The faunal remains, in, Peacock DPS and Maxfield VA

THE FAUNAL REMAINS CHAPTER 9 THE FAUNAL REMAINS Sheila Hamilton-Dyer 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 Introduction and methodology Mammals: ungulates Mammals: dog and other small mammals Reptiles Birds Fish and sieving Marine mollusca and notes on other invertebrates 9.8 Area distribution 9.9 Discussion 9.10 Appendix: Barud 1 Page 251 255 274 277 277 283 290 293 295 301 THE FAUNAL REMAINS 9.1 INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY 9.1.1 INTRODUCTION In the Eastern Desert of Egypt long term mean annual rainfall is less than 5mm and vegetation is sparse. The climate was probably less extreme in the late Pleistocene but by the Roman period it had already changed to the hyperarid situation (Butzer 1961; Butzer and Hansen 1968). Scarcity of water and herbage is not the only problem for life in this area, for the temperature range is large, typical of desert regions. In summer the temperature often reaches 35º C and has exceeded 45º C. In winter temperatures frequently drop to freezing at night, rapidly rising again to 20º C and higher, during the morning.Few animals tolerate these extreme conditions. Those which need little or no free water include dorcas gazelle, desert foxes and various desert birds, rodents and reptiles. Ibex do require water but are well able to negotiate the rocky heights where semi-permanent seeps and basins can be found (Hobbs 1989). The present human inhabitants, the semi-nomadic pastoralist Bedouin, rely on flocks of goats, sheep and some camels and donkeys. These are animals adapted to the aridity and poor quality fodder. The Bedouin population density is very low at about one person per 90 km2 (Hobbs 1989). This marginal environment cannot, however, supply the needs of large numbers of people in permanent settlements. The remote settlement of Mons Claudianus therefore has an unusual faunal assemblage, as almost all provisions must have been brought to the site by pack animals. These were principally donkeys, which were also the predominant mammal remains at Mons Claudianus, together with camels. The extensive deposits of rubbish or `sebakh' inside and outside the fort contained conspicuously large amounts of faunal remains. Some of these remains, like other classes of finds, had shown remarkable preservation over time; but the procedure of excavation immediately exposed them to destructive processes. The bones which had been collected by hand from previous years and stored, were initially examined in the fourth season. It was clear that storage conditions had not been perfect and the material required prompt recording; a number of labels had disintegrated and some remains had degraded, for example a complete donkey head noted as still retaining ears and skin had been largely reduced to the bones only (Fig. 9.1). Furthermore there was progressive disturbance of in situ finds by the increasing number of visitors to the site. 9.1.2 METHODOLOGY 9.1.2.1 THE METHODS USED The methods used for identification and recording were a modification of the system (method 86) drawn up at the Faunal Remains Unit, Southampton. No reference collection was available in the field. Species identifications and distinctions were made using the author's experience, literary sources, photographs of reference material, 251 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION and by on-site preparation of recent fish. In addition, examples of complete bones were kept aside to aid identification of fragmentary elements. The literary sources include Boessneck (1969), B”k”nyi (1972), Cohen and Serjeantson (1986), Davis (1980), Gayet and Van Neer (1990), Schmidt (1972), Sharabati (1984), Walker (1985) and Wapnish (1984) amongst others. Further details of particular identification problems are given in the appropriate section. All fragments were identified to species and element where possible, save that ungulate ribs and vertebrae other than axis, atlas, and sacrum were usually identified only to the level of camel/equid-sized and goat/pig-sized. This restriction does not apply to associated bones where ribs and vertebrae were assigned to species. For the skull the occipital, frontal, zygomatic, maxilla, and premaxilla were identified to species. All other skull fragments were divided by size as above. Unidentified shaft and other fragments were similarly divided. Any fragments which could not be assigned even to this level have been recorded as mammalian only. The proportion of `unidentified' is quite high, at least in part because the level of identification is slightly lower than might be expected with a good reference collection, for example many of the smaller pieces of limb shaft are classed as unidentified despite the likelihood of them being mainly of donkey and pig on the basis of species proportions. This is also partly due to the speed of processing and shortness of available time. For the smaller mammals and birds, most bones were identified to species. Some of the undiagnostic fragments could be less certainly distinguished and have been placed in group categories such as `canid' and `rat sized'. Fish bones were treated in a similar manner; the major elements and those which are most robust were identified where possible; elements such as branchials, fin rays and small fragments of bones were recorded as `fish' only. A limited measurement programme was undertaken, following von den Driesch (1976) for mammals and birds and Morales and Rosenlund (1979) for fish. Occasionally other measurements were taken and these are detailed in the archive. Principally the most commonly available measurements were taken such as greatest length, proximal and distal width, and are in millimetres unless otherwise stated. Withers height estimations of the domestic ungulates are based on factors recommended by von den Driesch and Boessneck (1974). Shoulder heights of dogs are calculated using the factors of Harcourt (1974). Archive material includes metrical and other data not in the text and is kept on paper and floppy disk. 9.1.2.2 RETRIEVAL RATES The animal bones from the excavations were mainly collected by hand during excavation, which in the case of the rubbish deposits was by arbitrary spits. However good the standard of retrieval, it is inevitable that some bones were overlooked. The effects of this on species and anatomical part frequencies will be discussed in more detail in later sections. Briefly the smaller species, especially fish, and the smaller bone elements are under- represented, as illustrated with a comparison of the bones retrieved from the sieved samples. 252 THE FAUNAL REMAINS 9.1.2.3 TAPHONOMY - PRESERVATION The bones vary in preservation condition. Often there are remains in the thick rubbish deposits which appear as though discarded only recently; they have been desiccated and remnants of flesh and hide are often present. Some carcass parts had been disposed of as a unit and were preserved in articulation (Fig. 9.2). While this was excellent in terms of identification and observation of fine details such as knife marks, it caused some problems where bones were still joined making measurement difficult. Amongst these deposits were bones without visible traces of tissue but again well preserved with the surface largely intact and fine details readily observable. Other bones contained crystals of gypsum and other salts which had sometimes cracked the bones open and also caused flaking of the surface, the salts continued to adversely affect the bone integrity on exposure. All excavated bone was observed to undergo rapid deterioration if exposed to sun and wind for any length of time, but survived well if wrapped and stored in a low humidity environment. In some areas of the site where rubbish deposits were thin, such as at the Animal Lines, recovered bone was often in poor condition, crumbling on retrieval. The effect on species and anatomy proportions overall is negligible as few bones were recovered from these areas. Many of the bones from the area around the well were charred. It was clear from observation of the limited excavation areas that the burning was episodic and in situ. Several equid foot bones had remained in their articulated positions despite some trampling and mixing. Some bones and their associated soft remains had been sufficiently burnt to crack and warp the bones and reduce the soft parts to charcoal. Very few had been calcined and although fragmentation of the bones was slightly increased, the bones had not been reduced to the small brittle fragments often associated with intense heat (McKinley 1994). Several bones were charred at one end or on the most exposed parts only, leaving the rest of the bone undamaged. Burning, though extensive and repeated, was obviously not intended for destruction of bone. A tempering bath may have been in operation here, on top of the already deposited rubbish and causing incidental burning. Charred bones were rarely encountered anywhere else in the excavations but charred grain was sometimes observed in soil samples, particularly from the deposits outside the detached group of buildings known as the Hydreuma. No doubt small fragments were missed during excavation as burnt bone is prone to fragmentation. It was observed that bones exposed on the surface are often consumed by modern sheep and goats (the local rocks and vegetation are calcium deficient), who show a preference for medium sized fragments which can be easily picked up. Bedouin dogs also take bones and can completely remove quite large bones from the site (in one instance a well preserved donkey leg was removed from temporary storage and almost completely destroyed). No doubt similar activity took place in the past. Rodents also gnaw bones and several fragments carried their distinct tooth marks. Pigs will eat material which contains bone; but to what extent and how the damage appears is not fully known, but they will certainly eat and destroy many fish bones, as will dogs (Jones 1986). Canid-gnawed mammal bones comprise 2-8 percent of the total. This is a low incidence in comparison with some European assemblages where gnawed bone often exceeds 20% 253 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION (Maltby 1994) but is comparable with others such as at York (O'Connor 1988). Very little spatial variation was observed, but there was a noticeable difference between taxa (Table 9.1). The large and hard bones of camel and equids were less affected than those of smaller animals. Fish bones do not appear to have been greatly affected but, as indicated above, many may have been completely destroyed. Evidence of rodent damage was particularly noticeable on bird bones, and again a large number may have been eaten whole by other scavengers and not recovered at all. With the high potential for destruction by scavengers and exposure, the bones which have survived must have been covered soon after disposal. The differential effects of processes such as canid gnawing, and the loss of information, can be illustrated by the bone parts represented (Maltby 1985). Small bones such as phalanges are easily eaten, although estimation of the number lost is complicated by retrieval bias (see section on goat, 9.2.4). Some discrepancies may be explained by the differences in fusion age; some epiphyses fuse early and are then less prone to damage of all kinds than the late fusing ends such as those of the femur, which are typically deficient in number for this reason. Table 9.1. Fragments with evidence of gnawing. 9.1.2.4 CONTEXT VARIABILITY Each bone was fully recorded with all context information but, as most of the rubbish deposits were excavated as spits, each context unit was not necessarily part of the same depositional event. Additionally it was clear from several classes of finds that considerable mixing had taken place. In the case of the bones it is difficult to detect such mixing, but there were a few instances where this was obvious, for example a large pig femur from Fort North I which had been broken and the two halves vertically separated by more than a metre. It is probable that much rubbish inside the fort derives from material redeposited from the emptying of other rooms. Some areas do not appear to have been disturbed as much, or were deposits of mixed type with current, primary, rubbish deposited along with the secondary, redeposited, material. This could be the case in the south-west sebakh, just outside the main fort, where a complete dog was found in situ amongst material which appeared to be mixed; the material from the Hydreuma also appeared to be less disturbed as several groups of loose but associated parrotfish bones were found. 254 THE FAUNAL REMAINS For these reasons the faunal remains have been analysed in broad spatial and chronological groups, but it was noticed that the material from individual rooms varied slightly. It was not possible to retain the entire faunal assemblage but some bones were retained for further identification with recent comparative specimens, others were retained for further study, and some groups were kept as representative samples. The faunal assemblage offered an unusual opportunity to examine a large group of material from a specialised settlement and of a relatively limited time period, undisturbed by later occupation. The analysis had to be limited by the constraints of the situation. The aim of the investigation was to maximise information using the minimum time and resources. The main questions which the analysis sought to answer were : What animal taxa were being used at this site? How were these animal resources being utilised? Where were these animal resources derived from and, if not local, how were they supplied? To what extent do the animal resources affect the operation of the site? 9.2 MAMMALS: UNGULATES The mammalian remains from the site are dominated by bones of ungulates, over 12,800 of which were recovered. The majority are of the domestic ungulates, donkey, horse, camel, pig, sheep and goat. There are also some remains of the wild ungulates, ibex and dorcas gazelle; and additionally a very small number of cattle bones. A summary distribution is given in Table 9.2. 