana, Calliandra spp., Gmelina arborea, Grevillea robusta, Dalbergia sissoo, Paulownia spp., Terminalia spp., Anthocephalus spp., Madhuca spp., Pterocarpus spp., Emblica officinalis, Aegle marmelos
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
Maintaining the soil fertility is a key prerequisite to sustain crop productivity in the tropics.... more Maintaining the soil fertility is a key prerequisite to sustain crop productivity in the tropics. Several studies perceive that soil fertility decline is widely spread in tropical regions and that it is caused by inadequate nutrient replenishment and high losses as compared to natural ecosystems. Soil quality is of fundamental importance for agricultural production, and soil fertility management is increasingly becoming a central issue in the decisions on food security, poverty reduction and environment management. For the purpose of safe ecological stewardship and achieving global food security, emphasizing soil fertility management is becoming more and more important. According to a study by the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), 43 per cent of the planet’s agricultural lands (more than a billion hectares) has more than 10 per cent tree cover. A lesser but still significant area of agricultural land, 160 million hectares, has more than 50 per cent tree cover. The potential of trees to bring improvements in nutrition, income, housing, health, energy needs, and environmental sustainability in the agricultural landscape has guided ICRAF’s mission, with the presence of trees being the principal component of an “evergreen agriculture”. Within the array of benefits brought by trees, an important element is the positive effect of trees on soil properties and consequently benefits for crops. Relation between trees and soil, based on agroforestry systems research, as well as studies in non-agricultural or natural environments, demonstrates significant effects of trees on soil. In this scenario, agroforestry systems have been indicated as one of the more promising alternatives to achieve a more sustainable agriculture, in greater equilibrium with the environment.
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
Bamboo represents one of the world’s best natural and renewable resources with a large number of ... more Bamboo represents one of the world’s best natural and renewable resources with a large number of uses and applications which serve as an eco-friendly alternative to rapidly depleting wood resources. Bamboo is a versatile multipurpose forest produce which has over 1,500 uses and tremendous versatility. Bamboo is used in nearly every aspect of daily life and classified under non-wood forest products (NWFP). Its importance is better felt and understood in areas where it abounds or where timber and other traditional construction materials are not readily available or are extremely expensive. Bamboo plays a vital role in the domestic economy of many South Asian and SE Asian countries and has been in use since times immemorial. It is perhaps the best known plant in the orient. The total number of bamboo species is represented by 75 genera and 1,250 species which are reported to occur in the world. Bamboo is considered to be the most suitable species for agroforestry models on degraded lands. Bamboos have been propagated by the villager of the state through rhizome in their farm bund and in homestead gardens. Bamboos are grown under agroforestry systems for the three main reasons: ecological security, sustainable food security and livelihood improvement. Bamboo based agroforestry system ensures maintenance of soil fertility of adjoining agricultural lands and bamboo shoots are used as food and it ensures food security. In between the rows of bamboo clumps, farmers usually grow tuber crops like sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), cassava or tapioca (Manihot esculenta), taro or cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta), yam (Dioscorea spp.), turmeric, ginger, vegetable crops, food crops etc. in the agrisilvicultural models. For bamboo based agrisilvicultural systems, Bambusa bambos, Bambusa nutans, Bambusa balcooa, Bambusa tulda, Bambusa vulgaris, Dendrocalamus strictus, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, etc. are the most suitable species.
