Mandalas of Tantra
Dr Uday Dokras
MuhsIN DARARKAR
Vol VI in the Mandala Series
Indo Australian Author’s Collective
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CONTENTS
PART I INTRODUCTION 4
INTRODUCTION-The Role of Tantra in Hinduism and Buddhism 5
CHAPTER I-Tantrism 15
CHAPTER II-Evolution of Tantrism 23
CHAPTER III-Tantric traditions and Shaktism 27
CHAPTER IV-The Tantra of Practical Hinduism 41
CHAPTER V Rituals, Social Practices, And Institutions of the
tantric Society 50
CHAPTER VI-Tantric Cultural expressions: visual arts, theatre,
and dance 64
CHAPTER VII-Hinduism And The World Beyond-Hinduism and
religions of Indian origin 70-CHAPTER VIII
The Secrets of Hindu Worship 75
PART II-The Basics of Tantra 90
CHAPTER IX-The Path of Tantra or Mantramarg 91
CHAPTER X-Proto-Tantric elements in Shaktism and Shaivism 107
CHAPTER XI-mandala: Buddhist Tantric Diagrams 129
CHAPTER XII-Yin and Yang 145
C
S
H A P T
E X 158
E
R
X
I
I
I
-
M
Y
S
T
I
C
A
CHAPTER IVX-Aghori 171
CHAPTER XV-The Tantra of Buddhism 183
CHAPTER XVI-The Psychology of Buddhist Tantra 190
About the Authors 196
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L
PART I
Tantra Mantra
4
INTRODUCTION
The Role of Tantra in Hinduism and Buddhism
Maa Shakti Encompassing the Entire Universe
Tantra is a esoteric principle that holds an important place in both Hinduism as well
as Buddhism. The word Tantra is taken from the two roots, "tanoti", to extend or stretch and
"trayati", which means, liberation.Tantra has other connotations as well, both in the Hindu and
Buddhist traditions. It may apply to any of the scriptures, which usually deal with the worship of
Goddess Shakti,
the
Sacred
Feminine
in
the
Hindu
pantheon.
According to Hindu tantrism, the entire universe is considered to be the divine stage
where Shiva and Shakti carry on the drama of life. Tantra deals with ritual and spiritual practices
to attain the grace of that Shakti, with the aim at achieving liberation from darkness of ignorance,
thus also attaining immortality.A practitioner of tantra basically believes that the universe is the
concrete manifestation of the divine energy of that One Supreme Power that creates and
maintains that universe. The seeker then attempts to make himself or herself a medium in order
to channel that energy, thus attaining liberation while still in human form.
Origins of Tantrism
It is believed that tantrism originated in the early centuries CE and gradually developed into an
actual pantheon by the end of the Gupta period. It has deeply influenced the Hindu
Buddhist, Jain and Sikh religions as well.The spread of Buddhism to East Asia and Southeast
Asia gave rise to the introduction and evolvement of tantra in these regions of the world as well.
What Tantra actually means
5
seekers define the tradition in different ways, many of which are not even consistent with each
other. Tantra, though, is clearly recognized as being very different from the ancient Hindu Vedic
tradition.
Before trying to delve into tantrism, it is important to understand that this is not a
single coherent system. It is rather a tradition that gradually evolved from an
accumulation of practices and rituals, in order to attain the grace of the divine.
The practitioner of tantra uses his own prana or divine energy in order to harness it to
the universal prana, thereby attaining his goal. The goal in question could be either
spiritual, material or both.
The Four Yogas of Swami Vivekananda – Book RIGHT Tantra Yoga - Book
Tantra is quite an abstract religion, as in it does not have a clear definition. Also, different
Tantra has its roots in mysticism and hence, some practitioners consider it very necessary to
experience mystical phenomena during the course of their practice. Many practitioners also
consider that aspirants should have the guidance of a guru or a spiritual master before entering
the tantric realm.
Ritual tools used by a Tantrik
The Tantrik or the practitioner of Tantra uses various ritual tools available to him, so as to attain
his goal through the practice of tantra. These include the following:
Yoga - Yoga, asanas or yogic postures, meditation and pranayama or breathing
techniques help the practitioner completely focus and concentrate on the divine.
Mantras - Mantras or chants help him visualize and evoke the divine power, giving it
form and potency. Mantras also help the follower harness the true power of cosmic
vibrations. Daily Mantroccharana (chanting of Mantras) helps the aspirant create a strong
identification with deity, so that the form becomes his "Ishta-Devata" or "prime
meditational deity".
Mudras - Tantriks believe that Mudras or gestures further enhance his attempts at
attaining control over himself and over the mystical forces of nature as well.
6
Mandalas and Yantras - Mandalas and Yantras, which are various diagrammatic
representations of the forces of the universe, are believed to further aid the seeker and
help him achieve spiritual and magical powers.
Tantra and the Hindu Vedic traditions
Tantra in Hinduism could be considered to be parallel to the Hindu Vedic tradition. Tantra
contains written records of the Agama, which comes in four main parts, as follows:
Jnana or metaphysical knowledge
Yoga or meditative practices
Kriya or ritual practices
Charya or ethical and religious principles of conduct
Most of the staunch Hindu Vedic practitioners, however, consider the Tantras to be anti-Vedic in
character and hence, altogether shun both the cult and the practitioners of the same.
Today, Tantra basically exists in the Shakta, Shaiva, Vaishnava, Shaurya and Ganapatya
traditions. Though each one of these cults has their own texts and treatises, there is no clear line
of demarcation between all of them and they all include the basic tenets of Tantrism.
Tantra and Yoga
Tantra and Yoga are essentially contrary entities. While Tantra believes in non-dualism, Yoga
propounds a dualistic philosophy of renunciation. However, these two systems do have some
things in common.
The ancient Rishis or sages had broadly categorized wisdom into three streams of knowledge,
namely, Ayurveda (involved with the gross physical body), Yoga (exercises for the subtle body
or spirit) and Tantra (involved with mental and metaphysical abilities).
While the other two streams help harness the power of mind by way of healing the spirit, Tantra
uses the power of the mind to balance the body and the spirit.
Evolution and Involution in Tantra
Traditionally, the Tantrik requires to employ the three main aspects of Mantra, Tantra and
Yantra. Mantra denotes knowledge, Tantra stands for ritual actions and Yantra implies the
ethical code of conduct to be followed by a practitioner.
Attaining the state of Sat-chit-ananda or "being-consciousness-bliss" is fundamental to Tantrism.
This is what gives rise to evolution and also involution of the self. Evolution, which can be
likened to the external world, defines only half the process. Involution, which is moving
internally, is what finally reveals the Infinite one to the devotee. Tantra focuses on internalizing
all external forces, thereby releasing or liberating the follower of worldly fetters.
Rituals followed by Tantriks
Tantriks follow very different ritual practices. Because there are a variety of sects in Tantrism
itself, it would become difficult to describe the practices of each one of them. Generally though,
these rituals could be classified as being regular rituals and secret rituals.
Regular Tantric rituals
7
The regular rituals in Tantrism include poojas or prayers being offered, making use of Mantras,
Yantras and Mandalas. Both Hindu and Buddhist yoga traditions make use of these tools for
prayers.
In the Hindu tradition of Tantra, specific deities such as Shakti, Shiva and Kali are invoked
during prayer. Specific Yantras and Mandalas are used as prescribed, in order to invoke the
power of these deities.
As Tantra mainly focuses on Advaita (non-dualism), Shiva and Shakti are viewed as a single
aspect of Para Shiva or Parabrahma, the Supreme One. Hence, though the followers may worship
their Ishta Devata externally with flowers, incense, chants and so on, they essentially try to
visualize themselves as the deity or experience the darshan of their deity.
Secret Tantric rituals
The secret aspect of Tantric rituals, also called Vamamarga, is totally removed from
conventional norms of Hindu worship. While secret rituals may also include many aspects of
conventional worship, it mainly deals with sensate rites, involving all the senses. Hence, this
kind of worship would include themes such as feasting (representing sustenance); intercourse
(embodying sexuality, fertility and procreation) and urination, defecation and vomiting
(symbolizing removal of wastes). Hence, Tantra involves the devotee working along with Nature
and not against it.
The Panchatattva ritual
Since the Panchatattvas or five elements are vital to Tantric worship, the secret ritual of Shakti
and Shakta involve the worship of the Panchamahabhutas or the five elements. This Chakrapuja
ritual, as it also referred to, takes place with men and women sitting in a Chakra or circle, with
the Shakti (female devotee) sitting at the Shaktats (male devoteets) left hand side. There are
various types of Chakrapuja, each bestowing different kinds of benefits on the follower.
The Vamamarga or Sexual rites of Tantrism
Tantra Kali - Orissa Pattachitra Painting
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The exact origin of Vamamarga in Tantrism, which implies sexual rites, is not quite clear. But
there are theories indicating that these could have been adopted from early Hindu Tantra. It was
probably viewed as a practical means of facilitating heightened states of awareness, at the time.
During the course of meditation, the follower would try and identify himself of herself with their
Ishta Devata, actually visualizing themselves as being involved in a sort of sexual courtship with
the deity, finally leading to consummation of that relationship. In fact, some male Tantriks view
their female sexual partners as a representative of their favourite Goddess.
In yet other sects of the Vamachara type of Tantrism, sexual intercourse is viewed as a means to
gain access into the underlying processes governing the functioning of this very Universe.
Some sects even performed certain initiation ceremonies involving exchange of sexual fluids
between masters and their followers. Here, the emission of male and female sexual fluids would
be admixed with the guru's own. This would be considered as the follower's formal initiation into
the
movement.
The Tantrik would also then become one of the Kulaputras (sons of the clan), by the grace of his
female consort, who contains the Kulamrita (clan nectar) or Kuladravya (clan fluid) in her
womb.
Interestingly, the Vamamarga constitutes a vital aspect among certain Tantric sects.
As Tantrism evolved further, the Vamamarga approach began to focus on coital bliss as a desire
for divine union - this essentially became a means to the goal of the Jivatma reaching out toward
the Paramatma. The ritual of this intercourse finally culminates in a sublime experience of
infinite awareness for both the participants involved in this rite.According to Tantra, sex has
three types of purposes - for pleasure, procreation and liberation. Tantriks who aim at the highest
purpose of liberation endeavour to go beyond mere physical orgasm to reach higher forms of
ecstasy. Here, the participating couple are connected spiritually to each other and often lock
themselves
in
a
long,
static
embrace,
well
after
the
act.
In fact, Tantrism also advocates particular types of breathing during the lovemaking exercise, so
that both the participants can gain the maximum spiritual benefit from the experience.
Vamamarga for awakening the power of Kundalini
The Vamamarga involves elaborate rites for purification. The act of intercourse in Vamamarga
balances energies dormant within the ida and pingala naadis, existent in the sukshma shariras
(subtle bodies) of both participants.The sushumna naadi is then awakened as well, thereby giving
rise to the awakening of the hitherto dormant power of the kundalini, the Serpentine Energy.This
type of Kundalini yoga, which itself symbolizes the balance of the Shiva (Purusha or static) and
Shakti (Prakriti or dynamic) energies within the body, eventually results in its rising upwards,
finally touching the Sahasrara Chakra, in the devotee's crown, thereby bestowing mukti or
liberation.
Regular practice of kundalini awakening in this fashion, it is believed, gives rise to a Samadhi
state, wherein both the participants dissolve completely in a unity of pure, cosmic consciousness.
9
This happens even on an individual level, where each of the participants experiences a subtle
fusion
of
the
Shiva-Shakti
energies
within
themselves
as
well.
Interestingly, this form of worship can also be seen in certain minor sects and movements in the
West.
Modern view of Tantrism
Sir John Woodroffe was the first ever Western scholar to take the study of Tantra in detail. He is
considered as the "founding father of Tantric studies". Woodroffe, who actively propagated
Tantrism, also defended Tantra against its several critics. He was also responsible for presenting
Tantra as an ethical philosophical system, which was also complimentary to the much-prevalent
Vedic system. Himself a practitioner of the Tantra philosophy, Woodroffe completely
understood the system with all its dynamics and was responsible for its modern-day evolution.
Following in the footsteps of Sir John Woodroffe, many more scholars began to delve into
studying the Tantra philosophy. They finally concluded that Tantra was "the culmination of all
Indian thought: the most radical form of spirituality and the archaic heart of aboriginal India".
They also considered it to be the ideal religion of the modern era.
Tantra eventually came to be considered as a sort of "cult of ecstasy", combining sexuality and
spirituality in a unique way so as to offer complete liberation to the follower. This also corrected
the general Western viewpoint that sex was essentially base and only related to worldly and
bodily
pleasures.
The most famous Hindu Tantric practitioners include Swami Rama, Sewak Sanjaynath and
Akshunnanath Mahaprabhu.
Neotantra
Now, the term Tantra has become synonymous with "spiritual sex" or "sacred sexuality" - an
opinion that sex should be recognized as a sacred act which is capable of elevating its
participants to a more sublime spiritual state of being and not merely a physical act.
The concept of Neotantra is much like the original Tantra, except that it does not follow some of
the tenets of the latter. For example, Neotantra does not stipulate the presence of a guru or
spiritual master to guide a follower. Also, many of these sub-sects may not particularly advocate
extensive meditative practice, traditional ethical rules of conduct and so on.
This type of tantra, though, goes against the very grain of the originally stipulated Tantric path
and essentially creates misunderstanding and confusion among followers, finally leading them
towards basal desires and the fulfilment of mere orgasmic pleasures.
10
Tantra in Buddhism
Vajrayana Buddhism –
Tantric Buddhism, also known as Vajrayana Buddhism, Tantrayana, Mantrayana, Esoteric
Buddhism and the Diamond Vehicle, is an ancient and a highly complicated system
of Buddhist philosophy. Vajrayana is one of the three routes taking the follower to
enlightenment. The other two include Hinayana and Mahayana.