9.2.1 EQUIDS The bulk of the mammal bones identified to taxon are of equids. It is difficult to distinguish between bones of donkey, horse and of the hybrid mule, particularly with small fragments. Although it is assumed that the remains are of domestic animals there is also the possibility of wild ass in this area. With practice it is usually possible to separate horse and donkey for many anatomical elements. The best distinctions are in the skull, teeth and foot bones (Bökönyi 1972; Davis 1980). The mule is the hybrid offspring of a male donkey and a female horse and limited data suggest that it has intermediate characteristics which are sometimes diagnostic (Armitage and Chapman 1979). The equid remains at Mons Claudianus appear to be almost entirely of donkey. All skulls, jaws and teeth match donkey, as do all but a handful of the other complete, or almost complete, bones. There are a few remains of slightly larger animals which are likely to be horse. These include some foot bones which, from their size, shape and proportions, are thought definitely to be of horse. No bones had characteristics indicating mule. The fragmentary equid remains are assumed to be predominantly of donkey following the proportions of the identified material. On some occasions it was abundantly clear that donkey was the taxon in question in the form of partial legs preserved in their entirety including the distinctive small narrow hooves. In one instance even the coloured pattern of the stripes of the fur was preserved (Fig. 9.3a). 255 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 256 THE FAUNAL REMAINS 257 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION The number of bones positively identified as equid is 2,897. This amounts to 22.6% of the ungulate total (Table 9.2) and 55% of the ungulate bones identified to taxon (Table 9.3). Over 5,000 bones were identified only as large ungulate but in view of the paucity of camel and other large ungulates, the majority of these are also thought to be equid, which would bring the total percentage of equid remains to approximately 66% of all ungulate bone. 9.2.1.1 AREA REPRESENTATIVE Equid bones were found in all areas of the settlement and in all but the very smallest excavation units. Like other organic material, the greatest concentrations were in the main areas of rubbish dumping; the south sebakh, well, west sebakh, and the south-east and northern rooms inside the fort were all rich in animal remains. 9.2.1.2 ANATOMICAL DISTRIBUTION All the anatomical elements are represented (including those ribs and vertebrae which have been assigned to the large ungulate category). Loose teeth, skull fragments and jaws are under- represented (Table 9.4). Whilst the skulls may have been reduced to unidentified fragments by chopping, trampling and gnawing this does not apply to the large and robust teeth. It is possible that slaughter and some primary butchery was carried out on the periphery of the settlement and the heads have not always been deposited with other rubbish. Apart from the smallest of the carpals and tarsals the other elements are present in the expected proportions; the MNI (minimum number of individuals represented) is calculated as being in the region of 80 to 90. The ulnae appear to be under-represented because they were not counted separately when fused to the radius: these fragments were recorded as radius, but were noted as having ulna attached. 9.2.1.3 AGEING The jaws and maxillae that were recovered were all identified as donkey (Fig. 9.4). Most contained fully erupted permanent tooth rows, although in some the third molar was in wear at the front but not fully erupted at the rear. Where the front of the jaw was preserved again most contained the permanent incisors. There were some however with the incisors in the process of replacement. Levine (1982) gives eruption ages for the second incisor and the third molar in horse as around 3-4 years and 2.5-5 years respectively. The majority of the epiphyses of the equid bones are fused. Silver (1969) gives the same fusion ages for horse and donkey, and these have been used to indicate the age structure of the culled population (Table 9.5). There is an inequality in the number of proximal and distal records for the humerus and slightly so for the tibia. The shortfall is in the proximal end which is large and less dense than the distal. The proximal part of the humerus in particular is preferentially gnawed by dogs because this porous end contains more nutrition and is easier to gnaw, especially if young. The lack of proximal humerus is therefore probably due 258 THE FAUNAL REMAINS 259 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION to destruction by dogs. Both fused and unfused are vulnerable, although the unfused bone is likely to be at greater risk of reduction to unidentifiable fragments. It is therefore reasonable to assume an underestimate of the unfused bone in the late fusing group to which these belong. This is not thought to alter substantially the ratios of unfused and fused bones, as other elements such as the radius (which is less attractive to dogs) offer almost equal numbers of proximal and distal records and yet there are still very few unfused. The presence of unfused bones implies that some of the animals died before full maturity (Fig. 9.5). With the lack of very young animals and the large amount of butchery this has interesting implications about the usage of the equids (see discussion, section 9.9). 9.2.1.4 SEX Of the 66 jaw fragments 26 were of the anterior part. There were 13 with canine teeth, and these, although not an infallible guide, are usually a feature of males (Fig. 9.6). 9.2.1.5 TOOL MARKS AND BUTCHERY Marks were observed on a third of the equid bones. Most of these were made by a heavy bladed instrument such as a meat cleaver or axe. Other marks had been made with knives and one with a saw (Table 9.6). Knife marks on the skull, phalanges and some on the metapodia are consistent with skinning. Cuts across the atlas and axis would have been made while removing the head. Knife cuts on lower jaws were around the articulation and would have been made during removal of the jaw from the head. Cuts on the distal tibia, distal radius, proximal metapodia and on the carpals and tarsals are indicative of foot removal; some feet were found in the excavations still in articulation and often with traces of skin and ligaments (Fig. 9.7). In total there are 125 occurrences of articulated bones comprising 550 separately recorded bones. Several of these are of two or three bones only, for example radius with one or more carpals and metapodia with the peripheral splint bones. Many are of portions of the lower leg. Groups including some or all of the ankle and foot bones number 41; 21 of these also include the distal part of the tibia which has been chopped or broken. Groups involving the lower foreleg (33) did not include cut or broken radii; it is clear from the marks that this joint was always divided between the carpals or at the metacarpus, an easier task than the equivalent for the ankle. Groups of phalanges and sesamoids number only 17. Cuts on the acetabulum and proximal femur indicate disarticulation of the hip joint. Similarly cuts on the scapula, humerus, radius and ulna indicate disarticulation of the shoulder and elbow joints (Fig. 9.8). There were three scapulae which had long knife marks near, and parallel with, the spine. These would have been made when stripping the large shoulder muscle from the bone. The more numerous chop marks could be found on almost all elements of the skeleton, even the phalanges. These were frequently divided axially or laterally, sometimes both (Fig. 9.9). As there is virtually no nutrition in these and the metapodia, which were also often chopped, it is thought that this chopping was to facilitate glue production. Many of the major limb bones were chopped right through the joint, either across or axially. Some 260 THE FAUNAL REMAINS 261 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION bones had `shave' marks caused by a large blade removing a sliver of bone along with the meat. This has been found in Europe associated with large scale cattle butchery (see also discussion of meat supply). One fragment, a metatarsus, had been sawn; listed among the small finds is an unfinished handle made from the distal portion of an equid metapodial (11.1.3, no. 29: MC Inv. V127). Other handle fragments found in the excavations are also probably of equid metapodia, including a possible gladius (11.1.3, no. 30: MC Inv. V88). 9.2.1.6 MEASUREMENTS In spite of so much butchery, many bones could be measured. In addition to the usual measurements on the main limb bones, the phalanges were measured as a check on the species identifications. A summary of the most frequent measurements is given in Table 9.7. Withers height estimates were also calculated for the complete limb bones. While it is accepted that the factors used were originally derived from horses (Kiesewalter in Driesch and Boessneck 1974), they do serve as a general guide and measurements of recent donkey bones from a specimen of known height give acceptable withers height estimations. The most notable differences in the height calculations come with the femur and metacarpus which give values which are too low. The measurements and derived withers heights are given in Table 9.8. They appear to be consistent and of little variation. In comparison with recent animals, even those of 1.4m would seem too small for horse, for only animals of over 1.42m are classed as horse today, and smaller animals are usually described as ponies; but in fact horses of this size are common in archaeological material and small horses are well capable of carrying a full grown man. There is therefore likely to be an overlap between donkey and horse, and those which best matched horse are marked. A scatter plot of the measurements of the first phalanx confirms the initial premise that the vast majority of equid bones are of donkey (Fig. 9.10). Most phalanges fall in a tight grouping, particularly so as both fore and hind toes are plotted together and, no doubt, male and female are represented. Just two of the 69 complete bones are both long and broad and fall inside the area for horse (see Compagnoni 1978). These had already been identified as from horse. The remaining anomaly, a small but broad phalanx, is a pathological donkey with exostosis and remodelling of the phalanx shaft. 9.2.2 CAMEL Bones positively identified as camel number 424, just 8% of the ungulate bones identified to taxon. There may be some fragments of camel bones included in the unidentified large ungulate class but frequently the size of the bone fragments and their cross- sectional thickness pointed to camel (in the absence of other animals of this size) and few were probably missed. 262 THE FAUNAL REMAINS 263 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION Many of the bones were complete or in substantial portions. These were all identified as dromedary, Camelus dromedarius, rather than bactrian camel, Camelus bactrianus (Wapnish 1984), and it is assumed that all the camel remains are dromedary, as expected in this region. The dromedary reached Egypt later than the other common domesticates, probably from Arabia. There are references by Strabo and others to trade between the Red Sea and the Nile using camels in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, and the camel seems to have been in wide use by the time Mons Claudianus was in operation (Bulliet 1975). 9.2.2.1 AREA REPRESENTATION A higher proportion of camel bones was found in the deposits of the hydreuma and the south sebakh than elsewhere. Many of these bones were also complete or substantial portions, but were scattered individual bones rather than associated groups. Several had knife marks indicating disarticulation. 9.2.2.2 ANATOMICAL DISTRIBUTION Most elements are represented (Table 9.9) but skull fragments number three only and jaws are represented by a single hinge fragment, nor are there any loose teeth despite their robust nature. Pelvis and scapula are slightly under-represented but some of the smaller fragments of these may have been relegated to the large ungulate category. The condition of most fragments was excellent and very few are likely to have been lost through erosion. A few bones showed signs of canid gnawing (probably of dog) and a phalanx had been rodent gnawed. Bones recovered from the area of the well had been charred with some showing shrinkage and cracking. The lack of skull is a puzzle as all other bones are present, indicating the remains of whole animals. Other bones may also be missing as, although at least nine animals are represented, not all the elements of the individuals were recovered. There is a similarity with the equid bones and, like them, the camels may have been slaughtered off-site. 9.2.2.3 AGEING Several of the bones have unfused or just fusing epiphyses but most are fused. The fused elements include femora, tibiae and radii, indicating that these bones are from fully mature animals. Camels mature at around six years and can live twenty years, and there is no evidence from the bones whether these are young adults or are aged. None of the unfused bones are of very young animals but rather are from sub-adults of about four to six years old, an age which may indicate deliberate meat supply (Fig. 9.11: see discussion, 9.9.3). 