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
Soils which contain excess soluble salts, adversely affect the plant growth are called the salt a... more Soils which contain excess soluble salts, adversely affect the plant growth are called the salt affected soils. They occur where potential evapotranspiration greatly exceeds precipitation, which is in arid and semi-arid regions. They are grouped under Aridisols order as well as Intrazonal order or Halomorphic sub-order. In irrigated areas, drainage, leaching and soil amendments are used to reclaim these soils. This traditional approach to ameliorate salt affected soils is difficult and expensive. The alternative way is the biological approach, which involves selection and planting of salt tolerant plants and trees in plantation or agroforestry practices for fodder, fuelwood and/or timber production. Salt tolerant plants and trees have the potential to ameliorate salt lands and can be grown using poor quality water. Planting trees in salt affected soils requires a specialized approach with reference to site development, choice of species and level of management. Though many tree species are astonishingly tolerant to adverse conditions, yet to raise viable plant cover on naturally inhospitable sites requires special attention. The stress faced by the trees depends upon the nature and extent of the problem in soil, which itself is governed by the soil reaction, nature and amount of soluble salts, physical barriers like hard pan, quality of underground water and depth of water table, etc. So understanding the soil problem is a pre-requisite for successful plantation/ agroforestry practices on salt affected soils. Finding ways to make marginal land and saline wasteland productive will permit better quality land to be farmed in more rational ways and lessen the risk of degradation. The standard approach is to increase the salt tolerance of trees and plants with concerted research, but the gains come slowly. The alternative approach is to make use of those plants and trees (halophytes) that have high tolerance for salinity. Substantial progress has been made in evaluating halophytes for their potential to rehabilitate salt affected lands. In recent years, it has been demonstrated that revegetation of saline habitats with halophytic species is profitable and provides many additional benefits. There are about 6,000 species of terrestrial and tidal halophytes in the world which offer promising options for reclaiming salt affected lands.
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
Agroforestry provides the basis for producing such goods and services on farms and stabilizing ag... more Agroforestry provides the basis for producing such goods and services on farms and stabilizing agricultural landscapes and alleviating pressure on natural ecosystems. More than 1 billion rural smallholders grow trees on farms and in agricultural landscapes to access the goods and services that trees provide. The proportion of trees on farms and in forests varies considerably among countries, but two trends seem almost universal in the tropics: the number of trees in forests is declining and the number of trees on farms is increasing. Agroforestry is uniquely suited to address both the need for increased food and biomass resources and the need to sustainably manage agricultural landscapes to provide critical ecosystem services. Moreover, it is suited to achieving these objectives in highly impoverished rural areas. Understanding the extent and distribution of trees on agricultural land, at the landscape level, including the numbers and characteristics of farmers and farming community within those landscapes, can help to assess the importance and role of agroforestry both to the livelihood of farming communities as well as to overall global agricultural production. Further, understanding the geographic, ecological and demographic distribution of agroforestry related land uses can also highlight those areas where increased tree densities could make a greater contribution to livelihoods or landscapes. Major agroforestry systems are distributed in different parts of the tropics and subtropics which are classified as humid lowlands, semi-arid lowlands and highlands. The most common agroforestry systems of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate areas of the world are described for the following regions: • Agroforestry Systems in Africa • Agroforestry Systems in Asia • Agroforestry Systems in Pacific Islands • Agroforestry Systems in Latin American Tropics • Temperate Agroforestry Systems in North America • Temperate Agroforestry Systems in Europe • Agroforestry Systems in Australia and New Zealand
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
Tropical forests contain a wealth of tree species which have traditionally been used by local peo... more Tropical forests contain a wealth of tree species which have traditionally been used by local people, but which have been neglected by agricultural development. These same species are cut down to clear land for development projects or to provide a subsistence living for a year or two. These overlooked and often highly desirable trees are the “Cinderella” tree species of forest ecosystem. The significance of trees outside forest (TOF) can be observed in several contexts. In countries with a low forest cover, tree resources outside the natural forest areas constitute the main source of wood and non-wood forest products. Growing populations, shrinking forests and degraded ecosystems all suggest that trees outside the forest are destined to play a larger local and global role in meeting the challenges of resource sustainability, poverty reduction and food security. In agroforestry, the domestication of underutilized and indigenous trees was initiated in the mid 1990s by the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and its partners. This programme aimed at improving the quality and yield of products from traditionally important species that used to be gathered from forests and woodlands. In addition to meeting the everyday needs of local people, these products are widely traded in local and regional markets. Underutilized crops and trees therefore have the potential to become new cash crops for income generation and to counter malnutrition and disease by diversifying staple food/ food energy sources and dietary uptake of micro-nutrients that boost the immune system among others. These indigenous tree species also play an important role in enhancing agroecological functions and can help to counter climate change through carbon sequestration.