What sets Buddhist Tantrism apart from all the other sects are the rituals, which use the Upaya
(or skilful) aspect to attain Godhead, rather than mere meditation.
Vajrayana Buddhism appeared in India around the 3rd Century and continued till the 12th
Century. Indrabhuti, the King of Sambalpur, was the founder of Vajrayana and his sister founded
Sahajayana. These new emerging cults also gave rise to the Mantra, Mandala and Mudra aspects
of Tantra, as also the six main Tantric Abhicharas or practices.
Vajrayana is complicated not only because of its structure and rules, but also because of the
language it uses. Vajrayana texts employ the Sandhya-Bhasa, or a "twilight language", that was
deliberately coded in order to keep it complex. This script relies on the use of symbolisms,
metaphors, synonyms and associated words, thereby making it very difficult to decode its many
intricacies. This ancient tradition is now preserved mostly by Vajrayana cults in Tibet.
The Vajra, which means, "thunderbolt", is a legendary weapon, which was very powerful and
indestructible, also one which could effortlessly destroy everything in sight. Since the diamond is
indestructible, Vajrayana is also interpreted in English as the "Diamond Vehicle".
The vajra is often used in Tantra, in order to represent great bliss, wisdom and transcending
material existence.
It is important to understand here that Buddhist Tantra is not very much related to the traditional
Hindu Tantra, though both types of Tantra had quite a few aspects in common.
While practitioners of Hindu Tantra are called Tantriks, the same in Buddhism are called
11
Mantrins, Yogis or Sadhakas. In fact, the very term, "Buddhist Tantra", may have been borrowed
from the original term, Tantra.
Difficulties in studying Buddhist Tantra
While decoding the texts of Vajrayana is difficult enough, the whole endeavour becomes even
more complex because none of these texts offer a systematized order. The Vajrayana texts,
which may total up to about two thousand in number, are not well-ordered and follow a strange
system of coding much of the way.
Vajrayana branched mainly from Hinduism and hence, the rituals need to be analyzed more
before embarking on a research on the subject.
Secondly, Buddhist Tantra is a highly secretive practice, which stipulates strict regulations and
the constant presence of a master guiding the follower. Hence, not much has been revealed about
this branch of philosophical thought.
Origin of Vajrayana
The Eight Manifestations of Guru Padmasambhava - Rubberized Paint on Velvet Cloth
The Vajrayana states that the Buddha himself had expounded these teachings, 16 years after his
enlightenment. But the literature of the Vajrayana is not at all mentioned in either the Pali Canon
or the Agamas, the oldest treatises of Buddhism. Hence, one cannot associate this cult with the
original Buddhist philosophy. Padmasambhava or Guru Rinpoche transmitted the concepts of
Vajrayana Buddhism to the people of Tibet and Bhutan and thus to mainstream Buddhism.
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Philosophy of Vajrayana
Vajrayana mainly aims at making the follower experience the true Buddha-nature, before
actually achieving enlightenment. Vajrayana makes the premise that we all innately
possess an enlightened mind, without actually realizing it. The practice of this discipline,
the philosophy states, opens up our eyes to this ultimate truth, thereby awakening the
Buddha-nature lying dormant within all of us.
All practices prescribed by Vajrayana seek to eventually purify the follower, eventually
creating a state of enlightenment in him or her. These means of purification can range
from simple meditational practices to more complicated methods of tantric sadhana.
As an esoteric discipline, Vajrayana stipulates that the seeker undergoes ritual initiation
under a skilled Guru or master.
Vajrayana also propounds that all followers should undertake this practice only in order
to achieve Buddhahood, so as to use it for the benefit of all mankind.
Code of conduct in Vajrayana
Practitioners of Vajrayana require to adhere to various tantric codes of conduct, also
called "samaya". These initiation vows vary depending on the specific level of mandala
practice required for that particular level of initiation.
The guru is also expected to adhere to his or her own samaya vows all through his or her
life. Proper conduct is the most important prerequisite for a qualified Vajrayana guru.
This esoteric philosophy is to be studied only under the able guidance of a guru and
cannot simply be learnt from texts. It is believed that if the student does not practice these
techniques properly, he may actually end up harming himself mentally or physically or
both. The samaya, which gives rise to the student-teacher bonding, protects both the
preceptor and the student from its harmful side-effects.
Schools of Vajrayana Buddhism
Today, Vajrayana Buddhism mainly exists in the form of the two major sub-schools of Tibetan
Buddhism and Shingon Buddhism. There are also a few other sub-schools, which do not totally
adhere to all the rules drawn out by traditional Vajrayana.
Deity Yoga in Vajrayana
13
Vajradakini - Brass Statue
Deity yoga is vital to Vajrayana practice. Here, practitioners visualize themselves as the
meditation Buddha or Yidam. The purpose of this idol worship is to make the follower
understand the concept of non-duality.The seeker can also use several other ritual tools such as a
vajra, bell, damaru (hand-drum) or a phurba (ritual dagger). He can even employ ritual mudras,
chant special mantras and so on. Each of these tools contain a symbolic meaning which help
create a suitable prayerful environment for the devotee to attain his ultimate goal of
enlightenment. Interestingly, this aspect of using symbolisms in Vajrayana has acted as a major
source of inspiration for traditional Tibetan art.
The Death Yoga
The Death Yoga, which is an important part of Vajrayana, is actually practiced by the follower
when he or she is alive, prepares him or her for the ultimate reality of death of the physical body.
During death, the mind is empty and hence, can be easily opened to enlightenment if practiced
upon skillfully enough.
Regions where Vajrayana is still followed
The philosophy of Vajrayana lives on and is still strong in many countries, such as China, Tibet,
Japan, Indonesia, Mongolia and even in many regions of the Himalayas. While each one of these
sects propound the main philosophy of Vajrayana, they may differ slightly from each other in the
way the teachings are put forth by the masters in each region.
This article was written by:
Priya Viswanathan, a teacher/performer of Bharata Natyam, Classical Music and Classical Instrumental
Veena. A recipient of several awards for both music and dance, Priya is also a freelance writer online. She
currently writes for About.com, a subsidiary of IAC - the parent company of Ask.com.
(http://mobiledevices.about.com)
14
CHAPTER I
Tantrism
Twelve-Armed Chakrasamvara and His Consort Vajravarahi, ca. 12th century, India (Bengal) or Bangladesh
Yogini, East India, 11th-12th century CE. Matsuoka Museum of Art, Tokyo, Japan
15
A stone Kālacakra Mandala at the Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra, a Buddhist temple in Patan,
Nepal built in the 12th century.
From the 8th to the 14th century, Tantric traditions rose to prominence and flourished throughout
India and beyond. By the 10th century, the main elements of tantric practice had reached
maturity and were being practiced in Saiva and Buddhist contexts. This period has been referred
to as the "Tantric Age" by some scholars due to prevalence of Tantra. Also by the 10th century,
numerous tantric texts (variously called Agamas, Samhitas and Tantras) had been written,
particularly in Kashmir, Nepal and Bengal. By this time, Tantric texts had also been translated
into regional languages such as Tamil, and Tantric practices had spread across South Asia.
Tantra also spread into Tibet, Indonesia and China. Gavin Flood describes this "Tantric age" as
follows:
16
Tantrism has been so pervasive that all of Hinduism after the eleventh century, perhaps with the
exception of the vedic Srauta tradition, is influenced by it. All forms
of Saiva, Vaisnava and Smarta religion, even those forms which wanted to distance themselves
from Tantrism, absorbed elements derived from the Tantras.
Though the whole northern and Himalayan part of India was involved in the development of
tantra, Kashmir was a particularly important center, both Saiva and Buddhist and numerous key
tantric texts were written there according to Padoux. According to Alexis Sanderson, the Śaiva
Tantra traditions of medieval Kashmir were mainly divided between the dualistic Śaiva
Siddhanta and the non-dualist theology found in Śakta lineages like the Trika, Krama and Kaula.
The non-dualists generally accepted and made use of sexual and transgressive practices, while
the dualists mostly rejected them.a Saiva tantra was especially successful because it managed to
forge strong ties with South Asian kings who valued the power (shakti) of fierce deities like the
warrior goddess Durga as a way to increase their own royal power. These kings took part in royal
rituals led by Saiva "royal gurus" in which they were symbolically married to tantric deities and
thus became the earthly representative of male gods like Shiva. Saiva tantra could also employ a
variety of protection and destruction rituals which could be used for the benefit of the kingdom
and the king.[143] Tantric Shaivism was adopted by the kings of Kashmir, as well as by
the Somavamshis of Odisha,
the Kalachuris,
and
the Chandelas
of
Jejakabhukti (in Bundelkhand). There is also evidence of state support from
the Cambodian Khmer Empire. As noted by Samuel, inspite of the increased depiction of female
goddesses, these tantric traditions all seemed to have been mostly "male-directed and malecontrolled.
17
HIINDU MANDALAS
Buddhist
Prambhanam Temple in below
Indonesia
18
Mandalas-
Borobudur
19
Viewed from above, Borobudur takes the form of a giant mandala, symbolically depicting the
path of the bodhisattva from samsara to nirvana, through the story of Sudhana described in
the Gandavyuha sūtra, a part of the Avatamsaka sūtra. The monument guides pilgrims through an
extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the
balustrades.The temple is oriented to the four directions and is expanded vertically in accordance
with Buddhist cosmology to construct the Universe in a small scale. There are all total four
entrances and four complete steps for ascending the highest point from the lowest point from the
four directions of East, South, West and North respectively to enter the monument. Once a year,
Buddhists from the whole world celebrate Vesak at the temple.
Borobudur perfectly reflects Buddhist cosmology, which divides the universe into three
superimposing levels. The three levels are Kamadhatu (world of desire), Rupadhatu (world of
forms), and Arupadhatu (world of formlessness).
• Kamadhatu (Bhurloka) — The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of the temple represents
the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals and also demons. Where humans are still
binded by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The Kamadhatu level pictures the world of
passion and the inevitable laws of karma — Karmavibhangga. The first 117 panels show various
actions leading to one and the same result, while the other remaining 43 panels demonstrate the
many results that follow one single effect.
• Rupadhatu (Bhuvarloka) — The middle courtyard and the body of the temple represents life on
earth in which the soul has been purged of all desires. The middle realm of holy people, rishis and
lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The reliefs of the Rupadhatu level show
the stories based on the manuscripts of Lalitavistara, Jataka-Avadana and Gandavyuha.
• Arupadhatu (Svargaloka) — The inner courtyard and the roof of the temple represents the soul’s
departure from the body and uniting with the gods in Nirvana. This is the highest and holiest
realm of gods, or Svarga loka. On the last three circular uppermost terraces, 72 stupas circle the
huge main stupa that crowns the top of the temple. The circular form represents the eternity
without beginning and without end, a superlative, tranquil, and pure state of the formless world.
There are no reliefs on the three circular terraces. Arupadhatu takes the shape of a circle,
representing the formless world.
20
The kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five square terraces, and
the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa. The whole structure shows
a uniquely Javanese blending of the very central ideas of ancestor worship, related to the idea of a
terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana:
• Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire.
• Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world of desire and
live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to them.
Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form, and experience reality at its purest, most
fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana. The liberation from the cycle
of saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form is
corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, or the nonexistence of the self.
A series of five square bases is succeeded by three circular terraces ringed by those 72
stupas, representing the spiritual journey from the life of desire, through meditation to
Nirvana. While viewed from above the whole resembles the sacred lotus flower.
On these circular platforms, the famous 72 bell-shaped stupas are situated, inside of each a
statue of a Buddha is placed. The top and centre of the entire structure is a large and empty
stupa. All terraces and platforms can be reached by means of stairways which are situated
at the four sides of the structure.The entire structure is formed in the shape of a giant
twirling staircase, a style of architecture from prehistoric Indonesia. At the 10th and
highest level of the temple, is the largest and tallest stupa in Borobudur. Within this stupa
was found the ‘Unfinished Buddha’ symbolizing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, which is now in
the Karmawibhangga Museum.
21
An extremely well-balanced structure
Borobudur‘s 10 levels are designed to correspond with the path to enlightenment. The base is
stacked with 5 concentric square terraces connected by staircases in each direction, which are then
topped by 3 circular terraces and ultimately by a monumental stupa.
The temple is designed so that visitors can walk clockwise down the open-air paths along the
terraces as they move upward while meditating upon the path to enlightenment.
The Buddhas are placed in three circles of 16, 24 and 32 and each looking at a specific spot on
three corresponding circles which are situated outside of the perimeter of the structure. Esoterists
from all over the world are still trying to find out the meanings contained in the structure of the
temple.There are in these four galleries 432 larger statues of the Lord Buddha ranged at regular
intervals along the upper part of the walls, each sitting in its own niche or recessed shrine.
22
CHAPTER II
EVOLUTION
During the "Tantric Age", Buddhist Tantra was embraced by the Mahayana Buddhist mainstream
and was studied at the great universities such as Nalanda and Vikramashila, from which it spread
to Tibet and to the East Asian states of China, Korea, and Japan. This new Tantric Buddhism was
supported by the Pala Dynasty (8th–12th century) which supported these centers of learning.
The later Khmer kings and the Indonesian Srivijaya kingdom also supported tantric Buddhism.
According to Samuel, while the sexual and transgressive practices were mostly undertaken in
symbolic form (or through visualization) in later Tibetan Buddhist monastic contexts, it seems
that in the eighth to tenth century Indian context, they were actually performed.