264 THE FAUNAL REMAINS 265 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 9.2.2.4 BUTCHERY/WORKING Clear tool marks of various types were observed on 173 bones, 41%, again a high proportion of the fragments (Table 9.10). There were 18 sawn shafts, mostly of metapodia and tibiae (Fig. 9.12 a,b). This amounts to 4.2% of the camel bones in contrast with the single incidence on equid bone, less than 0.3%. The thickness of the shaft renders these bones ideal for working larger pieces than is possible from the donkey and goat bones. The other tool marks were made by cleavers or axes and knives. The knife marks were observed on 31 bones. Those on the foot bones are consistent with skinning. Repeated incisions across two atlas vertebrae indicate removal of the head. Two of the three axis vertebrae recovered were chopped across, one of these associated with a cut atlas vertebra. The other knife marks were all on limb bones, most of them indicating disarticulation of the hip, knee and elbow joints, and the removal of the feet. The knife marks on scapulae were different, taking the form of long parallel cuts along the blade near the spine. These would have been made during removal of the meat. The chop marks were mostly on the ribs and vertebra which had been chopped across. Some chop marks involve the same joints as those separated by knives indicating two different styles of butchery. Several limb bones had also been chopped mid-shaft. Both fused and unfused bones had butchery marks. 9.2.2.5 SIZE Several of the bones were fused and sufficiently complete for measurements to be taken, a selection of which is given in Table 9.11. The measurements appear to be large, similar to those observed for the small number of bones reported from Iberia (Morales Muniz et al 1995), where it is suggested this could indicate the presence of castrated males which are stronger and less troublesome than entire animals. The greatest length measurements of the calcaneus compare with, or are slightly smaller than, modern castrates reported by Compagnoni and Tosi (1978), but are larger than the modern females. Comparison with other material, modern and archaeological, should prove a fruitful area for further research. 266 THE FAUNAL REMAINS 9.2.3 PIG Pig bones are the second most frequent category of mammal remains with a total identified number of 1,405 and forming 26.7% of the identified ungulates. Most bones classed as `unidentified small artiodactyl' are also likely to be of pig as the number of definite identifications for goat and other similarly sized animals is around one third of the amount of pig. This group includes ribs and most vertebrae as well as limb shaft fragments, but does not include pig skull fragments as the texture of these is very distinctive and easily identified. 9.2.3.1 AREA REPRESENTATION Pig bones were found in all areas of the site with a higher percentage from Fort North I and the Annexe. 9.2.3.2 ANATOMICAL REPRESENTATION All parts of the body are represented but some elements are not present in the expected quantity (Table 9.12). The bias against the smallest elements, for example the phalanges, carpals and tarsals, is to be expected. The low number of axis is unexpected as there are many more atlas which is only slightly larger and from the same part of the body. The atlas is itself under- represented and in both cases small fragments are likely to have been classed only as small artiodactyl. 9.2.3.3 AGEING Of the 122 jaw fragments with teeth, only five were mature with a fully erupted third molar in wear, equivalent to an age of over two to three years. Equally there were very few jaws at the other end of the scale, only one with an unerupted deciduous 4th premolar and three in light wear, which would have been from animals under four months though not neonatal. There were 28 fragments, with the third molar erupting, from animals about 12- 18 months old. A further 24 were a little younger with the second molar not in wear, and therefore probably around 6-12 months old, with 18 younger still with the first molar not fully in wear indicating an age of about four to six months (Bull and Payne 1982). Although many of the pig bones were unfused, only two were of neonates, a scapula and a humerus, both from the south sebakh. Comparing the number of fused epiphyses with the number that are unfused gives a 70% survival to 12 months. In the 24 month group this has dropped to 23.2%, and only 7.1% of the latest group had fused epiphyses (Table 9.13). This pattern is similar to that of the tooth eruption data and is typical for an animal which is used almost entirely for meat, a few adults being kept for breeding. 267 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 268 THE FAUNAL REMAINS 9.2.3.4 SEX The canine teeth in the upper and lower jaws can be used to indicate sex; males develop large open-rooted tusks, female canines are smaller and the root canals are restricted. Many jaws and loose canines were of animals too young for this distinction to have developed, or were damaged. Of those teeth which were sufficiently complete and developed there were 47 occurrences which could be attributed to adult or sub-adult males, but only 8 to females. This is a very unbalanced sex ratio as, for breeding purposes, fewer males than females are required. A deliberate selection for meat is the likely reason for this imbalance (see discussion, 9.9.3). 9.2.3.5 GNAWING Pig bone was generally as well preserved as other classes. The proportion of gnawed fragments, at 8.5%, is considerably higher than for equid (3.6%) and camel (2.1%) bones but is a little less in comparison with the other small ungulates (10.1%). 9.2.3.6 SIZE In spite of the large number of pig bones relatively few were measurable as only mature, fused, elements are measured. A selection of the most frequent measurements is given in Table 9.14. They are typical of the small measurements reported for the period, though slightly larger than some reported for the north- west provinces of the Roman Empire, eg at Dorchester (Maltby 1993). Dynastic tomb illustrations of pigs (Boessneck 1988) are of relatively slim, hairy animals very similar to European depictions which continue through the medieval period. 269 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 9.2.3.7 TOOL MARKS Butchery marks were observed on 27% of the pig bones, and these are summarised in Table 9.15. Many more chop marks than knife marks were found, but both occur across the skeleton. Axially chopped skulls and jaws were present, this is a common practice to facilitate use of the head, they amounted to 27% of the butchered bones. In general there is less waste from a pig carcass than most other animals where head and foot bones are normally regarded as waste, or at least as low grade food. 9.2.4 SHEEP, GOAT, IBEX, GAZELLE 9.2.4.1 SPECIES IDENTIFICATION Identification of the small bovid bones to species proved difficult. The separation of sheep and goat has long been a problem for archaeozoologists, and here it is compounded by the presence of other similar species. A few bones were very small and delicately built, often with clear morphological differences from the ovi-caprid bones. Subsequent checking with comparative material has confirmed these as the smallest and most desert- adapted of the gazelles, Gazella dorcas (Fig. 9.13). The distinctive lyre shaped horns were also present (Fig. 9.14). Ibex, Capra ibex, is similarly evident as the large horn cores and even horns testify (Fig. 9.15). Some of the `goat' bones were strikingly large and sometimes of slightly different morphology, and these are assumed to be of ibex. Both of these species are still present in the eastern desert, although recently much reduced 270 THE FAUNAL REMAINS in number. The Barbary sheep, Ammotragus lervia, was also present until the 1950s (Hobbs 1989, 100), and cannot be ruled out although there are no bones or horns which appeared to be of this large species. One distal humerus fragment is comparable with antelope, perhaps oryx or addax, both of them desert species not present in Egypt today but often depicted in dynastic tombs. Separation of sheep and goat was carried out following Boessneck (1969). Some distal tibiae, not usually distinguishable, could be assigned to species by association with the corresponding foot bones. The majority of the bones are assumed to be of domestic goat with some sheep. Positive identifications are as follows; 128 goat, 50 ibex, 21 sheep, 16 gazelle, 1 antelope. The remaining 328 have been classed as sheep/goat (Table 9.17). Identification is particularly difficult with small fragments and, with sexual dimorphism in all these species, there is likely to be a significant degree of overlap (Fig. 9.16). It was therefore decided that all of the `goat tribe' bones should be treated as a single group for much of the analysis, assuming that, as they are so similar, taphonomic factors will have affected them in the same way. 9.2.4.2 RECOVERY AND ANATOMICAL REPRESENTATION The bones are present in small numbers throughout the excavations (Tables 9.2, 9.16). In most contexts they comprise a third to a half of the quantity of the similarly sized pig bones and, at 544 fragments, amount to 10.4% of the identified ungulates. As with the pig bones the retrieval is biased against the smaller elements such as phalanges. The minimum number of individuals represented is not likely to be a true tally; for each recovered there are likely to be others completely absent, but the relative numbers are a useful indicator. Across the site the MNI is approximately 40, based on the numbers of distal tibiae and of distal humerus; in total each whole animal has 24 phalanges, for this number of animals 960 phalanges would be expected but only 31 were recovered from all the species (Table 9.17). This is in contrast to the larger bones of the equids where the number of animals represented by the phalanges and by the leg bones are very similar. The absence could be due to lack of recovery or differential destruction. In this case it is thought to be largely due to problems of retrieval (see section on fish and sieving) but destruction by scavengers may also be a contributory factor. As with the equid and camel bones there is a lack of jaw and skull fragments, although there are horns and horn cores. No sheep horns or horn cores were recovered. It is interesting to note that the modern Bedouin sheep in this area are largely hornless, and even the rams have very poor horn development. 9.2.4.3 TOOL MARKS The occurrence of tool marks is a little higher than for pig at 29.6% and includes saw marks as well as knife cuts and chop marks. All of the 19 saw marks were on the horns and horn cores, mainly of ibex but also of goat and dorcas gazelle. The horns and horn cores had been sawn through at the base, and some had been further sawn into sections. Some items and offcuts of horn were recovered from the excavations (see below, 11.2) and it would seem that these had been produced on site. 271 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 272 THE FAUNAL REMAINS The rest of the tool marks were distributed similarly for all the species according to the anatomical element. Axial chopping had been carried out on skulls and cervical vertebra (and one scapula). Knife cuts were mainly consistent with skinning and disarticulation of the legs and feet. A few were associated with meat removal. More chops than knife marks were observed, and most of these appeared to be a result of chopping the main meat joints into smaller portions (Fig. 9.17). At least one metapodial had been used to make a handle (see below 11.1.3, no. 31). 9.2.4.4 AGEING There were just 11 sheep/goat mandibles. Toothwear was recorded using Grant (1982). With so few it is not possible to determine the kill-off pattern but several had well worn third molars and only one had a third molar not fully in wear. Those recovered would therefore be mostly older than 3 years, some considerably so. Ageing from the bone fusion data is generally less reliable than that from the more robust teeth because of taphonomic bias against the more fragile unfused bone. Also, sheep and goats may age at slightly different rates and here both are present, though most are likely to be goat. The fusion data can, however, give a crude idea of the culled population. The majority of the bones were fused - 214 epiphyses fused as against only 36 unfused. In the case of the proximal radius, distal humerus and proximal phalanx no bones were found with unfused epiphyses. From the latest fusing group, which includes the femur, ulna, distal radius, proximal humerus, tibia and calcaneus, over 69% were fused. Just three bones were found from very young animals, two were scapulae from animals which were probably a few months old. Neonatal remains were restricted to a single skull fragment, insufficient to determine species. Although many bones have undoubtedly disappeared before burial due to the action of scavengers, those that were recovered are so well preserved it is unlikely that all the bones of young animals have been destroyed after deposition. From the combination of teeth and fusion data it appears that most of the slaughtered sheep and goats were adult, even aged. The lack of young animals strongly suggests that the inhabitants of the settlement were not involved in sheep/goat husbandry but occasionally obtained animals from local herders. These animals were often past the prime meat age and are likely to be culls. 