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
Tropical agroforestry systems are characterized by great diversity among and within tree species ... more Tropical agroforestry systems are characterized by great diversity among and within tree species that are found in contrasting biological, complex niches in a spectrum from managed natural forest to intensive farmland production. Different species and production systems have immense value to communities that are dependent on trees (in forests and farmlands) and to local, national and international markets. The diversity of species and their unique biological characteristics, and the wide range of landscapes in which tree species are found, pose major challenges in developing generic models and principles for managing tree resources effectively. The introduction of trees that symbiotically fix atmospheric nitrogen is widely acknowledged as one of the most efficient means to sustain the productivity of agroecosystems through the improvement of the soil nitrogen balance, especially in the tropics. The N2-fixing potential of tree species is often low or inhibited by environmental constraints such as drought, salinity and excess mineral nitrogen or plant diseases. The symbiotic bacteria/host tree association could possibly be improved through plant biotechnology and genetic engineering research. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation could also be optimized by modifying current agricultural practices. Nitrogen-fixing trees can be intercropped with other annual crops in various conditions, e.g. hedges, bush fallows and long-term rotations. The lack of quality tree germplasm, inappropriate farm management practices and a lack of market integration mean that a lot of the potential for improving livelihoods and the environment remain untapped.
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
The trees in an agroforestry system are not necessarily planted. Instead natural regeneration of ... more The trees in an agroforestry system are not necessarily planted. Instead natural regeneration of trees may be protected or mature trees may be deliberately left in the fields or pastures. Woody perennials are sometimes referred to as “multipurpose trees” (MPTs) or “multipurpose trees and shrubs” (MPTS). Almost all trees can be said to be MPTs, but the concept was introduced to distinguish the multiple roles often played by trees in an agroforestry system from the single purpose of wood production in pure forest plantations. Tree growing in such forest areas normally aims at meeting demands for wood for industrial purposes, and is often called industrial forestry. The growing of MPTs in agroforestry has the potential to alleviate many land use problems and uplift the people’s standard of living. Agroforestry research, however now reached a stage to recommend suitable tree-crop combinations, their package of practices and genetically improved planting material for a given situation. In addition, continuous research advancements are being achieved by international and national agroforestry research organizations to benefit the farmers. Availability of MPTs information for many species has been an advantage for the adoption of agroforestry as a land use system. But information on certain MPTs for agroforestry is still limited by problems of lack of basic data on growth rates, breeding system, resilience to environmental stress and response to management. Multipurpose trees (MPTs) well suited to an agroecosystem and meeting the needs of local people and/or industrial needs of the area will encourage its adoption under agroforestry systems. Further, genetically improved high yielding clones within such tree species which may accomplish specific agroforestry system-based objectives will enhance the popularity of agroforestry among farmers.
Agroforestry: Theory and Practices, Aug 1, 2014
Agroforestry is a system of land management which seems to be suitable for these ecologically bri... more Agroforestry is a system of land management which seems to be suitable for these ecologically brittle areas. It combines the protective characteristics of forestry with the productive attributes of both forestry and agriculture. Agroforestry is a new name for the old practice of growing trees on farmland. Farmers have been practicing agroforestry for thousands of years by combining trees with crops or animals. When land is scarce or when soil has a low fertility or is sensitive to erosion, agroforestry techniques offer considerable benefits for long term agricultural sustainability. Agroforestry can help to make small farms more productive by increasing family income. Achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) has been the prime importance of all international agenda. A clear vision is evolving that articulates how agroforestry research and development can contribute materially to achieve these goals and aspirations. By combining the strengths of agriculture and forestry, agroforestry opens up promising new prospects for the future of rural communities. Agroforestry is gaining momentum at a time when global community is increasingly demanding sustainable natural resource management and environmental friendly development approaches. Landscape enhancement, integrated land use management and sustainable development are all areas in which agroforestry can make a positive contribution. Agroforestry takes several forms and is attracting growing interest in global context from local, regional and international stakeholders, who are incorporating agroforestry activities in their land management and development projects, viewing it as a concrete tool for the sustainable development of rural land resources.