In the 10th and 11th centuries, both Shaiva and Buddhist tantra evolved into more tame,
philosophical, and liberation-oriented religions. This transformation saw a move from external
and transgressive rituals towards a more internalized yogic practice focused on attaining spiritual
insight. This recasting also made tantric religions much less open to attack by other groups. In
Shaivism, this development is often associated with the Kashmiri master Abhinavagupta (c. 950
– 1016 CE) and his followers, as well the movements which were influenced by their work, like
the Sri Vidya tradition (which spread as far as South India, and has been referred to as "high"
tantra).
In Buddhism, this taming of tantra is associated with the adoption of tantra by Buddhist
monastics who sought to incorporate it within the Buddhist Mahayana scholastic framework.
Buddhist tantras were written down and scholars like Abhayakaragupta wrote commentaries on
them. Another important figure, the Bengali teacher Atisha, wrote a treatise which placed tantra
as the culmination of a graduated Mahayana path to awakening, the Bodhipathapradīpa. In his
view, one needed to first begin practicing non-tantric Mahayana, and then later one might be
ready for tantra. This system became the model for tantric practice among some Tibetan
Buddhist schools, like the Gelug. In Tibet, the transgressive and sexual practices of tantra
became much less central and tantric practice was seen as suitable only for a small elite
group.[150] New tantras continued to be composed during this later period as well, such as
the Kalachakra (c. 11th century), which seems to be concerned with converting Buddhists and
non-Buddhists alike, and uniting them together against Islam. The Kalachakra teaches sexual
yoga, but also warns not to introduce the practice of ingesting impure substances to beginners,
since this is only for advanced yogis. This tantra also seems to want to minimize the impact of
the transgressive practices, since it advises tantrikas to outwardly follow the customs of their
country.
Another influential development during this period was the codification of tantric yogic
techniques that would later become the separate movement known as Hatha Yoga. According to
James Mallison, the original "source text" for Hatha Yoga is the Vajrayana
Buddhist Amṛtasiddhi (11th century CE) attributed to the mahasiddha Virupa. This text was later
adopted by Saiva yogic traditions (such as the Naths) and is quoted in their texts.
Another tradition of Hindu Tantra developed among the Vaishnavas, this was called
the Pāñcarātra Agama tradition. This tradition avoided the transgressive and sexual elements that
were embraced by the Saivas and the Buddhists. There is also a smaller tantric tradition
23
associated with Surya, the sun god. Jainism also seems to have developed a substantial Tantra
corpus based on the Saura tradition, with rituals based on yakshas and yakshinis. However, this
Jain tantrism was mainly used for pragmatic purposes like protection, and was not used to attain
liberation. Complete manuscripts of these Jain tantras have not survived. The Jains also seem to
have adopted some of the subtle body practices of tantra, but not sexual yoga.
The Svetambara thinker Hemacandra (c. 1089-1172) discusses tantric practices extensively, such
as internal meditations on chakras, which betray Kaula and Nath influences.
Reception and later developments
A depiction of the Goddess Bhairavi and Shiva in a charnel ground, from a 17th century
manuscript.
There seems to have been some debate regarding the appropriateness of tantra. Among the
Hindus, those belonging to the more orthodox Vedic traditions rejected the Tantras. Meanwhile,
tantrikas incorporated Vedic ideas within their own systems, while considering the Tantras as the
higher, more refined understanding. Meanwhile, some Tantrikas considered the Tantras to be
superior to the Vedas, while others considered them complementary such as Umapati, who is
quoted as stating: "The Veda is the cow, the true Agama its milk."
24
According to Samuel, the great Advaita philosopher Shankara (9th century) "is portrayed in his
biography, the Sankaravijaya, as condemning the approaches of various kinds of Tantric
practitioners and defeating them through argument or spiritual power." He also is said to have
encouraged the replacement of fierce goddesses with benign female deities, and thus to have
promoted the Sri Vidya tradition (which worships a peaceful and sweet goddess, Tripura
Sundari). Though it is far from certain that Shankara actually campaigned against tantra, he is
traditionally seen as someone who purified Hinduism from transgressive and antinomian tantric
practices.
The 13th-century Dvaita Vedanta philosopher Madhvacharya wrote copious commentaries on
then existing major schools of Indian philosophies and practices, and cited the works of the 10th
century Abhinavagupta, who was considered a major and influential Tantra
scholar.[159] However, Madhvacharya does not mention Tantra as a separate, distinct religious or
ritual-driven practice. The early 20th-century Indian scholar Pandurang Vaman Kane conjectured
that Madhvacharya ignored Tantra because it may have been considered scandalous. In contrast,
Padoux suggests that Tantra may have been so pervasive by the 13th century that "it was not
regarded as being a distinct system."
Hindu tantra, while practiced by some of the general lay population, was eventually
overshadowed by the more popular Bhakti movements that swept throughout India from the 15th
century onwards. According to Samuel, "these new devotional styles of religion, with their
emphasis on emotional submission to a supreme saviour-deity, whether Saivite or Vaisnavite,
were better adapted, perhaps, to the subaltern role of non-Muslim groups under Muslim
rule."[160] Saiva tantra did remain an important practice among most Saiva ascetics
however.[161] Tantric traditions also survived in certain regions, such as among the Naths of
Rajasthan, in the Sri Vidya tradition of South India and in the Bengali Bauls.
In Buddhism, while tantra became accepted in the great Mahayana establishments of Nalanda
and Vikramashila and spread to the Himalayan regions, it also experienced serious setbacks in
other regions, particularly Southeast Asia. In Burma, for example, King Anawratha (1044–1077)
is said to have disbanded tantric "Ari" monks. As Theravada Buddhism became dominant in
South East Asian states, tantric religions became marginalised in those regions.[162] In Sri Lanka,
tantric Buddhism also suffered debilitating setbacks. Initially the large Abhayagiri Monastery
was a place where the practice of Vajrayana seems to have flourished during the 8th century.
However, Abhayagiri was disbanded and forced to convert to the orthodox Mahāvihāra
sect during the reign of Parakramabahu I (1153–1186).
Regarding the reception of tantra during the period of Hindu modernism in the 19th and 20th
centuries, Samuel writes that this period saw "a radical reframing of yogic practices away from
the Tantric context." Samuel notes that while Hindu Hatha yoga had its origins in a Saiva tantric
context,
Given the extremely negative views of Tantra and its sexual and magical practices which
prevailed in middle-class India in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and still largely
prevail today, this was an embarrassing heritage. Much effort was given by people such
as Swami Vivekananda into reconstructing yoga, generally in terms of a selective Vedantic
reading of Patañjali's Yogasutra (de Michelis 2004). The effort was largely successful, and many
25
modern Western practitioners of yoga for health and relaxation have little or no knowledge of its
original function as a preparation for the internal sexual practices of the Nath tradition.
Regarding modern Buddhist tantra, it has survived in modern Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, in various
Japanese traditions such as Shingon, and in the Newar Buddhism of the Kathmandu
Valley. There are also magical quasi-tantric traditions in Southeast Asia, sometimes
termed Esoteric Southern Buddhism, though they are not called "tantric" and have been
marginalised by state supported modernist forms of Theravada Buddhism.
26
CHAPTER III
Tantric traditions and Shaktism
Toward the end of the 5th century, the cult of the mother goddess assumed a significant
place in Indian religious life. Shaktism, the worship of Shakti, the active power of the
godhead conceived in feminine terms, should be distinguished from Tantrism, the
search for spiritual power and ultimate release by means of the repetition
of sacred syllables and phrases (mantras), symbolic drawings (mandalas), and other
secret rites elaborated in the texts known as Tantras (“Looms”).
In many respects the Tantras are similar to the Puranas. Theoretically, the Tantras deal
with (1) knowledge, or philosophy, (2) Yoga, or concentration techniques, (3) ritual,
which includes the construction of icons and temples, and (4) conduct in religious
worship and social practice. In general, the last two subjects are the most numerous,
while Yoga tends to centre on the mystique of certain sound-symbols (mantras) that
sum up esoteric doctrines. The philosophy tends to be a syncretistic mixture
of Sankhya and Vedanta thought, with special and at times exclusive emphasis on the
god’s power, or shakti. The Tantric texts can be divided into three classes: (1) Shaiva
Agamas (traditions of the followers of Shiva), (2) Vaishnava Samhitas (“Collections of
the Vaishnavas,” a name borrowed from the Vedic Samhitas), and (3) Shakta Tantras
(“Looms of the Followers of the Goddess Shakti”). However, they all have the common
bond of venerating the Goddess.
The surviving Hindu Tantras were written much later than many of those of
Tantric Buddhism, which may have heavily influenced the Hindu texts. Although there
is early evidence of Tantrism and Shaktism in other parts of India, the chief centres of
both were in Bengal, Bihar, and Assam.
Shaiva Agamas
Like much other Hindu sacred literature, this literature is vast and spans several
centuries. It is possible here to summarize only classes of texts within the various
traditions.
The sects of Agamic Shaivas (Shiva worshipers who follow their own Agama—
“traditional”—texts) encompass both the Sanskritic Shaiva-siddhanta—i.e., those who
accept the philosophical premises and conclusions of Shaivas in the north—and the
southern Lingayats or
Virashaivas
(from vira,
literally
“hero”;
a lingam is
the Shiva emblem that is worshipped in lieu of images). The Shaivasiddhanta traditionally has 28 Agamas and 150 sub-Agamas. Their principal texts are
difficult to date, though most of them probably were not composed before the 8th
century. Their doctrine states that Shiva is the conscious principle of the universe, while
27
matter is unconscious. Shiva’s power, or shakti, personified as a goddess, causes
bondage and release. She is also the magic Word, and thus her nature can be sought out
and meditated upon in mantras.
Kashmiri Shaivism begins with the Shiva-sutra, or “Lines of Doctrine Concerning
Shiva” (c. 850), as a new revelation of Shiva. The system embraces the Shivadristi (“A
Vision of Shiva”) of Somananda (950), in which emphasis is placed on the continuous
recognition of Shiva; the world is a manifestation of Shiva brought about by his shakti.
The system is called trika (“triad”), because it recognizes the three principles of Shiva,
Shakti, and the individual soul. Virashaiva texts begin at about 1150 with
the Vachana (“Sayings”) of Basava. The sect is puritanical, worships Shiva exclusively,
rejects the caste system in favour of its own social organization, and is highly structured,
with monasteries and gurus.
Vaishnava Samhitas
These consist of two groups of texts, Vaikhanasa Samhitas and Pancharatra Samhitas,
which together include more than 200 titles, though the official number is
108. Vaikhanasa Samhitas (collections of the Vaishnava school of Vaikhanasas, who
were originally ascetics) seem to have been the original temple manuals for the
Bhagavatas (devotees of Vishnu), which by the 11th or 12th century had become
supplanted by the Pancharatra Samhitas (collections of the Vaishnava school of
Pancharatra—“System of the Five Nights”). The philosophy of the latter is largely a
matter of cosmogony, greatly inspired by both Sankhya and Yoga teachings. The
Lakshmi Tantra declares that surrender to the goddess Lakshmi as well as to Vishnu is
necessary for salvation. The emotional and spiritual surrender is marked with a ritual in
which the devotee transfers the burden of his salvation to Lakshmi and Vishnu, is given
a new name, and is branded with the marks of Vishnu on his upper arms.
Apart from their theology, in which for the first time the notion of shakti is introduced
into Vaishnavism, the Vaishnava Samhitas are important because they give an
exposition of Vaishnava temple and home rituals. The texts also maintain that the
supreme god Krishna Vasudeva manifests himself in four coequal “divisions” (vyuhas),
representing levels of creation. These gods emanate as supramundane patrons before
the primary creation is started by their shakti. In the primary creation, Shakti manifests
herself as a female creative force. Practically, stress is laid on a type of incarnation—
“iconic incarnation”—in which the divine being is actually present in a stone or statue,
which thus becomes an icon; therefore, the icon can be worshipped as God himself.
Shakta Tantras
28
Shaktism in one form or another has been known since Bana (c. 650) wrote
his Hundred Couplets to Chandi (Chandi-shataka) and Bhavabhuti his play Malati
Madhava (early 8th century), about the adventures of the hero Madhava and his
beloved Malati; both of these works refer to Tantric practices. There is no
traditional authoritative list of Tantric texts, but many are extant.
Shaktism is an amalgam of Shaivism and mother goddess traditions. The Shaiva notion
that Shiva’s shakti, not Shiva himself, is active is taken to the extreme—without Shakti,
Shiva is a corpse, and Shakti is the creator as well as creation. Another important notion
(partly derived from Yoga philosophy) is that throughout the body there are subtle
canals that carry esoteric powers connected with the spinal cord, at the bottom of which
the Goddess is coiled around the lingam as kundalini (“coil”); she can be made to rise
through the body to the top, whereupon release from samsara takes place. Important
among the Shakta Tantras are the Kularnava-tantra (“Ocean of Tantrism”), which gives
details on the “left-handed” cult forms of ritual copulation (i.e., those that are not part of
traditional Hindu practice); the Kulachudamani (“Crown Jewel of Tantrism”), which
discusses ritual; and the Sharadatilaka (“Beauty Mark of the Goddess Sharada”) of
Lakshmanadeshika (11th century), which focuses almost exclusively on magic. The
goddess cults eventually centred around Durga, the consort of Shiva, in her fiercer
aspect.
Nature of Tantric tradition
Tantrism, which appears in both Buddhism and Hinduism, influenced many religious
trends and movements from the 5th century CE, but some of it was meant
for esoteric circles. Claiming to show in times of religious decadence a new way to the
highest goal, Tantrism bases itself upon mystic speculations concerning divine creative
energy (shakti). Tantrism is thought to be a method of conquering transcendent powers
and realizing oneness with the highest principle by Yogic and ritual means—in part
magical and orgiastic—which are also supposed to achieve other supranormal goals.