9.2.5 CATTLE The cattle remains are not important in terms of numbers, but rather through the almost total lack of bones. Just six bones could be attributed to large bovids: a fragment of axis vertebra from the south-east corner of the fort (which may not even be of cattle but of a similar-sized large bovid) and five associated foot bones from the north area of the hydreuma. Consumption of boneless, processed, meats is always possible but it seems quite clear that beef was not eaten on the bone and also that the use of cattle as draught animals is extremely unlikely (see below, section 9.9.2). 273 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 9.3 MAMMALS: DOG AND OTHER SMALL MAMMALS Taxa included in this section are dog, fox, cat, hare, rodents, and an unidentified taxon possibly mongoose. A summary of their distribution is given in Table 9.19. The number of animals represented (MNI) is given rather than the actual bone frequency as many of the bones are from complete or partial skeletons. Some bone fragments could not be determined even to family level and have been recorded only as medium-sized mammal. 9.3.1 CANIDAE A number of canids have been reported for the Eastern Desert. Apart from the domestic dogs kept by the Bedouin, hyaena, jackal, and foxes are present today; other taxa may have occurred in the past. The remains of small foxes occur throughout the excavations in small numbers: 85 bones of about 43 individuals were recovered. The bones are easily recognised as typical of canids but are only the size of domestic cat bones. Confirmation of the identifications was carried out using comparative material at the Harrison Zoological Museum (HZM) All skulls and jaws matched reference specimens of Rueppell's sand fox, Vulpes ruepellii (HZM) both on size and anatomical characteristics (Fig. 9.18). Postcranial bones are assumed to be of the same species. Size variation is likely to be sexual dimorphism and even the largest bones are smaller than the smallest reference specimen of Vulpes vulpes arabicus examined (HZM). Cut marks were observed on 14 fox bones, mostly consistent with skinning but five bones had marks not attributable to skinning. These were an atlas, three cervical vertebrae and a pelvis. The cuts on the atlas were probably made during removal of the head. The three adjoining vertebrae had been cut through the lateral process. The pelvis had small cuts round the acetabulum, probably made when disarticulating the femur. These marks may indicate the use of the flesh, but whether for human consumption or some other use is not clear. Some measurements were taken for the archive. The bones of larger canids have been almost entirely identified and recorded as domestic dog but a few fragments may be of other canids. Vertebrae of this size have been recorded as canid only, except where clearly associated with a skeleton. Dog bones are numerically more frequent than those of fox at over 150 but many come in associated groups and the Minimum Number of Individuals need be no higher than ten. Most of the bones are from the partially mummified remains of a complete dog found in the SW sebakh. This individual was of the round-headed type with no sagittal crest on the skull. It was not a large dog, shoulder height estimates were calculated using the factors of Harcourt (1974) and give values of between 403mm and 427mm. The animal appeared to be mature but not extremely aged as all the bones are fused and the teeth are worn, but not excessively. The presence of healed and part-healed fractures on many of the bones suggest at least two episodes of traumatic injury. The last incident caused the greatest damage and was survived long enough for most of the fractures to join but not fully heal. The injuries were found on the limbs, vertebrae and ribs as well as on the skull which exhibited depressed fractures and a possible abscess together with previous, 274 THE FAUNAL REMAINS healed, fractures in the area of the snout (Fig. 9.19 a, b, c). The recent injuries appear to be consistent with a single violent event, perhaps a severe fall in a quarry or crushing under rock. After death the dog had not been carefully buried but it had been laid on the midden and covered sufficiently to have prevented any scavenger damage to the body. Much of the skin and fur has been preserved and is of a short- coated type apparently of a sandy hue, although this may have been altered through taphonomic processes. In size and appearance the animal would have been similar to the dogs which are kept by the local Bedouin. One of the ostraca (MC Inv. O.8574) is a letter from an official hunter complaining to the centurion that he has been deprived of his three assistants and left alone with his four dogs. The Bedouin use their dogs to help guard their flocks but also to assist in hunting ibex and gazelle. It is likely that the Roman hunters were after the same quarry, as bones of ibex and gazelle are present (above, section 9.2.4). Other dog remains include several bones of a juvenile from the same area, isolated bones from various areas, a partial skeleton from Fort NE (41), and three bones of another from Fort North I, room 2. Skull remains were of small round-headed types and other bones were also of `small/medium' dogs. The single withers height estimate available is 474mm. Full details of the dog remains, including measurements, are kept in archive. 275 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 9.3.2 CAT Cat bones are few, and from the fort (FNI) and annexe only. There were seven occurrences representing two or three individuals. Two of the three bones from the Annexe are of a fullsized but slightly immature animal; the other bone could be of this or another individual. The other four bones are from the left leg of a mature animal. Cut marks round the ankle indicate that the animal had been skinned. The bones are all slightly smaller than the mummified large male domestic cat reported from Roman Quseir (Driesch and Boessneck 1983). The bones at Mons Claudianus are also likely to be of domestic cat but its wild ancestor, Felis silvestris lybica, and the similarly sized sand cat, Felis margarita, are not completely ruled out. 9.3.3 HARE Hare, Lepus cf. capensis, is represented by four separate bones. These were recovered from Fort SE, Fort West and Fort NE but not from the annexe. 9.3.4 RODENTS Many rodent remains were recovered, often preserved as natural mummies (Fig. 9.20). They are found at all depths of the deposits with no indication of burrowing by recent animals, and it is therefore assumed that they are ancient in origin. There are three types represented. The two larger are the size of the black rat, Rattus rattus, but this species is not represented. The larger skulls and jaws are of two types, the gerbillinid, Meriones crassus, Sundevall's (silky) jird (Fig. 9.21); and the murid, Arvicanthis niloticus, the Nile grassrat. Most of the postcranial bones can be divided into two groups corresponding to these two species and most are likely to be of the grassrat. The postcranial bones have, however, been recorded as rat-sized only, as they are very similar in other species such as the black rat. The smaller rodent skulls are all of a spiny mouse; the maxillary alveolar lengths are around 4.4mm and are therefore likely to be Acomys cahirinus, and it is assumed that all of the smaller rodent remains are of this species (Fig. 9.22). Confirmation of these identifications was carried out using comparative material at the Harrison Zoological Museum (HZM). The Egyptian spiny mouse is very common today in rocky areas, and as a commensal; it will eat almost anything. The silky jird is also a common desert animal, but the grassrat is not; it is a herbivore which can be found in the Nile valley where its burrows are frequently located in field margins. It is assumed that this species was accidentally brought to the site in animal bedding, fodder, or roofing materials. It is interesting that the black rat is not found here although several were reported from inside a cat mummy of the Roman period from Quesir (Driesch and Boessneck 1983) and in Roman deposits at Berenike (Van Neer and Lentacker 1996), both sites on the Red Sea coast. 276 THE FAUNAL REMAINS 9.3.5 OTHER MAMMALS A partial and eroded ulna was recovered from the Hydreuma. It is of hare size but does not match this or any of the above taxa. It is possibly of a mongoose. 9.4 REPTILES Reptiles are represented by three taxa. The eyed skink, Chalcides ocellatus, occurs as heads, bodies and tails with the distinctively patterned skin intact (Fig. 9.23). Tails and bones of true lizards, Lacertidae, also occur. Rarely recovered from archaeological sites, but quite distinct, was a fragment of turtleshell. It is very well preserved and matches the colour and pattern of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas. This species was positively identified at Berenike (Van Neer and Lentacker 1996) and is one of the most common turtles in the Red Sea. A small fragment of bone from a turtle carapace was also found, which has fine knife cuts visible on the inner surface (MC Inv. V177). 9.5 BIRDS Amongst the large quantity of fish and mammal remains recovered there were 334 bird bones together with several feathers and many fragments of eggshell. The bones do not form discrete groups of associated bones but are scattered throughout the excavations. Most of the material was excavated by hand from the fibrous and dusty matrix and it is likely that some bones, particularly the smaller elements, were missed. Only in the case of associated bones, such as the partial skeleton of a raven, were phalanges recovered. From the sieved samples just 32 bird fragments were recovered whereas fish bones numbered over 3,000 (Table 9.20). Of these 32 fragments, 10 were identified as fowl and 16 as unidentified fowl-sized fragments, which included a few phalanges. While the preservation of the bones is excellent a number of bones had been gnawed by rodents and carnivores and some have probably been completely destroyed or removed from site. The birds present in the vicinity today are composed of resident and migratory species including stork, raptors, sand partridge, quail, sandgrouse, brown-necked raven and several small passerines. Apart from the migratory quail and the resident sand partridge no wild galliforms are present. As with the mammal bones the list of species recovered is restricted. Remains of large galliforms (identified as domestic fowl) are the most frequent by far at 248 bones (Table 9.21). Bones of other species are rare, they include bones of two or more types of geese; stork, Ciconia sp.; Quail, Coturnix coturnix; probable Sand partridge, Ammoperdix heyi; sandgrouse, Pterocles sp.; probable Palm dove, Streptopelia senegalensis; and 277 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 278 THE FAUNAL REMAINS brown-necked raven, Corvus ruficollis. Small passerines, whether resident or migratory, are absent except for one bone from the sieved samples. Although scavenging may account for the loss of some remains it would seem that catching wild birds was a limited activity, concentrating on game species. 9.5.1 THE DOMESTIC FOWL (CHICKEN) All of the large galliform bones were carefully examined in order to separate domestic fowl, guinea-fowl and francolin. The best distinctions are found on the cranium, scapula, coracoid, sternum, pelvis, radius, carpometacarpus and tarsometatarsus (MacDonald 1992). While many of these elements could be positively identified as domestic fowl none could be attributed to guinea-fowl or francolin and it is therefore assumed that all galliform fragments are of domestic fowl. The thickness, porosity and curvature of the eggshell fragments are a good match for fowl (Keepax 1981), and may well be of fowl considering the dominance of fowl bones (Fig. 9.24). Most of the feathers are white or brown and also compare well with fowl (Fig. 9.25). All of the larger bone elements are represented (it should be noted that the bird bones were mainly recovered by hand and it is expected that small elements will be few or absent). The slight bias against skull, sternum and pelvis is likely to be a reflection of their fragility. Spurred and un-spurred tarsometatarsi are present, indicating the probable presence of both male and female birds. The existence of hens is reinforced by a number of bones containing medullary bone (Driver 1982). Occasionally the porous bones of immature birds were recovered. From the spurred tarsometatarsi and the elements containing medullary deposits it is supposed that at least 10 bones of males (4.2%) and 25 of females (10.5%) are present. A further 10 tarsometatarsi were without any sign of a spur or scar. At some sites the extra thickness of the bones containing medullary deposits may give an extra bias in favour of females but the exceptional preservation here probably eliminates this. There is still likely to be a bias against males as only the tarsometatarsi were counted whereas the medullary bone was encountered in several elements. Additional bias occurs for young male birds whose spurs are not usually fused to the shaft until at least a year old, and also against females outside the laying season. In short, the remains are composed of females in lay at the time of death, fully adult males and other birds which could be sub-adult males or non-laying females. Given the isolated nature of the settlement it seems highly likely that at least some of these remains are from birds living on site rather than the alternative that birds and eggs were brought to the settlement for immediate consumption. References to animals in the numerous ostraca texts mainly concern the working animals, donkeys and camels. Several texts, however, refer to other animals, e.g. requests for water for the young pigs (MC Inv. O.7620, 7657, 7689, 7712 (O.Claud. Vol. III, Cuvigny forthcoming; see 9.9.3). If