Forestry : Principles and Applications, Aug 1, 2013
This chapter presents the complete References for the Book "Forestry : Principles and Application... more This chapter presents the complete References for the Book "Forestry : Principles and Applications (2013) by Antony Joseph Raj and S.B.Lal, published by Scientific Publishers, India, 805 pages [ISBN-Hard Bound: 9788172338107 & ISBN-Paper Back: 9788172338114]
Forestry: Principles and Applications, Aug 1, 2013
Forest mensuration is the science of measuring the contents of standing or felled timber and esti... more Forest mensuration is the science of measuring the contents of standing or felled timber and estimating growth and yields. Forest mensuration or dasometrics or dendrometrics deals with the quantification of forests, trees and forest products. It can be distinguished with the techniques for direct or indirect measurements, estimation procedures using statistical relationships and methods of prediction where the variable time takes part. Forest mensuration includes measurements of felled and standing trees, sawn wood and round logs and Non-wood forest products such as bamboos, bark, fruits, etc. In addition to describing the current status of tree or crop, mensuration also deals with measuring and predicting the growth of trees and crops that is the change in the parameter with time. The main objective of measurement of individual trees is to estimate the quantity of timber, firewood or any other forest produce which can be obtained from them. It covers: diameter measurement, height measurement, volume measurement and measurement of logs and fuel wood. Electronic measuring devices using laser or ultrasound emissions have become commonly used to measure distances. These devices have reduced the time to measure tree heights considerably, and can be used to quickly obtain other tree parameter measures including spatial positions. Ground Positioning Systems (GPS) that triangulate satellites to determine ground positions have become widely used. Aerial photographs continue to be used in navigation, planning, forest inventory and management purposes.
Forestry: Principles and Applications, Aug 1, 2013
The Earth’s carbon reservoirs naturally act as both sources, adding carbon to the atmosphere and ... more The Earth’s carbon reservoirs naturally act as both sources, adding carbon to the atmosphere and sinks, removing carbon from the atmosphere. Carbon is present in the earth’s atmosphere, soils, plants, fossil fuels, oceans and crust. When viewing the Earth as a system, these components can be referred to as carbon pools or stocks or reservoirs because they act as storage houses for large amounts of carbon. Most analyses of options for mitigating the risk of global climate change have focused on the reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Much less attention has been given to the potential for storing significant amounts of carbon in forests and other ecosystems as an alternative means of offsetting the effect of future carbon emissions in the atmosphere. Terrestrial carbon sequestration, also termed biological sequestration, is typically accomplished through forest and soil conservation practices that enhance the storage of carbon (such as restoring and establishing new forests, wetlands and grasslands) or reduce CO2 emissions (such as reducing agricultural tillage and suppressing forest fires). These practices are implemented to meet a variety of land management objectives. A young forest, when growing rapidly, can sequester relatively large volumes of additional carbon roughly proportional to the forest’s growth in biomass. An old-growth forest acts as a reservoir, holding large volumes of carbon even if it is not experiencing net growth. Carbon trading is emissions trading specifically for carbon dioxide calculated in tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e) and currently makes up the bulk of emissions trading. Emission trading is a market-based approach used to control pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants.