Tantrists take for granted that all factors in the macrocosm and the microcosm are
closely connected. The adept (sadhaka) has to perform the relevant rites on his own
body, transforming its normal, chaotic state into a “cosmos.” The macrocosm is
conceived as a complex system of powers that by means of ritual-psychological
techniques can be activated and organized within the individual body of the adept.
Contrary to the ascetic emancipation methods of other groups, the Tantrists emphasize
the activation and sublimation of the possibilities of their own body, without
which salvation is believed to be beyond reach.
The Tantrists of the Vamchara (“the left-hand practice”) sought to intensify their own
sense impressions by making enjoyment, or sensuality (bhoga), their principal concern:
the adept pursued his spiritual objective through his natural functions and inclinations,
which were sublimated and then gratified in rituals in order to disintegrate his normal
29
personality. This implies that cultic life was largely interiorized and that the whole world
was given a new and esoteric meaning.
The esoteric part of Tantric worship (puja) is complicated and in many respects
different from the ceremonies that it has influenced. Tantric devotees interpret their
texts by means of an ambiguous “twilight” language and distinguish between the texts’
“external” and their esoteric meaning. Tantrists describe states of consciousness with
erotic terminology and describe physiological processes with cosmological terminology.
They proceed from “external” to “internal” worship and adore the Goddess mentally,
offering their hearts as her throne and their self-renunciation as “flowers.”
According to Tantrism, concentration is intended to evoke an internal image of the deity
and to resuscitate the powers inherent in it so that the symbol changes into mental
experience. This “symbolic ambiguity” is also much in evidence in the esoteric
interpretation of ritual acts performed in connection with images, flowers, and other
cult objects and is intended to bring about a transfiguration in the mind of the adept.
The mantras (sacred utterances, such as hum, hrim, and kleem) are believed to be
indispensable means of entering into contact with the power they bear and
of transcending mundane existence.
Most
potent
are
the
monosyllabic, bija (“seed”) mantras, which constitute the main element of longer
formulas and embody the essence of divine power as the eternal,
indestructible prototypes from which anything phenomenal derives its existence. The
cosmos itself owes its very structure and harmony to them. Also important is the
introduction of spiritual qualities or divine power into the body (nyasa) by placing a
finger on the relevant spot (accompanied by a mantra).
Tantrists who follow the “right-hand path” attach much value to the Yoga that developed
under their influence and to bhakti and aspire to union with the Supreme by emotionaldynamic means. For them, Yoga is a self-abnegation in order to reach a state of ecstatic
blissfulness in which the passive soul is lifted up by divine grace.
There is also a Tantric mantra-yoga (discipline through spells), which operates with
formulas, and a hatha-yoga, (Sanskrit: “union of force”). Hatha-yoga incorporates
normal Yogic practices such as abstinences; observances; bodily postures; breath
control; withdrawal of the mind from external objects; concentration, contemplation,
and identification with the aid of mudras (i.e., ritual intertwining of fingers or gestures
expressing the metaphysical aspect of the ceremonies or the transformation effected by
the mantras); and muscular contractions. It also consists of internal purifications (e.g.,
washing out stomach and bowels), shaking the abdomen, and some forms of selftorture. The whole process is intended to “control the ‘gross body’ in order to free the
‘subtle body.’”
Some Tantrists employ laya-yoga (“reintegration by mergence”), in which the female
nature-energy (representing the shakti), which is said to remain dormant and coiled in
the form of a serpent (kundalini) representing the uncreated, is awakened and made to
30
rise through the six centres (chakras) of the body, which are located along the central
artery of the subtle body, from the root centre to the lotus of a thousand petals at the top
of the head, where it merges into the Purusha, the male Supreme Being. Once the union
of shakti and Purusha has become permanent, according to this doctrine, wonderful
visions and powers come to the adept, who then is emancipated. Some of the Tantric
texts also pursue worldly objectives involving magic or medicine.
Tantric and Shakta views of nature, humanity, and the sacred
The Tantric movement is sometimes inextricably interwoven with Shaktism, which
assumes the existence of one or more shaktis. These are “creative energies” that are
inherent in and proceed from God and are also capable of being imagined as female
deities. Shakti is the deciding factor in the salvation of the individual and in the
processes of the universe because God acts only through his energy—which, personified
as a goddess, is his spouse. Her role is very different in the various systems: she may be
considered the central figure in a philosophically established doctrine,
the dynamic aspect of brahman, producing the universe through her maya, or
mysterious power of illusion; a capricious demonic ruler of nature in its destructive
aspects; a benign mother goddess; or the queen of a celestial court. One form of
Shaktism identifies the goddess (usually Durga) with brahman and worships her as the
ruler of the universe by virtue of whom even Shiva exists. As Mahayogini (“Great
Mistress of Yoga”), she produces, maintains, and reabsorbs the world. As the Eternal
Mother, she is exalted in the Devimahatmya (“Glorification of the Goddess”) section of
the Markandeya-purana (an important Shakta encyclopaedic text). In the Bengal cult
of the goddess Kali, she demands bloody sacrifices from her worshipers lest her creative
potency fail her. This cult also propounds the belief that birth and death are inseparable,
that joy and grief spring from the same source, and that the
frightening manifestations of the divine should be faced calmly.
In all of his incarnations Vishnu is united with his consort, Lakshmi. The sacred tales of
his various relations with her manifestations led his worshipers to view human devotion
as parallel to divine love and hence as universal, eternal, and sanctified. In Vaishnava
Tantrism, Lakshmi plays an important part as God’s shakti. In his supreme state,
Vishnu and his shakti are indissolubly associated with one another and thus constitute
the personal manifestation of the supreme brahman, also called Lakshmi-Narayana. In
visual imagery, Lakshmi never leaves Vishnu’s bosom. In the first stage of creation, she
awakens in her dual aspect of action-and-becoming, in which she is the instrumental
and material cause of the universe; Vishnu himself is the efficient cause. In the second
stage, her “becoming” aspect is manifested in the grosser forms of the souls and the
power of maya, which is the immaterial source of the universe. In displaying her power,
she takes into consideration the accumulated karma of the beings, judging mundane
existence as merit and demerit. Presented in myth as God’s wife and the queen of the
universe.
31
Pancharatra Vaishnavism emphasizes that Lakshmi—who in the mythological sphere
intercedes with her husband for the preservation of the world—spontaneously and by
virtue of her own power differentiates herself from Vishnu because she has in view the
liberation of the souls. This current of thought complicated its explanation of the
relation between God and the universe—which was at the same time an attempt at
assigning to God’s manifestations a place in a harmonious theological and cosmological
system—with an evolutionist theory of successive creations. God is assumed
to manifest himself also in three other figures, mythologically his brothers, who, each
with his own responsibility, have not only a creative but also an ethical function, by
which they assist those who seek to achieve final emancipation.
Tantric ritual and magical practices
The ritual of the left-hand Tantrists was one in which all of the taboos of conventional
Hinduism were conscientiously violated. Thus, in place of the traditional five
elements (tattvas)
of
the
Hindu
cosmos,
these
Tantrists
used
the
five m’s: mamsa (flesh,
meat), matsya (fish), madya (fermented
grapes,
wine), mudra (frumentum, cereal, parched grain, or gestures), and maithuna (sexual
union). This latter element was made particularly antinomian through the involvement
of forbidden women—such as the wife of another man or a low-caste woman—who was
identified with the Goddess. Menstrual blood, strictly taboo in conventional Hinduism,
was also used in Tantric rites. Such rituals, which are described in Tantric texts and in
tracts against Tantrists, made the Tantrists notorious. It is likely, however, that the
rituals were not regularly performed except by a small group of highly trained adepts;
the usual Tantric ceremony was purely symbolic and even more fastidious than
the pujas in Hindu temples.
The cult of the Shaktas is based on the principle of the ritual sublimation of natural
impulses to maintain and reproduce life. Shakta adepts are trained to direct all their
energies toward the conquest of the Eternal. The sexual act and
the consumption of consecrated meat or liquor are esoterically significant means of
realizing the unity of flesh and spirit, of the human and the divine. They are considered
not sinful acts but effective means of salvation. Ritual union—which may also be
accomplished symbolically—is, for both partners, a form of sacralization, the act being a
participation in cosmic and divine processes. The experience of transcending space and
time, of surpassing the phenomenal duality of spirit and matter, of recovering the
primeval unity, the realization of the identity of God and his Shakti, and of
the manifested and unmanifested aspects of the All, constitute the very mystery
of Shaktism.
The interpretation of doctrines and ritual practice is varied. Extreme
Shakta communities, for example, are said to perform the secret nocturnal rites of
the shrichakra (“wheel of radiance,” described in the Kularnava-tantra), in which they
avail themselves of the natural and esoteric symbolic properties of colours, sounds, and
32
perfumes to intensify their sensual experiences. Most Tantrists, however, eliminate all
but the verbal ritual.
Individual and collective Yoga and worship, conducted daily, fortnightly, and monthly
“for the delectation of the deity,” are of special importance. After elaborate purifications,
the worshipers—who must be initiated, full of devotion toward the guru and God, have
control over themselves, be well prepared and pure of heart, know the mysteries of the
scriptures, and look forward to the adoration with eagerness—make the prescribed
offerings, worship the power of the Divine Mother, and recite the relevant mantras.
Having become aware of their own state of divinity, they are qualified to unite sexually
with the Goddess. If a woman is, in certain rituals, made the object of sexual worship,
the Goddess is first invoked into her; the worshiper is not to cohabit with her until his
mind is free from impurity and he has risen to divine status. Union with a low-caste
woman helps to transcend all opposites. Union with a woman who belongs to another
man is often preferred because it is harder to obtain, nothing is certain in it, and the
longing stemming from the separation of lover and beloved is more intense; it is
pure preman (divine love). Adoration of a girl of age 16 aims at securing the
completeness and perfection of which this number is said to be the expression.
However, the texts reiterate how dangerous these rites are for those who are not
initiated; those who perform such ritual acts without merging their minds in the
Supreme are likely to go to one of the hells.
The esoteric Vaishnava-Sahajiya cult, which arose in Bengal in the 16th century, was
another emotional attempt at reconciling the spirit and the flesh. Disregarding social
opinion, its adherents, using the natural (sahaja, “born with”) qualities of the senses
and stressing the sexual symbolism of Bengal Vaishnavism, reinterpreted the RadhaKrishna legend and sought for the perpetual experience of divine joy. Based on this
understanding of the legend, members of the Vaishnava-Sahajiya cult held that,
after arduous training, the realization of love can be experienced, because Krishna’s
nature is love and the giving of love and because man is identical with Krishna. Women,
as the embodiment of a theological principle, could even become spiritual guides,
like Radha, conducting the worshipers in their search for realization. After reaching this
state, a devotee remains in eternal bliss and can dispense with guru and ritual and be
completely indifferent to the world, “steadfast amidst the dance of maya.”
Tantric and Shakta ethical and social doctrines
These ethical and social principles, though fundamentally the same as
those promulgated in the classical dharma works, breathe a spirit of liberality: much
value is set upon family life and respect for women (the image of the Goddess); no ban is
placed on traveling (conventionally regarded as bringing about ritual pollution) or on
the remarriage of widows. Although Tantric and Shakta traditions did not oblige their
followers to deviate in a socially visible way from the established order, they provided a
33
ritual and a way of life for those who, because of sex or caste, could not participate
satisfyingly in the conventional rites.
The ancient Tantric tradition, based on the esoteric tantra literature, has become so
interwoven with orthodox Hinduism that it is difficult to define precisely. Although it
recognizes an identity between the soul and the cosmos, it emphasizes the
internalization of the cosmos rather than the release of the soul to its natural state of
unity. The body is the microcosm, and the ultimate state is not only omniscience but
total realization of all universal and eternal forces. The body is real, not because it is the
function or creation of a real deity but because it contains the deity, together with the
rest of the universe. The individual soul does not unite with the One—it is the One, and
the body is its function.
Tantrism, though not always in its full esoteric form, is a feature of much modern
mystical thought. In Tantrism the consciousness is spoken of as moving—driven by
repetition of the mantra and by other disciplines—from gross awareness of the material
world to realization of the ultimate unity. The image is of a serpent, coiled and dormant,
awakened and driven upward in the body through various stages of enlightenment until
it
reaches
the
brain,
the
highest
awareness.
The
19th-century
mystic Ramakrishna describes the process, which is also what many Hindus seek in
their quest for a spiritual experience:
When [the serpent] is awakened, it passes gradually through [various stages], and
comes to rest in the heart. Then the mind moves away from [the gross physical
senses]; there is perception, and a great brilliance is seen. The worshiper, when he sees
this brilliance, is struck with wonder. The [serpent] moves thus through six stages, and
coming to [the highest one], is united with it. Then there is samadhi.…When [the
serpent] rises to the sixth stage, the form of God is seen. But a slight veil remains; it is
as if one sees a light within a lantern, and thinks that the light itself can be touched, but
the glass intervenes.…In samadhi, nothing external remains. One cannot even take
care of his body any more; if milk is put into his mouth, he cannot swallow. If he
remains for twenty-one days in this condition, he is dead. The ship puts out to sea, and
returns no more.
Vernacular literatures
Most of the texts cited in this survey are Sanskrit texts, which constitute the oldest layer
of extant Hindu literature. But the sacred literature of India is not as monolithic as these
texts
might
suggest.
Several
other
essential
elements
exist:
independent sacred literatures in languages other than Sanskrit and material in other
languages related to the Sanskrit texts either as sources of material now preserved only
in Sanskrit or as new texts originating as translations of Sanskrit texts. Because Sanskrit
34
has been in intimate contact with the mother tongues of India for such a long time, it is
often impossible to determine in which of these categories a particular vernacular text
belongs.