pigs could be supported in an apparently hostile environment, domestic fowl would be 279 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION easy to accommodate. It seems reasonable to assume that the birds were brought up from the Nile valley alive in crates in a similar manner to today. Some may have been intended for immediate use while others may have been kept alive until required for eating and/or sacrifice, or for egg production. Birds may also have been kept for cock fighting, although there is no evidence for this. While penned birds would have to be entirely dependent on supplied food, it is likely that birds left to roam would be able to forage for spilt grain and other foods, particularly around the bakery, the granary and the animal lines. Although plenty of eggshell was found (64% of soil samples contained fragments, as well as the larger pieces collected by hand), bones of immature birds were uncommon, perhaps indicating that little breeding was taking place, although the remains of any casualties may have been quickly eaten by wild and domestic scavengers such as dog, fox and raven. Cut marks were seen on several bones; most are consistent with joint disarticulation, a few may be from removal of meat. The assumption is that the birds were kept mainly for meat and eggs, but religious usage should not be overlooked. Several small cockerels were found amongst the objects of pearl oyster (11.3.9, nos 120-124; Fig. 11.5). From the amount of shell debris, these objects were probably made on site. They could be purely decorative, but cockerels were frequently associated with religious practices in the Roman period. (See discussion in Chapter 11.3.8). A curious find amongst the many preserved feathers was a group of six deliberately knotted, three facing in one direction and three facing the other way, perhaps as a charm or other ritual device (Fig. 9.26). The partial skeleton of a small hen from Qasr Ibrim, a site in Nubian Egypt with similar preservation conditions, was considered, on the basis of its placement at the threshhold of a building, to be a ritual deposit (MacDonald and Edwards 1993). 9.5.1.1 SIZE OF THE FOWL Measurements were taken where possible, following von den Driesch; the most frequent were on the humerus, tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus (Table 9.22). The measurements indicate birds of the small size typical of early domestic fowl and of the ancestral wild Jungle fowl. In comparison with a modern bantam cock the mean of the archaeological measurements is very similar when calculated as a percentage difference, though the archaeological birds appear to have a tendency for slightly longer feet and shorter wings. There are two main chronological groups of material at the site. Material from the south sebakh and around the well is predominantly of Trajanic date; that from the Hydreuma is also Trajanic, but includes mid- to late-first century material. The rubbish deposits from inside the fort and annexe are mostly later, mainly Antonine. Differences were observed in the mammal bone assemblages of these main groups. When the percentage difference calculations are separated into these two broad groups, bones from the later group are generally larger than from the earlier material (Fig. 9.27). This increase in size cannot be explained by sex differences, as both male and female are represented in each phase; indeed one of the largest bones is from a hen, as indicated by medullary deposits. 280 THE FAUNAL REMAINS It must be stressed that few measurements are available. Dating is not yet finalised and it is also clear that many deposits originate from secondary dumping and may have some contamination. The proposed size increase between the Trajanic and Antonine deposits must therefore remain as a tentative speculation. It is hoped that material from the sister site at Mons Porphyrites will be analysed in the near future and it would be most interesting to compare all the measurements with those from other sites in the area. Previous reports of domestic fowl in Roman Egypt have tended to be from sites in the Delta, but the evidence from Mons Claudianus of fowl in Upper Egypt is not unique and informal examination of other forts and way-stations in the Eastern Desert reveals a similar faunal assemblage which includes fowl. Considerable amounts of fowl also occur at Berenike on the Red Sea coast where bones with medullary deposits are more frequent (Van Neer and Lentacker 1996) 281 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 9.5.2 GEESE The seven goose bones are from birds of two sizes. The larger bones are comparable in size with the grey geese, Anser sp. and the Egyptian goose, Alopochen aegyptiacus (a large goose-like duck). In Egypt today the Egyptian goose and domesticated forms of the Greylag are resident, and the wild Greylag, Anser anser, and the White-fronted goose, Anser albifrons, occur as winter visitors. All are found in dynastic art. The smaller bones may be of the Redbreasted goose, Branta ruficollis. No longer encountered in Egypt, this distinctive bird is convincingly depicted, together with Greylag and White-fronted geese, on a Fourth Dynasty plaster frieze from Meidum (now in Cairo Museum). As fragmentary goose bones are difficult to identify to species the remains have not been further identified. Geese, both resident and migratory, tend to be restricted to the Nile Valley and Delta; the bones on site are presumed to be from live or prepared birds brought from the Nile valley. 9.5.3 RAVEN The 27 bones are from two individuals, a nearly complete skeleton from Fort North I, room 1 and a partial skeleton from Fort West I, room 3. Both of these have been identified as the Brown-necked raven, Corvus ruficollis. This small raven is a resident of the desert and is a wary scavenger of bread and cereals. The skeleton from FNI has a broken and partly healed ulna (wing bone) raising the possibility that this bird was captive (Fig. 9.28). The ulna from the other skeleton has a cut across the proximal joint, presumably to remove the ulna with its flight feathers from the rest of the wing. The end of the wing was found complete with the smaller feathers. Like the cockerel the raven had a ritual significance in the Roman world and was also kept as a pet. Measurements of the skeletons are available in archive. 9.5.4 Other birds One bone, a partial coracoid, has been identified as a stork but it has not been possible to distinguish between the White stork, Ciconia ciconia, and the Black stork, C. nigra. Both species pass through Egypt on migration. The bone has a clear cut mark across the glenoid facet, probably made during removal of the wing. Another fragment, a small piece of the upper bill, could also be of stork but alternatively could be of egret or heron. A single tibia indicates the presence of the smallest of the game birds in the region, the Quail, Coturnix coturnix. A few bones of the slightly larger Sand partridge, Ammoperdix heyi, are also present. Sandgrouse, Pterocles sp., look similar to small partridge but these desert birds are related to pigeons; several bones were positively identified as sandgrouse but other fragments have been recorded as pigeon family only. A small sternum from 282 THE FAUNAL REMAINS FWI is probably of the Palm dove, Streptopelia senegalensis, a species very common in villages and oases but not usually found in the desert. Ostrich remains were not found at Mons Claudianus although there are reports of ancient nesting sites (Hobbs 1989, 98) and bones and eggshell have been found to the south at Berenike (Van Neer and Lentacker 1996). 9.6 FISH AND SIEVING It was clear from the outset that large numbers of fish remains were present in the deposits, despite the distance from both the Red Sea coast and the Nile. In the first four excavation seasons all bone recovered, including fish, was collected by hand. Fin rays and spines were rarely recovered as they are small and look like plant stalks. Whilst most of the fish bones were those of large fish, smaller fish were recovered where they were in the form of complete, desiccated heads (Fig. 9.29). 9.6.1 SIEVING In the final three seasons a limited programme of sieving was undertaken for the recovery of seeds, fish bone of all sizes, as a check on the general recovery of the different faunal classes. Just over 170 samples were taken, of which animal remains were recovered from 167. In the pilot study, 27 samples of approximately 10 litres were taken, mainly from the area Fort North I, and dry-sieved by hand using a garden sieve with a 2mm mesh insert. In the subsequent two seasons this was expanded to 20 litres from a representative selection of all features. The wet sieving procedure commonly employed was not possible for practical reasons. All water usage on site was restricted as there is no local supply and all water had to be fetched from a Nile pumping station. In addition many of the other finds, preserved precisely through this absence of water, could have been damaged. Water was also found to have unpredictable effects on the faunal remains. In practice dry sieving was found to be relatively easy as the soil matrix is very loose and friable, being composed in the main of sand, rock fragments, pot sherds and products of organic breakdown (mostly animal dung and bedding). Unfortunately, as the south sebakh had already been excavated prior to the involvement of environmental specialists no samples were available from this area; but some samples were taken from the similarly dated deposits of the well and hydreuma. Despite the relatively small amount of material that was sieved, the number of fish bones recovered (3,418) was not far behind the total collected by hand (5,604). The proportion of fish bone in the sieved samples is also high in comparison with other bone: overall, fish account for 67.7% whereas bone from the larger mammals amounts to only 27.8% (Table 9.20). In both cases it should be pointed out that many are indeterminate fragments; never the less sieving is essential for the recovery of the smaller 283 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION species and also as a check on the recovery of the smaller anatomical elements; several pig and goat toes and other small elements were found in the samples, confirming the suspicion that their low numbers in the hand collected material was mainly due to recovery bias. Similar loss from hand collection was experienced by Rowley-Conwy (1994). The difference between the mammal and fish proportions of the sieved samples and the rest of the material is conspicuous; the fish form 71% of the fish/mammal total of sieved bone, but in the handcollected material only 31%, indicating that much larger amounts of fish were almost certainly present but not recovered. At a very rough estimate the enormous figure of around 30,000 fish bones should have been collected to preserve these proportions. In the absence of a reference collection in the field, identification of fish was initially restricted to broad groups and concentrated on the most distinctive anatomical elements. These identifications were carried out using photographs and drawings from the author's own collections and assisted by various illustrations and descriptions in the literature. These identifications were augmented by the on-site preparation of over 100 modern comparative specimens from the Red Sea and the Nile. These covered all of the fish species available for sale during the winter and spring and were mainly identified using Randall (1983), Smith and Heemstra (1986), and Boulanger (1907). The specimens were prepared by filleting, cooking and maceration by proteolytic enzymes (Hamilton-Dyer 1993). 