Forestry: Principles and Applications, Aug 1, 2013
Land degradation threatens the livelihoods of Earth’s many inhabitants, the so called environment... more Land degradation threatens the livelihoods of Earth’s many inhabitants, the so called environmental refugees, including many of the world’s poorest and most marginalized populations. Degradation caused by overcultivation, overgrazing, deforestation and inefficient irrigation affects most of the world’s drylands. Desertification occurs in drylands, which span a third of the Earth’s land surface in over 110 countries. All continents are under threat including 37 per cent of arid areas in Africa, 33 per cent in Asia, 14 per cent in Australia and some areas in America and the southern fringes in Europe. According to United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), over 250 million people are directly affected by land degradation. In addition, some one billion people around world are at risk. Each year 12 million hectares are lost to deserts. That is enough land to grow 20 million metric tons of grain. The land degradation issue for world food security and the quality of the environment assumes a major significance when one considers that only about 11 per cent of the global land surface can be considered as prime or Class-1 land, and this must feed the 8 billion people in 2023.
Forestry: Principles and Applications, Aug 1, 2013
Planted forests supply wood, fibre, fuelwood and non-wood forest products for industrial and non-... more Planted forests supply wood, fibre, fuelwood and non-wood forest products for industrial and non-industrial uses. The benefits of wood products over competing products (cement, plastics and metal) are that they are renewable, energy efficient and environmentally friendly. Planted forests, when managed responsibly, can also contribute towards the provision of environmental services (soil and water protection, rehabilitation of degraded lands, restoration of landscapes, habitat development and carbon sequestration) and of social services and livelihood support (regional development, income generation, employment and recreation). They may also offset pressure for wood production from primary forests and valuable forest ecosystems. At present, forest plantations account for about 7 per cent of global forest area or about 2 per cent of global land area, i.e. slightly less than 300 million hectares. At the same time, they provide more than half the industrial wood produced in the world and their extent and productivity are increasing. Compared with naturally regenerating forests, planted forests represent a higher investment per area unit and normally produce higher values through their products and services.
Forestry: Principles and Applications, Aug 1, 2013
Forests comprise the most diverse ecosystems in the world, hosting a substantial part of all livi... more Forests comprise the most diverse ecosystems in the world, hosting a substantial part of all living species. Forests also provide a wide variety of essential services to society, ranging from natural resources such as timber, wildlife and other products to services such as water retention, climate regulation and carbon storage. A forest is more than trees and it includes the shrubs, wildflowers and grasses; the animals that depend on and live among these plants; the soil in which plant grow; the stream that flows through it; the insects, fungi, bacteria and organisms that cannot be seen readily; and the climate. In short, a forest is an ecosystem. It is useful to understand and manage forest as an ecosystem because all the components influence one another. Certain aspects of the ecosystem such as climate cannot be controlled and one must learn to live within its constraints of temperature and precipitation. Forest management and activities are based on an understanding of ecology. Ecological concepts provide a basis for predicting the effects of our actions on ecosystems. Timber harvesting, grazing, wildlife habitat improvement and fire control intentionally or unintentionally change vegetation to favour or discourage certain ecological functions. Viewing management activities in an ecological context provides a basis for understanding the effects of those activities on ecosystem processes.
Forestry: Principles and Applications, Aug 1, 2013
Present literatures pertaining to the research and education have shown that traditional forestry... more Present literatures pertaining to the research and education have shown that traditional forestry organizations emphasize sustainable forest management as an overall approach, balancing the social and environmental benefits of forestry with economic values for society. Simultaneously environmental benefits provided by forests such as carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation, biodiversity and landscape protection are frequently addressed by forest and other policy areas such as agriculture, environment and energy. Comprehensive overview of international and national forest organizations and groups are presented here with a view to provide updated information to the students, teachers, scientists, foresters and policy makers in the field of forestry and natural resources. The present state of international and national forest organizations are categorized and presented under five groups: intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, international research institutes, regional institutes and Indian forestry research & education organizations.
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Books by Antony Joseph Raj
provide an idea for the policymakers in implementing or promoting agroforestry system practices in Uttar Pradesh.
research is warranted to explore the underlying mechanisms of these biofertilizers and their potential applications in sustainable agriculture.