Indologists usually emphasize the influence of Sanskritic culture on vernacular culture,
and indeed this influence was considerable. Sanskritic influence was already in evidence
in the earliest Tamil (a principal Dravidian language) literature, perhaps dating from
before the Common Era. At this time in South India the orthodox cults were aristocratic
in character and were supported by kings and chiefs who gained
in prestige by patronizing Brahmans. The Tamils were still primarily devoted to their
local traditions, some of which, however, were becoming Sanskritized. The pastoral
god Murugan was identified with Skanda, and his mother, the fierce war
goddess Korravai, with Durga. Varunan, a sea god who had adopted the name of an old
Vedic god but otherwise had few Vedic features, and Mayon, a black god who was a rural
divinity with many of the characteristics of Krishna in his pastoral aspect, also are
depicted in Tamil literature. The final Sanskritization of the Tamils was brought about
through the patronage of the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram, who began to rule in the 4th
century CE and who financed the making of many temples and fine religious sculptures.
Similar processes took place in the Deccan, Bengal, and other regions.
Sanskritization is a term that refers to a style of text that imitates the customs and
manners of the Brahmans. But, although most sacred texts in Sanskrit were composed
by Brahmans, many were composed by lower-class authors. Likewise, although some
sacred texts in vernacular languages were written by authors of lower castes, many
others were written by Brahmans. In addition, because Sanskrit ceased to be spoken as a
primary language soon after the Vedas were composed, it is likely that most of the
thoughts underlying all subsequent Sanskrit literature emerged first in some other
language. The issue is further clouded by the fact that, though Sanskrit texts tend to be
written and vernacular traditions are primarily oral, there are important oral traditions
in Sanskrit too (including the traditions of the two great Sanskrit epics), and there are
important manuscript traditions in some of the non-Sanskritic languages (such as
Bengali and Tamil). Indeed, written and oral versions of the epics and Puranas have
been, from the very start, in constant symbiosis.
Little relevance, therefore, attaches to the distinction between written
and oral traditions. A story is narrated, a process that is designated in Sanskrit by such
words as purana (ancient story) and akhyana (illustrative narrative). In the oldest
source, the Rigveda, myths are not so much told as alluded to; it is in the later Vedic
literature of the Brahmanas that narratives are found, and these are often prejudiced by
the liturgical concerns of the authors.
The recitation of certain myths was prescribed for various rituals. The
epic Mahabharata states that Vedic stories were narrated “in the pauses of the ritual,”
probably by Brahmans. The sutas (charioteers and panegyrists), who celebrated the
feats of great rulers, were the mythographers of the Kshatriyas (the warrior class).
The sutas were popular narrators of myth and legend and developed their own
35
bardic repertoire, which was extended to higher mythology. They—and other wanderers
who found ready audiences at sacrifices or places of pilgrimage—disseminated the lore.
Narrators continue to repeat and embroider the ancient stories of gods, sages, and
kings. At an early stage their narratives were dramatized and gave rise to the
Sanskrit theatre, in which epic mythic themes preponderate, and to the closely related
dance, which survives in the now largely South Indian schools of bharata
natyam (traditional dance) and the kathakali (narrative dance) of Kerala. Thus, even in
Sanskrit literature, oral performance was an essential component, which
further facilitated the assimilation of oral vernacular elements.
Of the four primary Dravidian literatures—Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam—
the oldest and best-known is Tamil. The earliest preserved Tamil literature, the socalled Sangam poetry anthologies, dates from the 1st century BCE. These poems are
classified by theme into akam (“interior,” primarily love poetry) and puram (“exterior,”
primarily about war, the poverty of poets, and the deaths of kings).
Tamil devotional poetry was remarkable for a number of reasons. It was composed by
both men and women, by people of different castes (including “outcastes”), and in a
language that was classical (Tamil already had a long and rich literary heritage) but also
vernacular, or spoken. Despite all these factors, the poems were frequently hailed as
divine revelation and sometimes as the equal of the Sanskrit Vedas.
The bhakti movement has been traced to Tamil poetry, beginning with the poems of the
devotees of Shiva called Nayanars and the devotees of Vishnu called Alvars. The
Nayanars, who date from about 800 CE, composed intensely personal and devout
hymns
addressed
to
the
local manifestations of
Shiva.
The
most
famous Nayanar lyricists are Appar, Sambandar, and Chuntarar, whose hymns are
collected in the Tevaram (c. 11th century). More or less contemporary were their
Vaishnava counterparts, the Alvars Poykai, Putan, Peyar, and Tirumankaiyalvar; and in
the 8th century the poetess Andal, as well as Periyalvar, Kulachekarar, Tiruppanalvar,
and notably Nammalvar, who is held to be the greatest, composed their
works. Shrivaishnavas consider
Nammalvar’s
poems,
especially
his Tiruvaymoli (“Sacred Utterance”), to be the Tamil Veda.
The devotion of which they sang exemplified the new bhakti movement, which sought a
more direct contact between humans and God, carried by a passionate love for the
Deity, who would reciprocate by extending his grace to humankind. These saints became
the inspiration of theistic systematic religion: the Shaivas for the Shaiva-siddhanta, the
Vaishnavas for Vishistadvaita. In Kannada the same movement was exemplified
by Basava, whose vachanas (“sayings” or “talks”) achieved great popularity.
New literary genres in Dravidian languages continued to evolve into the 17th and 18th
centuries, when the Tamil Chittars (name derived from Sanskrit siddha, “perfected
one”), who were eclectic mystics, composed poems noted for the power of their
naturalistic diction. The Tamil sense and style of these poems belied the Sanskrit36
derived title of their authors, a phenomenon that could stand as a symbol of the complex
relationship between the vernacular and Sanskrit religious texts.
The main languages derived from Sanskrit are Bengali, Hindi (with its many dialects, of
which Maithili is the oldest and Urdu, heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic and
written
in
a
Perso-Arabic
script,
is
the
most
important), Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Assamese, Nepali, Raja
sthani, and Sinhalese. Most of these languages began to develop literary traditions about
1000 CE.
Although the earliest texts in Hindi are sometimes attributed to the 13th–14th-century
Muslim poet Amir Khosrow, it was not until the 15th century that Hindi
literature produced its own great religious lyricists. The earliest of these lyricists were
the disciples of Ramananda (c. 140), who was a follower of the philosopher Ramanuja.
The most famous of these lyricists is Kabir, a poet and mystic who was the forerunner
of Sikhism. Tulsidas, apart from his Ramcharitmanas, composed Ramaite
lyrics. Surdas (1483–1563), a follower of the Vallabha school of Vedanta, is known for
his Sursagar (“Ocean of the Poems of Sursagar”), a collection of poems based on the
stories of the childhood of Krishna found in the Bhagavata-purana. Perhaps the bestknown bhakti poems are those of Mira Bai (1503–73), a Rajput princess who composed
mostly in a local dialect of Hindi. She wrote passionate love poems to Krishna, whom
she regarded as her husband and lover. Her bhajans (devotional songs) are sung by
Hindus both privately and in public performances in India and throughout the diaspora.
In the Marathi tradition, Namdev (1270?–1350?) celebrated Vishnu, particularly in
his manifestation as Vitthoba at the Pandharpur temple; and in the 17th
century Tukaram, the greatest poet of this literature, sang of the god of love in
numerous hymns.
The importance of these writers is not limited to literature. A small sect,
the Kabirpanthis, acknowledges Kabir as its founder, but its importance is less than that
of the vigorous new religion (Sikhism) founded by one of Kabir’s disciples, Nanak.
Although the earliest Hindu text in Bengali is a mid-15th-century poem about Radha
and Krishna, texts in praise of gods and goddesses, known as mangal-kavyas, surely
existed in oral versions long before then. In later Bengal Vaishnavism, the emphasis
shifts from service and surrender to mutual attachment and attraction between God
(i.e., Krishna) and humankind: God is said to yearn for the worshiper’s identification
with himself, which is his gift to the wholly purified devotee. The mystical and
devotional possibilities of the Krishna legend are subordinated to religious practice; the
divine sport and wonderful feats of this youthful hero are interpreted symbolically and
allegorically. Thus, the highest fruition of bhakti is admission to the eternal sport
of Krishna and his beloved Radha, whose sacred love story is explained as the mutual
love between God and the human soul. Various gradations of bhakti are distinguished,
such as awe, subservience, and parental affection. These are correlated with the persons
of the Krishna legend; the highest and most intimate emotion is said to be the love of
Radha and her girlfriends for Krishna.
37
Krishna and Radha, detail of a Kishangarh painting, mid-18th century; in a private
collection.P. Chandra
A particularly rich Bengali tradition concentrated on the love of Radha, who symbolizes
the human soul, for Krishna, the supreme god. In this tradition are Chandidas, a 15thcentury poet known for his love songs, and the Maithili poet Vidyapati (c. 1400). The
single most influential figure, however, was Chaitanya, who in the 16th century renewed
Krishnaism. He left no writings but inspired many hagiographies, among the most
important of which is the Chaitanya-charitamrita (“Nectar of Chaitanya’s Life”) by
Krishna Das (born 1517).
Chaitanya had a profound and lasting effect on the religious sentiments of the people of
Bengal. He propagated the community celebration (sankirtana) of Krishna as the most
powerful means of bringing about the proper bhakti attitude. Chaitanya also introduced
the worship of God, the director of the senses, through the very activity of the senses,
which must be free from all egoism and completely filled with the intense desire
(preman) for the satisfaction of the beloved (i.e., Krishna).
Another form of religious lyric are the so-called padas (verses). Govinda Das (1537–
1612) is one of the greatest poets in this bhakti genre of poetry in which divine love is
symbolized by human love. The songs of Ramprasad Sen (1718–75) similarly honour
Shakti as mother of the universe and are still in wide devotional use.
The complex interaction between Sanskrit and non-Sanskrit religious classics may be
seen in the development of the epics. The two great Sanskrit epics,
the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, and many Puranas (especially the Bhagavatapurana) were rendered in various vernaculars. These works were not literal translations
but free versions in which the authors inserted their own emphases, which differed both
from the original and from those of other authors. The oldest vernacular version of
the Ramayana is the Tamil translation, the Iramavataram by Kampan (c. 12th
century), a work of high literary distinction that is suffused with devotion (bhakti). A
Telugu rendering was made by Ranganatha about 1300. Several translations in Bengali
include some interesting and probably authentic variations from the “official” Rama
story by Valmiki, the best-known translation being that of Krittibas Ojha (1450).
Equally, if not more, famous is Ramcharitmanas (“Holy Lake of the Acts of Rama”).
38
The Mahabharata was rendered in Bengali about 1600 and into Telugu by Nannaya and
Tikkana in the 13th century. The Bhagavata-purana, which was translated frequently
(e.g., into Bengali by Maladhar Vasu, 1480), was popular because it gave
the canonical account of Krishna’s life and especially his boyhood, which is
the perennial inspiration of the bhakti poets.
The teacher Jnanadeva (also known as Jnaneshvara; 1275–96) composed a commentary
on the Bhagavadgita in Marathi that remains a classic in that literature. His work was
continued by Eknath (c. 1600), who also composed bhakti poetry. In the 16th century
the Kannada poet Gadugu produced a highly individual version of the Mahabharata. In
addition to the literal or not-so-literal translations of the Sanskrit epics, the Tamils
composed their own epics, notably Ilanko Atikal’s Chilappatikaram (“The Lay of the
Anklet”) and its sequel, the Manimekhalai (“Jeweled Girdle”). In Telugu there is the
great Palnadu epic; Rajasthani has an entire epic cycle about the hero Pabuji. The
remaining vernaculars have also produced many epics of their own.
Much of the classical mythology persists today, and its stories have been conveyed to
Hindus through traditional means as well as via the mass media. Mythic illustrations
remain favourites in Indian calendar art. Television series and motion pictures called
“mythological” are extremely popular, perpetuating the ancient stories, and so are
“devotionals,” in which an example of bhakti is illustrated. The television
series Ramayana, for example, was one of the biggest successes in the Indian media.
Radio regularly carries bhajans (devotional songs) and classical South Indian songs, the
themes of which are often mythic. Narratives from Hindu texts have also been portrayed
in popular literature. Many stories became the bases for popular comic books in the
1960s and ’70s. An English-language series called Amar Chitra Katha (“Immortal
Stories in Picture Form”), for example, was read by millions of people.
Every orthodox Hindu’s home has at least one corner set aside as a domestic sanctuary
where representations of a chosen deity are placed, and puja (worship) is done with
prayers, hymns, flowers, and incense. Richer establishments set aside entire rooms
as shrines. New temples have been constructed with modern techniques; one temple
in Varanasi (Banaras)
contains
mirrors
onto
which
are
etched
the
entire Ramcharitmanas. This same poem is the basis of the annual celebration of Ram
Lila (the play of Rama) in northern India, in which the entire community participates.
The story of Rama was evoked by Mahatma Gandhi when he set the Ram Raj (“Kingdom
of Rama”) as India’s governmental ideal.
On occasion, social protesters have armed themselves with myth to make a point. For
example, Karna, an antagonist in the Mahabharata who is berated for his low birth, has
been extolled in intellectual circles as a truer champion than the aristocratic heroes.
Anti-northern groups in Tamil Nadu revised the story of Rama, whose expedition
against the demon Ravana was believed by some to be the “Aryan” invasion of South
India, by reversing it to abuse Rama and to glorify Ravana.