9.6.2 RESULTS Well over 5,000 fish remains were recovered by hand and a further 3,000-plus were obtained from the sieved samples. At least 18 family groups and over 30 different species are represented (see below, 9.6.3). The majority are marine taxa but there are some freshwater representatives; there are also a few remains of mullets (Fig. 9.30) and, as it is not certain whether these are Nile or Red Sea species, these have been arbitrarily placed with the majority, marine taxa in the tables. Fish of all sizes are present, including several extremely large groupers and a few tiny specimens of Nile fish. The very small bones were extracted mainly from the soil samples and were identified as Siluridae, Cyprinidae and Mormyridae. A group of remains of very small fish of these families, together with salt crystals, was found in a broken pot from FWII, layer 4 (see Tomber forthcoming). A group of very similar fish material was also discovered in the broken remains of a Nile fabric amphora (FSE (23)). In addition to the fish, in this case, there were remains of wheat, coriander and crushed Cordia (identified by M. Van der Veen). These may well represent the remains of some tarichos or garum, pickled fish/fish sauce. If so, then the product is evidently of local manufacture rather than an import. Several amphora sherds are labelled as having contained fish products (see Tomber forthcoming). There are a number of references to fish sauce/pickle in the Egyptian context and it is possible that some were of local manufacture (indeed there is a type available in the Nile valley today). Most references to Roman fish sauces and pickles 284 THE FAUNAL REMAINS concern Mediterranean species. Probable use of non-Mediterranean species was found at York, London, Belgium and Petra (Jones 1988; Bateman and Locker 1982; Van Neer and Lentacker 1994; Studer 1994). Classic Roman sauces were usually made with tuna and mackerel innards, but at least one type was made with whole small fish. Sometimes other ingredients were added. These fish preserves were intended for medicinal use, both human and veterinary, as well as for the kitchen (Corcoran 1963; Curtess 1983, 1985). As the major contact appears to have been with the Nile valley it had been assumed that most of the fish would be of river species from the Nile. These are frequently reported on in faunal reports from Egypt (von den Driesch 1983; van Neer 1989). Those most commonly encountered are the Nile perch, Lates niloticus; Cyprinidae and Siluridae. In addition to the small fish found in the sieve samples, larger individuals of the same freshwater taxa were found in the material excavated by hand. These included the catfish, Synodontis schall (Fig. 9.31), Clarias sp., Bagrus sp., the cyprinid Labeo sp. and also Tilapia sp., a type not found in the samples. All of these were, however, uncommon in comparison with the enormous numbers of marine fish (Table 9.23). One notable Nile fish was completely absent; this is the Nile perch. Although not all fish fragments and vertebrae were identified, and some fragile types may not have survived, it would be reasonable to assume that the characteristic and robust elements such as the vertebrae, jaws, cleithra and preopercula would have been collected and identified had they been present, particularly as this is often a very large fish. Vertebrae and other elements of very large fish were found but these were all identified as being of groupers and jacks. Most of the larger fresh water fish are of Siluridae, the catfish. These can be seen alive at present-day markets, kept in barrels with a small quantity of water. The distance from the Nile to the site is considerably greater than the distance from the coast. The tolerant Siluridae may have been the only fresh water fish which could be reliably transported fresh to Mons Claudianus without spoiling. Other types may have been preserved - cyprinids and tilapia are frequently illustrated in tomb paintings in the Nile valley, often cut open and flattened but still with head, vertebrae and skin intact. The large Nile perch is less easy to preserve; in recent times it has been salted and dried in pieces to avoid spoilage (Waterman 1976). For whatever reasons, the inhabitants of Mons Claudianus received little fresh water fish. The hand collected fish remains identified to taxa totalled 3,613 but of these only 96 or 2.6% were identified as Siluridae and other freshwater species. Whilst some may have been differentially destroyed, and others unidentified, it is clear that the majority of remains are overwhelmingly of marine fish. The main sea fish represented are parrotfishes (Fig. 9.32) together with groupers (Fig. 9.33), and emperors. Sea-breams, triggerfish, surgeon/unicorns, jacks and snappers (Fig. 9.34) are common. Vertebrae of sharks are also frequent (see below, 9.6.3). These are all common catches for the fishermen operating from modern Hurghada and are excellent food fish. They include inshore and pelagic species but most are inhabitants of the coral reefs (Fig. 9.35). The larger groupers, snappers, emperors and breams command the highest prices today and are caught singly on baited hooks, often from the deeper coral reefs. 285 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 286 THE FAUNAL REMAINS Occasionally hooks were found on site which may have been brought in with the fish (see Chapter 14.2.7), and similar hooks were sometimes found in the modern specimens. Parrotfish are also popular; these are often caught in traps baited with bread. Material from the excavations includes both head bones and vertebrae, implying that the fish were probably transported whole. Several of the larger fish bones show butchery marks indicating removal of the head and lateral division of the trunk (Fig. 9.36). Parrotfish and grouper vertebrae are often found in articulated groups (Fig. 9.37 a, b). The traces of flesh still adhering to some may indicate filleting, as cooked flesh separates easily from the bone, whereas remnants of raw flesh quickly shrivels and hardens in the dry air. During excavation some triggerfish skin was recovered with scales in position (Fig. 9.38). When specimens of Abalistes stellatus, a common pelagic species of triggerfish, were added to the comparative collection it was discovered that the tough skin with scales is easily removed entire from fresh fish, but on cooking the scales separate. As it would be virtually impossible to peel the skin off dried fish in this way, these particular fish probably arrived fresh. The flesh is firm and keeps well. Modern estimates and documentary evidence from the ostraca suggest a journey from the coast of 2 to 3 days by donkey or camel. Experiments during the excavation season show that fish will keep this long in the relatively cool temperatures of January, February and March. Whether they would keep so well in midsummer is another matter, for day temperatures rise rapidly towards the end of March and frequently exceed 30øC. The possibility must be considered that any sea fish consumed in the warmer months would have been dried, salted or pickled. In Hurghada dried fillets of parrotfish can be purchased today. These have scales present, but are without bones. Although an excess of scales has not been noticed on site, and parrotfish bones are frequent, the possibility of dried or salted, boneless, fillets cannot be ruled out. Slices of fish are referred to in O.Claud II, 233) In one ostracon O.Claud. II, 241) fish from the sea is requested, and fresh fish is asked for in ostracon (O.Claud. II, 242). Smaller fish such as the yellowfin bream, Rhabdosargus sarba (Fig. 9.39) and the variegated emperor, Lethrinus variegatus, were found on the site as complete heads. Vertebrae of the appropriate size have not yet been found, but this may be due to the limited amount of sieving as they are too small for hand collection. These fish might have been preserved whole and the heads discarded at the point of use. The presence of shark vertebrae is also of interest (Fig. 9.40). These fish do not have a fully ossified skeleton and consequently the head bones are rarely preserved but the vertebrae and teeth are sometimes found. The flesh of sharks contains urea which breaks down to ammonia on death; this has taken place and the smell dispersed after about 48 hours, and they therefore taste better then than when freshly caught. Sharks could therefore survive the journey to Mons Claudianus with little detrimental effect. The smaller types can also be preserved by drying and smoking. The distribution of fish bone and of the various species does vary across the site but, as indicated in the general introduction, the method of digging the rubbish deposits in spits, together with the likelihood of mixed deposits, hinders the study of spatial and temporal differences. The most notable difference in distribution is the high proportion of parrotfish 287 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION in the well and hydreuma deposits, over 50% of the fish bone recovered by hand from these areas. Surprisingly, the lowest amount is from the south sebakh which is thought to be of similar date. The amount of shark is also highest at the well. It is difficult to assess the significance of differences in the less common taxa as the presence or absence of just a few bones can greatly affect the species proportions. The amount of the various species will also be affected by taphonomic factors, not just the problems of recovery but also of initial preservation. Some bones, for example the hyperstosed skull process of large sea breams, showed clear canid tooth marks, and two of the bones had been partly destroyed. Both dogs and pigs will eat, and destroy, fish bone (Jones 1984; 1986). Some animal bone, including some of the larger fish vertebrae, also had evidence of rodent damage. 9.6.3 List of fish identifications [Nomenclature follows Smith and Heemstra (1986) in the main, with reference to Randall (1983) for other Red Sea species and Boulanger (1907) for Nile species.] Marine taxa identified: Carcharhinidae (requiem sharks) Serranidae (groupers), including; cf. Epinephelus microdon, smalltooth cf. E. summana, summana cf. Plectropomus sp. Carangidae (jacks) Lutjanidae (snappers), including at least two species Lethrinidae (emperors) including; cf. Lethrinus variegatus, variegated emperor cf. L. mahsena, mahsena cf. L. nebulosa, spangled emperor Sparidae (seabreams) including; Argyrops sp. Argyrops cf. filamentosus, soldier bream Acanthopagrus sp., stumpnose bream Rhabdosargus sarba, yellowfin sea-bream Mullidae (goatfish) Sphyraenidae (barracudas) including; Sphyraena cf. barracuda, great barracuda Labridae (wrasse) including; Cheilinus lunulatus, broomtail C. cf. undulatus, humphead wrasse Scaridae (parrot fish) including; Scarus ghobban, bluebarred 288 THE FAUNAL REMAINS Hipposcarus harid, longnose Acanthuridae (surgeons, unicornfish) including; Naso cf. literatus, orangespine Naso cf. unicornis, bluespine Balistidae (triggerfish) including; cf. Abalistes stellaris, starred triggerfish Gerridae (silver biddies) Marine/freshwater taxa identified Mugilidae (mullets) Freshwater taxa identified Mormyridae (elephant-snout fishes) Siluridae (catfish) including; Synodontis schall Clarias lazera (gariepinis) Bagrus sp. Cyprinidae (carps, barbels) including; Labeo sp. Tilapiini Tilapia sp. 289 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 9.7 MARINE MOLLUSCA AND NOTES ON OTHER INVERTEBRATES In spite of an environment hostile to molluscs, a desert area of calcium- deficient rocks, remains of very small snails can be found in the wadi sands around Mons Claudianus and were sometimes recovered from sieve samples from the site. The shells are of a small land snail of the Vertiginidae type. All other mollusc remains are of species brought to the site and are marine, apart from one terrestrial species, the distinctive shells of the Roman or Edible Snail, Helix pomatia (Fig. 9.41). Shells, many complete, of 26 individuals were recovered from all over the site. The remains of the epiphragm were present in some cases, possibly indicating that they had arrived alive rather than preserved? It is possible that this delicacy had been imported directly, as these snails can hibernate for several months. Alternatively they may have been farmed in the Nile valley from imported breeding stock. 9.7.1 Marine bivalves and gastropods Considering that this is not a coastal site, a wide variety of sea shells, comprising at least 60 species, were recovered. The nomenclature and identification mainly follows Sharabati (1984). A summary of the taxa is given below (9.7.3). The shells were frequently in excellent condition, often with traces of the original colours and patterns, making identification more certain. Several of the shells are clearly of endemic Red Sea species. Only one species is not covered by Sharabati. This is an oyster very commonly recovered from the excavations, its humped crenulate shell often still retaining a purple internal border. Several specimens had barnacle encrustations implying that it too is a marine species (Fig. 9.42). This was identified as Saccostrea cucullata (Oliver 1992, and Ruth Moreno Nuño pers. comm.). The largest quantities of shell were identified to four types: Pinctada margaritifera, Tridacna maxima/squamosa, Saccostrea cucullata and Atactodea glabrata. Pinctada margaritifera is the pearl oyster with a shell up to 200mm across (Fig. 9.43). Many hundreds of fragments of this shell were found, many clearly worked, often into dishes (see Chapter 11.3.4, nos 80-84). Similarly there were many fragments, large and small, of Tridacna maxima or T. squamosa, the giant clam, and many of these were also worked. These two types of shell may have been imported to the site specifically for working but they are also edible and may have been brought for food as well. The humped oyster, Saccostrea cucullata, would have been for food use only as the shell is not large enough for working nor attractive enough for ornamental use. The surf clam, Atactodea glabrata, is edible but was probably primarily for decorative use, as many of the shells have been pierced (Fig. 9.44) Most of the other species were recovered in small numbers. Several small shells, pierced probably for necklaces, include the tusk shells Dentalium sp.; nerites, Neritidae; Engina mendicaria (Fig. 9.45a); moon snails Polinices sp.; cowries, Cypraea; and 290 THE FAUNAL REMAINS the strawberry top, Clanculus pharaonius (Fig. 9.45 b; often with the attractive colours preserved). The purpose of other shells is not as clear, though the larger gastropods may have been useful as cosmetic containers and ink wells. The large conches, Lambis truncata and Strombus tricornis, are very good eating but are considerably less common at Mons Claudianus than at coastal sites such as Quesir al-Qadim (Reese 1982), perhaps indicating that some of the shellfish were unsuitable as food because of the travel time involved. The bivalve oysters and clams can remain closed tight for long periods which would enable them to arrive unspoilt. Some of the shells undoubtedly have a dual function, the shell being used after the contents were consumed. Others may have been deliberately collected or traded for nonedible uses. The species list for Mons Claudianus, and the quantity of shell, is far more extensive than that reported from Quseir al-Qadim and includes species found there in the Islamic layers but not in the Roman. Two shells were present there (albeit in very small numbers) but not at Mons Claudianus, these are olives and the Pacific top vase. Preliminary investigation of the marine shells at the ancient port of Berenike to the South (Van Neer and Lentacker 1996) also indicates the presence of greater quantities of the large conches than at Mons Claudianus. It is interesting to note that the oyster, Saccostrea cucullata, has not been found at Berenike (Anton Ervynck pers. comm.). 