39
On a popular level, people at temples and fairs are continually reacquainted with their
mythological heritage by pauranikas, tellers of the ancient stories and heirs of the sutas
of 3,000 years ago, and no festival ground is complete without tents where the religious
are reminded of their myths by pious speakers, modestly compensated by fees but richly
rewarded by the honour in which they are held.
J.A.B. van BuitenenEdward
SmithVasudha Narayanan
C.
DimockArthur
Llewellyn
BashamWendy
DonigerBrian
K.
Jambhala is the God of Wealth and appropriately a member of the Jewel Family
(see Ratnasambhava). He is sometimes equated with the Hindu deity Kubera. Jambhala is also
believed to be an emanation of Avalokitesvara or Chenrezig, the Bodhisattva of Compassion.
There are five different wealth Jambhalas; each has his own practice and mantra to help
eliminate poverty and create financial stability.
Mahāsiddha movement
Tantric Buddhism can be traced back to groups of wandering yogis called MahāSiddhas (great adepts):
It is believed the MahāSiddhas date to the Medieval period in the North India (3–13 cen. CE) and used
methods that were radically different than those used in Buddhist monasteries, including living in forests
and caves and practicing meditation in charnel grounds similar to those practiced by Śaiva
Kāpālika ascetics.
These yogic circles came together in Tantric Feasts (gaṇacakra, tsog) often in Sacred Sites (Pīṭha)
and Places (Kṣettra) which included dancing, singing, sex rites and the ingestion of taboo substances like
alcohol, urine, meat, etc.
At least 2 of the MahāSiddhas cited in the Buddhist literature are comparable with the Śaiva Nāth saints
(Gorakhnāth and Matsyendranāth) who practiced Hatha Yoga.
A movement called Sahaja-siddhi developed in the 8th century in Bengal:
It was dominated by long-haired, wandering MahāSiddhas who openly challenged and ridiculed the
Buddhist establishment. The MahāSiddhas pursued siddhis, magical powers such as flight and
extrasensory perception as well as liberation.
Buddhist Siddhas demonstrated the appropriation of an older sociological form - the independent
sage/magician, who lived in a liminal zone on the borders between fields and forests:
Their rites involved the conjunction of sexual practices and Buddhist Maṇḍala visualization with ritual
accoutrements made from parts of the human body,
40
CHAPTER IV
The Tantra of Practical Hinduism
Practical Hinduism is both a quest to achieve well-being and a set of strategies for
locating sources of affliction and removing or appeasing them. Characterized in this
way, it has much in common with the popular beliefs and practices of many other
religions. For example, Roman Catholicism as practiced in many parts of Europe
or Mahayana Buddhism in Korea and Taiwan involve, as does Hinduism, petitions and
offerings to enshrined divine powers in order to engage their help with all manner of
problems and desires. Thus, religions which could hardly differ more vastly in their
understanding of the nature of divinity, reality, and causality may nonetheless converge
at the level of popular piety.
The presumption that assigns “practical” Hinduism to peasants, labourers, or tribal
peoples—while assuming that the high-born, wealthy, and educated would be concerned
with spiritual enlightenment and Hinduism’s ultimate aim of liberation (moksha)—is
false. Hindu farmers care about their souls at least as much as do Hindu business or
professional men and women (if less single-mindedly than world renouncers, who come
from all ranks of life). Almost all Hindus dedicate time and energy to rituals designed to
obtain prosperity or to remove troubles, to advance their careers, to advance their
children’s education and careers, or to protect their families from ill health. Although
rural Hindus may have little time for meditative practices, they are fully aware of
ultimate truths transcending the everyday. By the same token, the pious urban elite, if
more likely to pursue spiritual disciplines, frequently sponsor worship in temples or
homes to ensure worldly success. At all levels of the social hierarchy, Hinduism lives
through artistic performances: dance and dance-drama, representational arts, poetry,
music, and song serve not only to please deities but to transmit the religion’s meaningful
narratives and vital truths. One could go so far as to say that it is through the various
arts that most Hindu traditions have been transmitted through the millennia.
Both adherents of the faith and those who study it describe Hinduism as a way of life.
Thus, they implicitly contrast Hinduism to religions that appear to be primarily located
in spaces and times set apart from the everyday—such as “church on Sunday.” Although
Hindus have magnificent sacred architecture and a vital tradition of calendrical
festivals, the “way of life” description means that religious attitudes and acts permeate
ordinary places, times, and activities. For example, bathing, dressing, cooking, eating,
disposing of leftovers, and washing the dishes may all be subject to ritual prescriptions
in Hindu households. Motivations for such ritualized actions are ascribed to
considerations of purity and auspiciousness—an interest that is often linked to
maintaining status in a hierarchical social system.
When Hindus interact with deities, considerations of purity may or may not be
important. In some Vaishnava traditions, for example, one must remain in a relatively
41
pure state in order to be fit to worship. A Brahman priest of a Krishna temple in
the Vallabha sect might refuse food and water from the hands of non-Brahmans, not to
show he is better than they are but because his work in the temple demands that he
maintain such boundaries. Should he inadvertently lower his own ritual purity, he might
displease or offend the deity with whom he is in regular contact, which could threaten
human well-being in general.
Vaishnava traditions, however, include an alternative perspective that is conveyed in a
well-known tale about Rama. This tale, frequently portrayed in poetry and art, tells of an
outcaste tribal woman named Shabari who meets Rama in the forest. Her simplehearted love for him is so great that she offers him wild berries, which are all she has.
She bites each one first to test its sweetness before giving it to her lord, and in so doing
she contaminates the berries with saliva, a major source of pollution. Although the
berries are highly unacceptable according to the standards of ritual purity, Rama accepts
them and eats them blissfully. The message is that the polluted offerings of a lowborn
person given to God with a heart full of love are far more pleasing than any ritually pure
gift from a less-devout being. Purity of heart, therefore, is more important than bodily
purity.
The capacity to see both sides of most matters—cognitive flexibility rather
than dogmatic fixity—is one of the most important characteristics of practical Hinduism,
which lacks dogma altogether. In this regard, persistent continuities with Hinduism’s
ancient roots in Vedic traditions can be discerned. The elaborate sacrificial rituals
of Vedic religion have often been described as being focused on obtaining the goods of
life—neatly summarized as prosperity, health, and progeny—from divine powers
through exacting ritual behaviours. However, in the Upanishads, the last of the Vedic
texts, voices emerge that care for neither the rituals nor their promised fruits but are
concerned above all with learning the nature of ultimate reality and how the
human soul may recognize that indescribable essence in itself. One quest never
supplants the other. In Hinduism today there exists, on the one hand, faith in
the efficacy of ritual and desire for its worldly fruits and, on the other, disregard for all
external practices and material results. Farmers consistently deride the notion that sins
are washed away in the waters of sacred rivers, yet they spend small fortunes to travel to
and bathe in them.
Devotion
Devotion (bhakti) effectively spans and reconciles the seemingly disparate aims of
obtaining aid in solving worldly problems and locating one’s soul in relation to divinity.
It is the prime religious attitude in much of Hindu life. The term bhakti is derived from
a root that literally means “having a share”; devotion unites without totally merging the
identities of worshipers and deities. While some traditions of bhakti radically speak out
against ritual, devotion in ordinary life is usually embedded in worship, vows, and
pilgrimages—three major elements within practical Hinduism.
Theistic devotion presents itself as an easy path, obliterating the need for expensive
sacrificial rituals, difficult ascetic practices, and scriptural knowledge. All of these are
understood as restricted to high-caste males, and in practice specifically to the rich, the
42
spiritually gifted, or the learned. But bhakti is for all human beings, regardless of their
rank, gender, or talent. Any person’s chosen deity may help him obtain life’s rewards or
avoid its disasters. At the same time, such a chosen deity may be the subject of pure,
unmotivated devotional love, recollected in a few moments of morning meditation, in
prayers uttered before a shrine, or in the lighting of incense.
Deities
As one Hindu author Sitansu Chakravarti helpfully explains in Hinduism: A Way of
Life (1991),
Hinduism is a monotheistic religion which believes that God manifests Himself or
Herself in several forms. One is supposed to worship the form that is most appealing to
the individual without being disrespectful to other forms of worship.
Although the specific details of ritual action and the names and appearances of deities
vary vastly across the subcontinent, commonalities in ritual structure and attitude
override the great diversity of ritual practices and associated mythic tales. Whether
offering soaked raw chickpeas to Shiva’s agent Bhairuji in Rajasthan, for example, or
offering a goat to the Goddess in Bengal, Hindus approach deities through similarly
structured actions. These are just as pan-Hindu as the eternal Vedas or the three
important deities—Shiva, Vishnu, and the Devi, whose forms and names vary widely but
are nonetheless recognizable to Hindus throughout the world.
Ethnographies of rural Hindu practices reveal a wide variety of human relationships
with multiple divine beings. These relationships are based not only on family
and community affiliations but also on individual life experiences, so that individuals
and families often develop idiosyncratic religiosities while remaining well within the
range of normative patterns. A household of Gujars (a community associated with
herding, dairy production, and agriculture) in a Rajasthani village presents one
representative example. This family is particularly devoted to two deities from whom
they believe they have received special blessings: Dev Narayan, a regional hero
considered to be an avatar or incarnation of Vishnu, and Sundar Mata (“Beautiful
Mother”), a local goddess, or village mother.
Dev Narayan is worshipped at multiple sites throughout Rajasthan. However, each of
his shrines—in Puvali, in Banjari, and so forth—has its own identity. This particular
family lives a short walk from Puvali’s Dev Narayan, but they believe that the more
remote Banjari’s Dev Narayan—located near their ancestral home—has blessed two
generations with long-awaited sons. They go weekly for darshan (divine vision of a
deity’s image) to Puvali’s Dev Narayan, as it is convenient. But when the time comes to
hold a major feast of thanksgiving to the deity who granted their prayers, they go to a
great deal of extra trouble and added expense to hold this feast at the more remote place
of Banjari. If questioned, the adults in this family would state conclusively that there is
43
no difference between the two places and moreover that God is ultimately singular and
to be found nowhere on the face of the earth but rather in one’s own body and heart. An
everyday Hinduism embedded in materiality motivates the distinction between Banjari
and Puvali, while a Hinduism that dissolves differences and seeks transcendent unity
denies it. Most persons live their lives holding and moving between both these
orientations.
Sundar Mata has only one place, on the edge of the Gujar family’s home village. She has
helped them with various problems over the years. In times of trouble, devotees
sometimes make inner vows to Sundar Mata (or any deity), no matter where they are.
But to fulfill that vow, thankful persons must present themselves and their offerings in
her particular place. Sundar Mata’s shrine, like most Hindu places of worship,
accumulates gifts dedicated by grateful worshipers. For example, the largest iron trident
at Sundar Mata’s shrine was offered by a migrant labourer who lost his suitcase on the
train back from Delhi. He vowed to give his village goddess a huge trident if he got the
bag back, which he miraculously did.
Although a local deity, Sundar Mata is related to pan-Hindu goddesses such
as Lakshmi, Parvati, or Durga. They are all thought to be manifestations of a single
goddess; name and form are ultimately not significant. Yet again it should be noted that
human worshipers attach themselves to certain images and localities, and, for those
devoted to Sundar Mata, not any goddess will do.
Durga, Rajasthani miniature of the Mewar school, mid-17th century, in a private
collection.Pramod Chandra
This family that honours Dev Narayan and Sundar Mata also worships lineage deities at
home. Ritual attention to the spirits of deceased uncles and infants ensures their
household’s well-being, and each domestic group takes similar care of loved ones who
have died. Several members of the Gujar family portrayed here have taken a once-in-a44
lifetime pilgrimage as far as Haridwar in Uttar Pradesh, Gaya in south-central Bihar,
and Puri in eastern Orissa. Mementos of these journeys—such as framed images of the
sacred Ganges River’s descent to earth or the central icons from the temple of Puri in
Orissa—are placed in their home shrine. Home shrines in general accumulate sacred
objects and images eclectically. Images are treasured and are believed
to manifest miraculous powers, but images are also understood to be lifeless and
dispensable—another reflection of the Hindu genius for seeing both sides.
Worship
Worship, or puja, is the central action of practical Hinduism. Scholars describe Hindu
worship as a preeminently transactional event; through worship, humans approach
deities by respectful interactions with their powers. At every level, from elaborate
temple rituals to simple home practice, worship consists of offerings made and blessings
received; reverence is rendered and grace pours down. The purpose of many rituals is to
promote
auspiciousness
(kalyana, mangala, shri)—a pervasive Hindu
concept
indicating all kinds of good fortune or well-being.
Ritual manuals in vernacular languages offer explicit instructions on exactly what
should be offered and declare what benefits may be obtained through specific acts of
worship. Benefits may be as general as health and prosperity or as specific as the
removal of a particular illness. They also conventionally include rewards after death—
thus uniting this-worldly and other-worldly blessings. Devotional songs and statements,
however, persistently deny all mechanical views of divine exchanges, insisting that
humans have nothing to give, that everything belongs to God, and that no truly religious
action should ever be performed instrumentally. Thus, the key tension between external
ritual and internal realization that originated in Vedic times and was perpetuated in
devotional teachings is sustained in popular present-day ritual action.
One key element in all worship is prasada, translated simply as “blessing” or “grace”
and sometimes more literally as “blessed leftovers.” This term refers to the returned
portion of a worshiper’s or pilgrim’s offering, which is understood as having value added
by the intangible process of a deity’s consumption. Prasada to be used for offerings is
hawked by vendors on the road to a temple, but this food does not truly become graced
until it has been given as an offering and received back. Many foodstuffs are used
as prasada; bananas or other raw fruits and coconuts are particularly common, as are
various candies and milk products. Fresh flowers are often included on an offering tray
and may also be returned as prasada. Other substances commonly distributed at
temples include the water in which icons have been ritually bathed,
called charanamrit (“foot nectar”), and the ash from burnt offerings. What all these
have in common is contact with the deity’s power in the process of worship and service.
45
Another important element of temple worship is seeing the deity: darshan. Here again,
a two-way but fundamentally unequal flow takes place. An image is always enlivened
and given eyes; the worshiper’s delighted gaze at the deity engages the deity’s awareness
of the worshiper, and a channel of grace is formed. Sound and scent also alert deities to
humans in their presence. Ringing bells, blowing conch shells, singing or playing
instrumental music, burning incense, and pouring clarified butter onto smoldering coals
are among the activities intended to alert the deity of the devotee’s presence. Worshipers
commonly prostrate themselves, symbolically offering respect and their own bodies. A
circumambulation of the deity’s altar is another physical mode of engagement with
divine power. Hindu worship is accurately described as involving all the senses.
Worship is by no means confined to temples. It may be performed at a home altar, a
wayside shrine, or anywhere a devotee decides to mark off a sacred space. Actions at
home may be far less elaborate than those at temples, more routinized as part of daily
household life, and are performed without priestly expertise. South Indian housewives
traditionally turn their thresholds into auspicious altars for the goddess each morning as
they draw ritual designs, which are almost instantly trampled back into dust.
Conceptually distinct from worship yet often conflated with it is seva, or service. This
refers to regular, respectful attentions to the needs of enshrined deities, or icons
(murti). Service in many temples is twice daily or more often. At shrines it may involve
bathing an icon, changing its ornaments, ringing bells, and waving lights before it
(arati). In temples the person who does seva is normally a ritual expert, regularly
present. Although seva is never done with an aim in mind, it is understood to keep the
gods beneficently inclined, and flawed seva may cause trouble. Performing seva is good
for the soul of the server.
Divination, spirit possession, and healing
Simple practices of divination are common to practical Hinduism. Everyone wants to
know: Will my wish be fulfilled? Will my prayer be granted? The answers to such yes-no
questions may be revealed by any of a number of practices. Plucking grains between
thumb and finger from a pile and counting them to see if they add up to an auspicious
number, pressing flowers to the wall and waiting for them to fall, and pouring clarified
butter on coals and seeing if a flame rises up are common practices in more than one
region of India.
A more elaborate mode of communicating with divine power is possession, in which
a human being, male or female, is thought to act as a vehicle for a deity’s mind and
voice. This practice is also found in every geographic region where Hinduism flourishes.
Although more common to rural areas, it is not absent from urban religion. A possessed
priest or priestess is able to provide answers more complex than “yes” or “no.” A
medium possessed by a deity may identify certain spirits of the dead who are troubling
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someone with symptoms of physical and mental illness. Usually these spirits are
understood to cause trouble because they are not satisfied with the attention they are
getting. The medium will prescribe ritual actions designed to transform the spirit from a
source of affliction to a benevolent or neutral power or to send the spirit away. Purely
malevolent beings, including jealous “witches” or nameless wandering ghosts,
are cajoled, bullied, or even frightened into departure.
Practical Hinduism is greatly concerned with maintaining mental and physical health.
Although a possessed priest occasionally forbids resort to doctors and their remedies, in
the majority of cases healing rituals operate in conjunction with medicines, injections,
and operations. Familial problems are often untangled with the help of a possessed
priest in consultations sometimes likened by observers to group therapy.
Women’s religious practices
Women’s rituals comprise an important part of practical Hinduism. Some maleauthored Hindu scriptures limit women’s religious roles, consider women more subject
than men to bodily impurities, and subordinate them to their fathers and husbands.
Priests in temples and other public spaces are predominantly—though not exclusively—
male. Most domestic Hindu rituals, however, lie in the hands and hearts of women.
Women perform their own seva and puja at permanent or temporary domestic shrines,
are the chief ritual experts at many calendrical festivals, and are responsible for many
ritual aspects of weddings and other life-cycle celebrations. Women more frequently
than men undertake personal vows (vrata)—individually or collectively—to ensure the
well-being of their families.
The elements of a vrata usually include a partial fast, simple worship in a domestic
space temporarily purified for this purpose, and often the retelling of one or more
stories honouring the deities and exemplifying the rewards or describing the origins of
the ritual. The event may conclude with the consumption of special food to break the
fast. Vows are often associated with calendrical cycles, whether solar, lunar, or both. For
example, each day of the week is identified with a particular deity: Monday with Shiva,
Tuesday with Hanuman, Wednesday with Ganesha, and so forth. If a woman undertakes
a Monday vrata, she will fast and worship Shiva and tell his story every Monday. Or, a
person may do an eleventh vrata, a vow for the eleventh day of the lunar calendar,
which would come twice a month in the waxing and waning halves of the moon. Some
vows are undertaken for the occasional potent convergence of both calendrical systems,
such as somavati amavasa, a Monday dark moon.
Women’s ritually performed stories feature heroines who may be devotees of the deity
being honoured, daughters of female devotees, or persons ignorant of that particular
deity who then learn about its power and blessings in the course of severe tribulations.
Notably, the heroines of women’s devotional stories exemplify moral virtues, ritual
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knowledge, devotional fervour, and transformative agency. The power accumulated by
women through their ritual actions should never be used exclusively for their own wellbeing. Selflessness is a very important virtue that is exemplified by self-denial in fasting.
Nonetheless, because women’s well- being is connected to familial well-being, women
see their rituals as productive of better circumstances for themselves and their loved
ones. For women, practical Hinduism is a space where they express their competence,
self-respect, and power and see themselves as protectors of husbands, brothers, and
sons. Even while critiquing the ways in which some Hindu traditions disadvantage
women, Indian feminists have located important resources for women in goddess
worship, in vrata narratives, and in the sense of gender solidarity and self-worth that
women’s ritual produce.
Pilgrimage
Pilgrimage in Hinduism, as in other religions, is the practice of journeying to sites where
religious powers, knowledge, or experience are deemed especially accessible. Hindu
pilgrimage is rooted in ancient scriptures. According to textual scholars, the earliest
reference to Hindu pilgrimage is in the Rigveda (c. 1500 BCE), in which the “wanderer”
is praised. Numerous later texts, including the epic Mahabharata (c. 300 BCE–300 CE)
and several of the mythological Puranas (c. 300–750 CE), elaborate on the capacities of
particular sacred sites to grant boons, such as health, wealth, progeny, and deliverance
after death. Texts enjoin Hindu pilgrims to perform rites on behalf of ancestors and
recently deceased kin. Sanskrit sources as well as devotional literature in
regional vernacular languages praise certain places and their miraculous capacities.
Pilgrims bathing in the Ganges River at Haridwar, India.
Paul Popper Ltd.
Pilgrimage has been increasingly popular since the 20th century, facilitated by everimproving transportation. Movement over actual distance is critical to pilgrimage, for
what is important is not just visiting a sacred space but leaving home. Most pilgrimage
centres hold periodic religious fairs called melas to mark auspicious astrological
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moments or important anniversaries. In 2001, for example, the Kumbh
Mela in Allahabad was attended during a six-week period by tens of millions of pilgrims.
Because of shared elements in rituals, a pilgrim from western Rajasthan does not feel
alienated in the eastern pilgrimage town of Puri, even though the spoken language, the
landscape and climate, the deities’ names and appearances, and the food offerings are
markedly different from those the pilgrim knows at home. Moreover, pilgrimage works
to propagate practices among diverse regions because stories and tales of effective and
attractive ritual acts circulate along with pilgrims.
Pilgrimage sites are often located in spots of great natural beauty thought to be pleasing
to deities as well as humans. Environmental activists draw on the mythology of the
sacred landscapes to inspire Hindu populations to adopt sustainable environmental
practices. The Sanskrit and Hindi word for pilgrimage centre is tirtha, literally a river
ford or crossing place. The concept of a ford is associated with pilgrimage centres not
simply because many are on riverbanks but because they are metaphorically places for
transition, either to the other side of particular worldly troubles or beyond the endless
cycle of birth and death.
Ann G. Gold Vasudha Narayanan
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CHAPTER V
Rituals, Social Practices, And Institutions of the
tantric Society
Sacrifice and worship
Although the Vedic fire rituals were largely replaced in Puranic and modern Hinduism
by image worship and other forms of devotionalism, many Hindu rites can be traced
back to Vedism. Certain royal sacrifices—such as the rajasuya, or consecration ritual—
remained popular with Hindu kings until modern times. Other large-scale Vedic
sacrifices (shrauta) have been regularly maintained from ancient times to the present by
certain families and groups of Brahmans. The surviving rituals from the Vedic period,
however, tend to be observed at the level of the domestic (grihya) ritual.
Domestic rites
The Vedic householder was expected to maintain a domestic fire into which he made his
offerings. Normally he did this himself, but in many cases he employed
a Brahman officiant. In the course of time, the family priest was given a large part in
these ceremonies, so that most Hindus have employed Brahmans for the administration
of the “sacraments” (samskaras). The samskaras include all important life-cycle events,
from conception to cremation, and are the main constituents of the domestic ritual.
Samskaras: rites of passage
The samskaras are transitional rites intended to prepare a person for a certain event or
for the next stage in life by removing taints (sins) or by generating fresh qualities. If the
blemishes incurred in this or a previous life are not removed, the person is impure and
will not be rewarded for any ritual acts. The samskaras sanctify critical moments and
are deemed necessary for unfolding a person’s latent capacities for development.
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In antiquity there was a great divergence of opinion about the number of rites of
passage, but in later times 16 were recognized as most important. In modern times
most samskaras—except those of prenatal initiation, marriage, and death—have fallen
into disuse or are performed in an abridged or simplified form without Vedic mantras or
a priest.
Prenatal rites such as the punsavana (begetting of a son), which is observed in the third
month of pregnancy, are still popular. The birth is itself the subject of elaborate
ceremonies, the main features of which are an oblation of ghee (clarified butter) cast
into the fire; the introduction of a pellet of honey and ghee into the newborn child’s
mouth, which according to many authorities is an act intended to produce mental and
physical strength; the murmuring of mantras for the sake of a long life; and rites to
counteract inauspicious influences. There is much divergence of opinion as to the time
of the name-giving ceremony; in addition to the personal name, there is often another
one that should be kept secret for fear of sinister designs against the child. The defining
moment comes, however, when the father, the mother, or a family elder utters the name
into the child’s ear.
A hallmark of childhood samskaras is a general male bias. In the birth ritual
(jatakarman), the manuals direct the father to breathe upon the child’s head, a practice
transparently designed to supplant the role that biology gives to the mother. In practice,
however, the mother may join in this breathing ritual.
There is also an array of regional life-cycle rites that focuses specifically upon the lives of
girls and women. In some communities in southern India, for instance, one finds an
initiation rite (vilakkitu kalyanam) that corresponds roughly to upanayana, the male
initiation, and that gives girls the authority to light oil lamps and thereby to become full
participants in proper domestic worship. Other rites celebrate first menstruation or
mark various moments surrounding childbirth. Typically women act as officiants.
The important upanayana initiation was traditionally held when a boy was between the
ages of 8 and 12, and it marked his entry into the community of the three higher classes
of society; in contemporary Hinduism this can be done at any time before his wedding.
In this rite he becomes a “twice-born one,” or dvija. Traditionally, this was also the
beginning of a long period of Veda study and education in the house under the guidance
of a teacher (guru). In modern practice, the haircutting ceremony—formerly performed
in a boy’s third year—and the initiation are usually performed on the same day, the
homecoming ceremony at the end of the period of study being little more than a
formality.
Wedding ceremonies, the most important of all, not only have remained elaborate—and
often very expensive—but also have incorporated various elements—among others,
propitiations and expiations—that are not indicated in the oldest sources. Already in
ancient times there existed great divergences in accordance with local customs or family
or caste traditions. However, the following practices are considered essential in the
performance of the wedding rite in most communities. The date is fixed only after
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careful astrological calculation; the bridegroom is conducted to the home of his future
parents-in-law, who receive him as an honoured guest; there are offerings of roasted
grain into the fire; the bridegroom has to take hold of the bride’s hand; he conducts her
around the sacrificial fire; seven steps are taken by bride and bridegroom to solemnize
the irrevocability of the unity; and both are, in procession, conducted to their new home,
which the bride enters without touching the threshold. The fire is considered to be the
“eternal witness,” and texts on dharma insist upon the essential nature of the fire in
Hindu weddings. However, it is not used in the wedding ceremonies of many
communities in Kerala and among Coorgi Hindus.
Of eight forms of marriage recognized by the ancient authorities, two have remained in
vogue: the simple gift of a bride and the legalization of the alliance by means of a
marriage gift paid to the bride’s family. In the Vedic period, girls seem not to have
married before they had reached puberty. Child marriage and the condemnation of the
remarriage of widows, especially among the higher classes, became customary later and
have gradually, since the mid-19th century, lost their stringency.
There are many variations of other types of rituals as well. For example, the
traditional funeral method is cremation. Burial is reserved for those who have not been
sufficiently purified by samskaras (i.e., children) and those who no longer need the
ritual fire to be conveyed to the hereafter, such as ascetics who have renounced all
earthly concerns. Members of the Lingayat (also called Virashaiva) community,
however, do not practice cremation but instead bury their dead.
An important and meritorious complement of the funeral offices is
the shraddha ceremony, in which food is offered to Brahmans for the benefit of the
deceased. Many people still perform this rite at least once a year, even when they no
longer engage in any of the five obligatory daily offerings discussed below.