9.7.2 Other marine invertebrates In addition to the mollusc shells two cuttlefish `bones' were found. Remains of other sea animals include various sea urchin tests and spines, a spider crab carapace, pieces of white branched coral (Fig. 9.46) and red organ-pipe coral, and several pieces of sponge (Fig. 9.47). These last were probably for use in the latrines. 9.7.3 List of Marine Mollusca SCAPHOPODA Dentaliidae (tusk shells) Dentalium sp. GASTROPODA Vermetidae (worm shells) Vermetus sp. Patellidae (limpets) Neritidae (nerites) Nerita polita Nerita albicilla Nerita undata Littorinidae (winkles) Trochidae (top shells) Tectus dentatus Clanculus pharaonius Turbinidae (turbans) Turbo cf. radiatus (shell and operculum) Turbo cf. petholatus Turritellidae (turitella) Turritella sp. 291 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION Terebra cf. consobrina Terebra dimidiata Terebra cf. crenulata Cerithiidae (ceriths) Rhinoclavis fasciatus Cerithium erythraeonense Cerithium cf. caeruleum Cerithium sp. Strombidae (conch) Strombus fasciatus Strombus gibberulus albus Strombus tricornis Lambis truncata sebae Cypraeidae (cowries) Cypraea cf. pantherina/tigris Cypraea cf. annulus Cypraea cf. nebrites Cypraea cf. caurica Naticidae (moon snails) Polinices cf. tumidus Polinices sp. Cassidae (bonnet shells) Casmaria ponderosa Tunnidae (Tun shells) Malea pomum Tonna perdix Bursidae (frog shells) Tutufa bubo Tutufa cf. rubeta Cymatiidae (Triton's trumpet) Charonia tritonis Muricidae (murex) Chicoreus virgineus Murex sp. Thaididae (drupes) Morula granulata Buccinidae (whelks) Engina mendicaria Nassariidae (mud snails) Nassarius cf. protrusidens Fasciolariidae (tulip/spindle shells) Pleuroploca trapezium cf. Fusus polygonoides BIVALVIA Arcidae (ark shells) Andara antiquata Pinnidae (Pen shells) Mytilidae (mussels) Modiolus auriculatus Pteriidae (pearl oysters) Pinctada margaritifera Ostreidae (true oysters) Saccostrea cucullata Lucinidae (lucina clams) Codakia tigerina Chamidae (jewel boxes) Chama ruppelli Spondylidae (thorny oysters) cf. Spondylus marisrubri Tridacnidae (giant clams) Tridacna maxima and/or T. squamosa Mesodesmatidae (surf clams) Atactodea glabrata Glycymerididae (bittersweet clams) Glycymeris pectunculus Veneridae (venus clams) Marcia hiantina CEPHALOPODA Sepiidae (cuttlefish `bone') Melongenidae (crown conch) Volema pyrum Conidae (cones) Conus cf. taeniatus Conus virgo Terebridae (augers) Terebra cf. maculata 292 THE FAUNAL REMAINS 9.7.4 A NOTE ON INSECTS It is outside the scope of this author to analyse the insects but the following notes can be made. The insect remains found in the archaeological deposits are, with a few exceptions, different to the present local inhabitants. Remains of dermestid larval skins were frequent, as were the carapaces of two species of carrion beetle. Small cess-fly pupal cases were particularly common in the latrine deposits (recent specimens rapidly colonised the modern, temporary, facilities). A group of locust legs and wings was found in the south sebakh and a complete grasshopper in a lower level of the deposits in the south-east corner of the fort (room X). The most common resident insects round the site at present (apart from the ubiquitous flies) are ants. Following an unusually wet winter a group of painted lady butterflies, Vanessa cardui, appeared in January 1991 and laid eggs on a type of vetch, encouraged into growth by the moisture. The resulting brood were hatched and flown by mid-March. Dragonflies were also occasionally observed, and it is clear that insects would be capable of taking advantage of the new environment created by the human activity, either flying to the site or arriving in baggage. 9.8 AREA DISTRIBUTION Taking various taphonomic biases into account, there appear to be actual differences in bone deposition between some areas. Overall the species representation is relatively consistent with the main species of mammals, birds and fish present in all but the smallest contexts of the main excavation areas; inside the fort complex, the south, west and south-west sebakhs, the well, and at the Hydreuma. Other areas tend to provide little bone but all offer the common taxa found throughout. Observation and limited excavation has shown that the quarries, including those most distant, have `lunchbox' remains including fish bones. Comparison of the proportions of the main domestic ungulates reveals marked differences in some cases (Tables 9.24-27). Camel is much more frequent at the Hydreuma and south sebakh when compared with the equid/camel total. Equid bone is also less frequent at the Hydreuma and from Fort North I when compared with pig and `goat tribe'. Pig and `goat tribe' are more variable when compared with equids but vary only slightly when compared with each other. The Hydreuma may contain the earliest material (Neronian); the assemblage from this area had a high proportion of parrotfish and camel bones, it also contained four of the 16 gazelle remains. The material from the south sebakh and the well may be contemporary (both are largely Trajanic), but are slightly different in the faunal remains. Camel bones are more frequent in the south sebakh, though not as high as at the Hydreuma. The fish are also dissimilar, with no river fish from the well deposits and the highest percentage of 293 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION 294 THE FAUNAL REMAINS shark vertebrae from the whole site, while the south sebakh had the lowest amount of parrotfish. Bones from inside the fort, and from the west and south-west sebakhs are mainly later, mostly Antonine. These deposits generally contain fewer camel bones and the average fragment size of these, and other, taxa is smaller with much chopping evident. Within the broad similarities of the total fish across the site, fish species distribution in individual areas of the fort varies greatly with no consistent pattern; the variety of fish from even small areas within a stratigraphic unit often affect the totals disproportionately as the numbers overall are small. 9.9 DISCUSSION 9.9.1 Comparison with other sites There are few contemporaneous sites in the area which have been studied for faunal remains. The Mons Claudianus complex is currently the only site within the desert to be formally excavated; surface examination of the midden material at Mons Porphyrites and other sites along the quarry routes shows similar remains, with donkey, pig, Red Sea fish and shells prominent. (The Mons Porphyrites complex, which is currently under excavation, should produce useful comparanda.) There are studies from three sites on the coast; Abu Sha'ar is the closest, being at the coastal end of the Mons Claudianus and Porphyrites routes, but is later, with 4th-6th century AD deposits. Quseir al-Qadim is to the south at the coastal end of Wadi Hammamat; these deposits include contemporary material but only a few have been published. Berenike was a large port further south; excavation with routine sieving is in progress and large deposits have already been studied including some of 1st-2nd century AD. It is therefore extremely interesting to note that the few faunal remains examined from Quseir al-Qadim, and the much larger quantity from Berenike, have few equid bones but do include some cattle bones (Wattenmaker 1982; Van Neer and Lentacker 1996). At Quseir, amongst an assemblage dominated by fish (amount not stated), there were nine cattle bones, 4.5% of the identified mammal bones. Sheep/goat at 163 fragments formed 83% of the domestic mammals remains. Pig bones were also found but only one bone was identified as donkey. Waste parts of the body are included in the cattle bones from Quseir, implying slaughter on site rather than the import of preserved joints. At Berenike fish are again prominent and small amounts of cattle bone are present; pig is also well represented. As at Quseir the main domestic mammal remains are of sheep and goat; equid remains are present only in small numbers and are not butchered. In contrast the 4th- 6th century material of Abu Sha'ar does contain butchered equids, but the settlement is more reliant on wild resources than the other sites. At Berenike the cattle remains are considered untypical of arid region animals and are thought to be imported from the Nile. Wadi Hammamat has more frequent way-stations than the northern quarry routes, possibly enabling the droving of limited numbers of cattle 295 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION to provide fresh meat at Quseir al-Qadim. Such a journey must have taken more than a week to cover the 150 km. Another possibility is coastal shipping of supplies from the Delta region further north or from Sudan to the south. Transport of live cattle to Mons Claudianus would have been very difficult and probably expensive, but this does not prevent the provision of joints, perhaps preserved. The presence of personal letters requesting various items for individual use precludes total military control over supplies. The lack of cattle remains a puzzle; perhaps the quality and amount of meat supplied was enough to satisfy all inhabitants. It would be interesting to determine whether any sites nearer the Nile valley have cattle remains. 9.9.2 Transport for Mons Claudianus The considerable demand for animal feed for the transport of stone is revealed in a papyrus written in December AD 118 (Peña 1989). This letter requests that all barley in the nome, or administrative area, 115 Roman miles (1 Roman mile = 1.48 km) below Kaine (Qena) should be sent as soon as possible up the Nile to Kaine. The urgency of the request can be gauged by the statement, `...for we have a great number of animals for the purpose of bringing down a fifty-foot column, and already we are nearly out of barley...', and also the repeated desire that this operation should be carried out swiftly. These enormous columns would need a draught team of considerable size, if animal power was being used directly. It is not specified in the text what animals were being used although it has often been assumed to be camels and oxen (Peña 1989; Meredith 1952). Recent evidence, however, from the documents and animal remains found at Mons Claudianus strongly suggests that donkeys and camels were the only animals used for transport, together with some cavalry horses. MC Inv. O.1538+2921 orders water for horses, and Inv. O.490 mentions horses which accompany the caravan (Cuvigny forthcoming). Donkeys require water only every second day and camels every fifth or less, but horses do need water every day.) The conditions are so severe that cattle, which need large quantities of water every day, would have been useless. This is supported by the almost total lack of cattle bones, and nowhere in the documents is there any mention of cattle. Camels are of course superbly adapted for arid, sandy regions, and can carry twice the load of a donkey. Camel caravans were already using the Nile-Red Sea routes in the first and second centuries BC and became increasingly important throughout the Roman occupation for trade and military purposes (Bulliet 1975, 116). No doubt they were used for fast transport; the writer of one of the ostraca is `... waiting for the post-camels...' (O. Claud. 142). They are, however, at a disadvantage in rocky areas with their soft feet. They could not have been used in the quarry complexes where it is already known that the sure-footed donkeys were employed. Many ancient Egyptian reliefs and inscriptions indicate the extensive use of donkey caravans for all types of supply and expedition; often several hundred animals were used (Nibbi 1979). 296 THE FAUNAL REMAINS The British Army manual (War Office 1923) specifies a maximum pack load of 100 lb (50kg) for a donkey, an amount which seems to correlate with ancient records. Mules can be expected to carry 70kg but are a little less well adapted to desert conditions. Donkeys were almost certainly the animals used to pull the smaller stone wagons. They would have been harnessed in long teams, in the same way as the mules Martial describes being used to haul marble (Epigrams V.22). In the recent past 20-mule teams were used to haul borax wagons from Death Valley in the American West (Travis 1991; Cornett 1986). Amongst the ostraca, references to donkeys include a laissez-passer for four men and 20 donkeys (O.Claud. 64), so it would appear that at least this number of animals could be available, probably more if animals were seconded from quarry duties. Camels were probably not used for traction as their anatomy causes harnessing problems. While they have been used in pairs for ploughing and light carriages, recent use of teams for heavier work in Australia and elsewhere has been dependent on the modification of the horse collar which had not been invented in the Roman period (Bulliet 1975). The use of horses for haulage is also unlikely as they seem to have been rare, high status, animals in Egypt. The cavalry unit had horses, and remains at Mons Claudianus, though rare, are present in the bone assemblage; presumably if a horse died or was injured its body was not wasted. The assumption that it is the donkey and not the stronger mule that was used is based partly on the lack of any positively identified remains of the latter, although it is difficult to separate them. It is also donkeys and not mules that are mentioned in the ostraca. Documentary evidence indicates that mules have always been rare in Egypt, probably as a result of the rarity and high value of horses, as mules are hybrids of male donkey and female horse. They are also sterile and therefore not self-sustaining as is the donkey (Nibbi 1979). Elsewhere in the Roman empire mules were in common use. They were present in Roman Egypt albeit in low numbers, as there is a 3rd-century record of the sale of a mule wagon (Johnson 1936, 407: BGU 814). The wagons used to carry the columns and other large loads of stone must have been substantial; in some places along the routes wheel tracks have been observed with two gauges, one of seven feet six inches and a larger one of nine or eleven feet (Murray 1925; Tregenza 1955; Peacock and Maxfield 1997, 261-262). Most of these are now obliterated by the passage of army and other modern vehicles. Ostraca from Mons Claudianus mention a twelve wheeled wagon, a four wheeled cart and also the arrival of two loads by fast, light carts (MC Inv. O.7334; Inv. O.5403). It is difficult to calculate how many donkeys would have been needed for a particular wagon without details of the vehicle and harnessing arrangements but it is most likely that the total haulage weight per animal could have been much greater than the direct pack weight which could be carried, even without the benefits of the modern horse collar. O.Claud. 131 requests four yoke straps for some activity involving a column. The animals could have been harnessed both in tandem and in parallel enabling a very large number to be used, probably with several muleteers walking alongside for control. Whether donkey-power alone was used for the very largest columns is in doubt; huge numbers of animals would have been needed which might have been difficult to control. Perhaps they were used in conjunction with manpower or as logistic support (see Peacock and Maxfield 1997, 261-262). 297 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION As the local environment could not support such large numbers of animals and people (MC Inv. O.1538+2921 lists 920 individuals including at least 60 soldiers), an extensive supply line had to be organised. This was probably under military control; pass- tablets are mentioned for travel between the stations. There also seems to have been a need for protection of the routes as one letter from a son to his father asks for work elsewhere as he has not eaten for two days from fear of the barbarians (MC Inv. O.4888). A feature of the two northern routes, past Mons Claudianus and Mons Porphyrites, are the extensive animal lines outside the enclosures such as those at El Heita and Qreiya (cf. Peacock and Maxfield 1997, 90-91, Fig. 2.55). That these enormous structures are absent along the other desert routes attests the numbers of beasts required for the provisioning of the quarry settlements and the transport of stone. Each station is approximately 25 km from the next, which coincides with the distance a loaded pack donkey could be expected to travel per day. According to Strabo (17.1.45) the journey between the Nile and the Red Sea (Coptos to Myos Hormos) took between five and seven days, the caravans resting at watering stations en route. As Myos Hormos has now been identified as modern Quseir (Peacock 1993; BülowJacobsen et al. 1994), at the seaward end of Wadi Hammamat, this is a distance of about 180 KM. Five days travel would equate to 36 km per day and seven days would be just over 25 km; presumably the different speeds relate to the different animals and loads carried. 9.9.3 Meat supplies For this site to be viable in such a marginal area the settlement had to be almost entirely artificially supported. Large quantities of food would have been required for the considerable numbers of people involved with the strenuous quarrying activities and their support services. Donkey bones form the bulk of the mammal remains with ample evidence of butchery. Remains of pig take second place with camel, goat and sheep trailing behind. Considerable amounts of fish bones and skin are also present, mostly of Red Sea species. Sieving, though limited in amount, has demonstrated that enormous quantities of fish were present, but many were missed in hand collection because of their small size. Obviously, the bone representing a 3kg fish does not equate with the meat value of an entire donkey but, with fish estimated as originally outnumbering mammal bones three to one, they must have been a significant resource. Bones of wild animals are few, but hunting, a pastime mentioned in the documents, probably produced the remains of ibex, dorcas gazelle, fox, and desert birds. As well as meat the ibex and gazelle were used for the horns and probably skins. The foxes were probably caught mainly for the fur. Domestic fowl remains are present in small numbers and would have contributed meat and eggs. Donkeys are frequently mentioned in the documents. One (MC Inv. O.7276) informs the recipient that a donkey has died in harness and eight men have been sent to collect it, 298 THE FAUNAL REMAINS a worthless task unless the intention was to eat it, for if it was intended only for glue and hide, the feet and skin would have been removed on the spot. The shave marks seen here on the donkey bones, and the marks on the donkey and camel scapulae from filleting, are frequently encountered on cattle bones at Roman urban and military sites in Europe. It is thought that this style may indicate specialist, perhaps military trained, butchers. The axial and repeated chopping of limb bones for the extraction of marrow is also common (Lauwerier 1988; Maltby 1989; O'Connor 1988; Van Mensch 1974). As today, the donkey did not normally figure in Egyptian food but there is no reason other than cultural for not eating donkey or other equids. Horse meat, for example, can be leaner and more tender than beef if the animals are young. Ageing evidence indicates that some of the donkeys used at Mons Claudianus were barely adult, old enough to carry a pack up from the Nile, but still sufficiently tender for slaughter on arrival. Donkey meat as part of the rations of a Greek mercenary army is mentioned by Xenophon (Anabasis 2.1.6). Clearly not all of the animals arriving at Mons Claudianus were intended for meat; many would have been used in the quarries for stone haulage and for return baggage trains; but they would have been the easiest source of fresh meat on the hoof. Some animals would have been selected primarily for meat, while others would have been culled when injured or too old to work. There would have been no shortage of supply in the Nile valley; the donkey breeds at two years old and can continue producing foals annually until twenty-five. They are also easy to feed as they do not require high quality fodder. Camel meat is also a good substitute for beef, but the price in the 3rd-century edict of Diocletian was twice that of an ox and four times higher than a donkey (Johnson 1936). It is clear from the documents that camels were used at the site for various tasks, including communications and water carrying. The osteological evidence also shows that they were occasionally used to supplement the meat supply. Working camels are generally culled only at the end of their working lives, at about 20 years, when the meat is tough. Some of the butchered camel bones are, however, of much younger animals. As camel herd replacement is slow and the working life long, it seems wasteful to kill prime animals unless deliberately raised for meat, for example gelded males (see Wapnish 1984). The large measurements also suggest that geldings may be present. The high value of camels and low rate of breeding success probably explain the relatively small quantities of camel bone found; although some were available for meat the animals were expensive and usually more valuable alive. Not only were cattle absent from harness, the meat is also absent with no mention of cattle or beef in the documents and an almost total lack of bones on site, although it is acknowledged that cured meat such as sausages would leave no physical evidence. There are several references to jars of meat in the ostraca, but the type is unspecified (O.Claud. 139, 140, 145). It would seem therefore that donkey meat replaced the usual beef provision as a cheap and readily available alternative under difficult supply conditions. Pig bones are common, some as a result of ready prepared meats brought in; there is a reference to ham on the bone in the documents (MC Inv. O.7327). Others were delivered, 299 MONS CLAUDIANUS II – SURVEY AND EXCAVATION alive; Trajanic receipts recovered from deposits near the well request water for piglets (MC Inv. O.7620, 7712, 7689, 7657) and interestingly these are all dated September or October. The rarity of adult and neonatal pig remains implies that these were weanesr brought alive to the site to be kept and fattened until required. There is a reference to the purchase of sucking pig (O. Claud. 148) `...I have bought three sucking pigs, two at 2 staters each and one at 10 drachmae. So if you need them, send for them, and (send) the money'. There was certainly no shortage of rubbish for them to root through. Whether breeding was taking place on site is less clear as, although there appears to be many more males present, there are animals of breeding age of both sexes represented in the bones. There are very few neonatal bones, however, and the message concerning the sucking pigs implies that on-site supply was absent or insufficient. It is likely that most of the supply was of young males brought up from the Nile valley. The rarity of pigs there today is cultural and not environmental; the Nile valley is suitable for pig husbandry and pig bones are found in dynastic assemblages and are sometimes illustrated in dynastic tombs (Boessneck 1988). The goats and sheep seem mostly past the prime age for meat, and may have been surplus animals traded locally and perhaps also brought up from the Nile valley as an occasional dietary supplement. They certainly do not form a major contribution as is the case at Berenike. The numerous fish remains are overwhelmingly of high quality Red Sea fish such as parrotfish, groupers and emperors similar to those found at Berenike. The few Nile fish recovered are mainly catfish. The Nile perch is absent, yet these are similar in culinary qualities to the sea fish found. It would seem that the inhabitants preferred fresh fish, and/or sea fish. The journey from the Nile would have taken too long for the transport of fresh river fish, other than the catfish which will live for several days if kept damp. The presence of fish pickle/paste is evident from jar inscriptions and perhaps from the remains of very small Nile fish. Mons Claudianus appears to have been a unique settlement in the Eastern Desert (though it is suspected that the sister site of Mons Porphyrites is similar). Not only did it specialise in the production of monumental stone under difficult conditions, but it also had a special response to the meat supply and transport for these operations. Without adequate animal transport the site would not have been viable. It is proposed that very large numbers of donkeys were involved in the transport of stone to the Nile, bringing supplies from the Nile and the Red Sea, and for work in the quarries. Camels would not have been used for work with the stone but would have provided porterage and fast communication. Horses would have been used for communication and military purposes. Depending on the amount allocated, the meat supply seems good with donkey and fish the main source of animal protein, and pig a major contributor. Birds, sheep and goat, and wild animals are of minor importance but no doubt offered valuable variation in the diet. Much of the meat and fish was probably fresh. The faunal assemblage from most archaeological sites is complicated by disturbance from multiple periods of occupancy. At Mons Claudianus this is not the case. The material 300 THE FAUNAL REMAINS is from a relatively short period of occupation and until very recently the site was undisturbed. This unrivalled opportunity to examine the logistics of meat supply and transport is further enhanced by information from the numerous documents recovered. Improved retrieval at future excavations, through the use of sieving, would increase information and comparability with other sites. 9.10 APPENDIX: BARUD Trial trenching at Barud produced 140 animal bones, two feathers and five marine shells by hand collection. Eight soil samples were also taken and these contained further material, including 228 fish bones. Preservation was mixed but generally good. The identified mammal bones were of the same taxa as the main settlement, but without camel; probably lacking here due to the very small size of the assemblage. There were 15 bones of donkey, six goat bones and an ibex horn. Surprisingly pig was restricted to one scapula only, given the quantity at the main settlement. A rodent skull was also present. The other 49 mammal fragments - of ribs, vertebrae and limb shaft - were not identified but are probably of donkey and goat. The remainder of the bones (61) were of fish, a much higher proportion than expected. The soil sample material was also mainly of fish, 228 fragments. The species were the same as the most common taxa at the main settlement including parrotfish, groupers, jacks and shark. River fish were absent in this small assemblage. 301 THE FAUNAL REMAINS REFERENCES & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Dr. David Harrison for assistance with identification of the smaller mammals at the Harrison Zoological Museum (HZM), Sevenoaks, England ANCIENT SOURCES Strabo, XVII, I, 45 Xenophon, Anabasis II, 1, 6 OTHER SOURCES Armitage P. and Chapman H. (1979) Roman Mules, London Archaeologist Vol 3, No. 13, London, pp 339-359 Baker J. and Brothwell D. (1980) Animal Diseases in Archaeology, London, Academic Press Bateman N. and Locker A. 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