Daily offerings
There are five obligatory offerings: (1) offerings to the gods (food taken from the meal),
(2) a cursory offering (bali) made to “all beings,” (3) a libation of water mixed with
sesame offered to the spirits of the deceased, (4) hospitality, and (5) recitation of the
Vedas. Although some traditions prescribe a definite ritual in which these five
“sacrifices” are performed, this has remained more of an ideal than a practice. In most
cases the five daily offerings are merely a way of speaking about one’s religious
obligations in general.
Other private rites
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The morning and evening adorations (sandhya), being a very important duty of the
traditional householder, are mainly Vedic in character but have become lengthy because
of the addition of Puranic and Tantric elements. If not shortened, the morning
ceremonies consist of self-purification, bathing, prayers, and recitation of mantras,
especially the Gayatri-mantra (Rigveda 3.62.10), a prayer for spiritual stimulation
addressed to the Sun. The accompanying ritual includes (1) the application of marks on
the forehead, characterizing the adherents of a particular religious community, (2) the
presentation of offerings (water, flowers) to the Sun, and (3) meditative concentration.
There are Shaiva and Vaishnava variants, and some elements are optional. The
observance of the daily obligations, including the care of bodily purity and professional
duties, leads to earthly reward and helps to preserve the state of sanctity required to
enter into contact with the divine.
Temple worship
Image worship in sectarian Hinduism takes place both in small household shrines and
in the temple. Many Hindu authorities claim that regular temple worship to one of the
deities of the devotional communities procures the same results for the worshiper as did
the performance of one of the great Vedic sacrifices, and one who provides the
patronage for the construction of a temple is called a “sacrificer” (yajamana).
Shiva temple, Bhumara.
53
Frederick M. Asher
Building a temple, which belongs to whoever paid for it or to the community that
occupies it, is believed to be a meritorious deed recommended to anyone desirous of
heavenly reward. The choice of a site, which should be serene and lovely, is determined
by astrology and divination as well as by its proximity to human dwellings. The size and
artistic value of temples range widely, from small village shrines with simple statuettes
to great temple-cities whose boundary walls, pierced by monumental gates (gopura),
enclose various buildings, courtyards, pools for ceremonial bathing, and sometimes
even schools, hospitals, and monasteries.
Temple services, which may be held by any qualified member of the community, are
neither collective nor carried out at fixed times. The rituals of temple worship are
frequently performed by male Brahmans. Those present experience, as spectators, the
fortifying and beneficial influence radiating from the sacred acts. Sometimes worshipers
assemble to meditate, to take part in chanting, or to listen to an exposition of doctrine.
The puja (worship) performed in public “for the well-being of the world” is, though
sometimes more elaborate, largely identical with that executed for personal interest.
There are, however, many regional differences and even significant variations within the
same community.
Shaiva rites
Ascetic tendencies were much in evidence among the Pashupatas, the oldest Shaiva
tradition in northern India. Their Yoga, consisting of a constant meditative contact with
God in solitude, required that they frequent places for cremating bodies. One group that
emerged out of the Pashupata sect carried human skulls (hence the name Kapalikas,
from kapala, “skull”). The Kapalikas used the skulls as bowls for liquor into which they
projected and worshipped Shiva as Kapalika, the “Skull Bearer,” or Bhairava, the
“Frightful One,” and then drank to become intoxicated. Their belief was that
an ostentatious indifference to anything worldly was the best method of severing the ties
of samsara.
The view and way of life peculiar to the Virashaivas, or Lingayats (“Lingam-Wearers”),
in southwestern India is characterized by a deviation from common Hindu traditions
and institutions such as sacrificial rites, temple worship, pilgrimages, child marriages,
and inequality of the sexes. Initiation (diksha) is, on the other hand, an obligation laid
on every member of the community. The spiritual power of the guru is bestowed upon
the newborn and converts, who receive the eightfold shield (which protects devotees
from ignorance of the supremacy of God and guides them to final beatitude) and
the lingam. The miniature lingam, the centre and basis of all their religious practices
and observances, which they always bear on their body, is held to be God himself
concretely represented. Worship is due it twice or three times a day. When a Lingayat “is
absorbed into the lingam” (i.e., dies), his body is not cremated, as is customary in
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Hinduism, but is interred, like ascetics of other groups. Lingayats who have reached a
certain level of holiness are believed to die in the state of emancipation.
Shaivism, though inclined in doctrinal matters to inclusiveness, inculcates some
fundamental lines of conduct: one should worship one’s spiritual preceptor (guru) as
God himself, follow his path, consider him to be present in oneself, and dissociate
oneself from all opinions and practices that are incompatible with the Shaiva creed. Yet
some of Shiva’s devotees also worship other gods, and the “Shaivization” of various
ancient traditions is sometimes rather superficial.
Like many other Indian religions, the Shaiva-siddhanta has developed an elaborate
system of ethical philosophy, primarily with a view to preparing the way for those who
aspire to liberation. Because dharma leads to happiness, there is no distinction between
sacred and secular duties. All deeds are performed as services to God and with
the conviction that all life is sacred and God-centred. A devout way of living and
meditative devotion are thus much recommended. Kashmir Shaivism developed the
practice of a simple method of salvation: by the recognition (pratyabhijna)—direct,
spontaneous, technique-free, but full of bhakti—of one’s identity with God.
Vaishnava rites
According to tradition, the faithful Shrivaishnava Brahman arranges his day around five
pursuits: purificatory rites, collecting the requisites for worship, acts of worship, study
and contemplation of the meaning of the sacred books, and meditative concentration on
the Lord’s image. However, these pursuits have always been treated as an ideal. Lifelong
obligations include the performance of sacrifices and other rites, recitation of the
thousand names of Vishnu, acts of worship at home and in the temple, recitation of the
scriptures, and visits to sacred places. Ramanuja, the great theologian and philosopher
of the 12th century, recommended, in addition to these practices, concentration on God,
a virtuous way of living, and a dispassionate attitude to success and misfortune.
According to Madhva (c. 1199–c. 1278), faithful observance of all regulations of daily
conduct will contribute to eventual success in the quest for liberation. Devout
Vaishnavas emphasize God’s omnipotence and the far-reaching effects of his grace. They
attach much value to the repetition of his name or of sacred formulas (japa) and to the
praise and commemoration of his deeds as a means of self-realization and of unification
with his essence. Special stress is laid on ahimsa (“noninjury”), the practice of not
killing or not causing injury to living creatures.
Sacred times and festivals
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Hindu festivals are combinations of religious ceremonies, semi-ritual
spectacles, worship, prayer, lustrations, processions, music and dances, eating,
drinking, lovemaking, licentiousness, feeding the poor, and other activities of a religious
or traditional character. The original purpose of these activities was to purify,
avert malicious influences, renew society, bridge over critical moments, and stimulate or
resuscitate the vital powers of nature (hence the term utsava, meaning both the
generation of power and a festival). Because Hindu festivals relate to the cyclical life of
nature, they are supposed to prevent it from stagnating. These cyclic festivals—which
may last for many days—continue to be celebrated throughout India.
Holi
Children celebrating the festival of Holi, Kolkata (Calcutta).
Kaushik Sengupta/AP Images
Such festivals refresh the mood of the participants, further the consciousness of their
own power, and help to compensate for their sensations of fear and vulnerability
concerning the forces of nature. Such mixtures of worship and pleasure require the
participation of the entire community and create harmony among its members, even if
not all contemporary participants are aware of the festival’s original character. There are
also innumerable festivities in honour of specific gods, celebrated by individual temples,
villages, and religious communities.
An important festival, formerly celebrating Kama, the god of love, survives in the Holi, a
festival connected with the spring equinox and in western India with the wheat harvest.
Although commemorated primarily in northern India, the rituals associated with Holi
vary regionally. Among the Marathas, a people who live along the west coast of India
from Mumbai (Bombay) to Goa, the descendants of heroes who died on the battlefield
perform a dance, sword in hand, in honour of their ancestors until they believe
themselves possessed by the spirits of the heroes. In Bengal swings are made for
Krishna; in other regions a bonfire is also essential. The tradition that accounts for the
festival of Holi describes how young Prahlada, in spite of his demonic father’s
opposition, worshipped Vishnu and was carried into the fire by the female
demon Holika, the embodiment of evil, who was believed to be immune to the ravages of
fire. Through Vishnu’s intervention, Prahlada emerged unharmed, while Holika was
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burned to ashes. The bonfires are intended to commemorate this event or rather
to reiterate the triumph of virtue and religion over evil and sacrilege. This explains why
objects representing the sickness and impurities of the past year—the new year begins
immediately after Holi—are thrown into the bonfire, and it is considered inauspicious
not to look at it. Moreover, people pay or forgive debts, reconcile quarrels, and try to rid
themselves of the evils, conflicts, and impurities they have accumulated during the
preceding months, translating the central conception of the festival into a justification
for dealing anew with continuing situations in their lives.
Hindus celebrate a number of other important festivals, including Diwali, in which all
classes of society participate. It takes place in October or November and features
worship and ceremonial lights in honour of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and good
fortune; fireworks to commemorate the victory of Krishna over Narakasura, the demon
of hell; and gambling, an old ritual custom intended to secure luck for the coming year.
The nine-day Durga festival, or Navratri, celebrated in September or October, is,
especially in Bengal, a splendid homage to the goddess; in North India it is a celebration
of Rama’s victory over Ravana.
Ritual and social status
Social structure
The caste system, which has organized Indian society for millennia, is
thoroughly legitimated by and intertwined with Hindu religious doctrine and practice.
Although primarily connected with the Hindu tradition, the caste system is also present
in some measure among Jains, Sikhs, and Christians in South Asia.
Four social classes, or varnas—Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras—provide
the simplified structure for the enormously complicated system of thousands of castes
and subcastes. According to a passage from the Purusha hymn (Rigveda 10.90),
the Brahman was the Purusha’s mouth, the Kshatriya his arms, the Vaishya his thighs,
and the Shudra his feet. This depiction of the Purusha, or cosmic man, gives an idea of
the functions and mutual relations of the four main social classes.
The three main classes in the classic division of Indian society are the Brahmans, the
warriors, and the commoners. The Brahmans, whatever their worldly avocations, claim
to have by virtue of their birth the authority to teach the Veda, perform ritual sacrifices
for others, and accept gifts and subsistence. The term alms is misleading;
the dakshina offered at the end of a rite to a Brahman officiant is not a fee but
an oblation through which the rite is made complete. Brahmans are held to be the
highest among the castes because of their sanctification through the samskaras (rites of
passage) and their observance of restrictive rules. The main duty of the nobility
(the Kshatriyas) is to protect the people and that of the commoners (the Vaishyas) is to
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tend cattle, to trade, and to cultivate land. Even if a king (theoretically of Kshatriya
descent) was not of noble descent, he was still clothed with divine authority as an
upholder of dharma. He was consecrated by means of a complex and highly significant
ritual; he was Indra and other gods (deva) incarnate. The emblems or paraphernalia of
his office represent sovereign authority: the white umbrella of state, for example, is the
residence of Shri-Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune. All three higher classes had to
sacrifice and had to study the Veda, although the responsibilities of the Vaishyas in
sacred matters were less demanding.
According to the texts on dharma, the duty of the fourth class (the Shudras) was to serve
the others. According to Hindu tradition, the Veda should not be studied in the presence
of Shudras, but they may listen to the recitation of epics and Puranas. They are
permitted to perform the five main acts of worship (without Vedic mantras) and
undertake observances, but even today they maintain various ceremonies of their own,
carried out without Brahmanic assistance. Yet despite the statements in the texts on
dharma, there was considerable fluidity in the status of the castes. Communities such as
the Vellalas, for instance, are regarded as Shudras by Brahmans but as a high caste by
other groups.
Accordingly, a distinction is often made among Shudras. Some are considered to be
purer and to have a more correct behaviour and way of living than others—the former
tending to assimilate with higher castes and the latter to rank with the lowest in the
social scale, who, often called Chandalas, were at an early date charged with sweeping,
bearing corpses, and other impure occupations. Ritual purity was and is an important
criterion; impure conduct and neglect of Veda study and the rules regarding forbidden
food might suffice to stigmatize the “twice-born” as a Shudra. On the other hand, in later
times the trend of many communities has been toward integrating all Shudras into the
Brahmanic system. The Brahmans, who have far into modern times remained a
respected, traditional, and sometimes intellectual upper class, were much in demand
because of their knowledge of rites and traditions. Although Kshatriya rank is claimed
by many whose title is one of function or creation rather than of inheritance, this class is
now rare in many regions. Moreover, for a considerable time none of the four varnas
represented anything other than a series of hierarchically arranged groups of castes.
Castes
The origin of the caste system is not known with certainty. Hindus maintain that the
proliferation of the castes (jatis, literally “births”) was the result of intermarriage (which
is prohibited in Hindu works on dharma), which led to the subdivision of the four
classes, or varnas. Modern theorists, however, assume that castes arose from
differences in family ritual practices, racial distinctions, and occupational differentiation
and specialization. Scholars also doubt whether the simple varna system was ever more
than a theoretical socioreligious ideal and have emphasized that the highly complex
58
division of Hindu society into nearly 3,000 castes and subcastes was probably in place
even in ancient times.
In general, a caste is an endogamous hereditary group of families bearing a common
name, often claiming a common descent, as a rule professing to follow the same
hereditary calling, adhering to the same customs—especially regarding purity, meals,
and marriages—and often further divided into smaller endogamous circles. Moreover,
tribes, guilds, or religious communities characterized by particular customs—for
example, the Lingayats—could easily be regarded as castes. The status of castes varies in
different localities. Although social mobility is possible, the mutual relationship of castes
is hierarchically determined: local Brahman groups occupy the highest place, and
differences in ritual purity are the main criteria of position in the hierarchy. Most
impure are the so-called “untouchables,” officially designated as Scheduled Castes in the
constitution of modern India. Many Scheduled Caste groups now prefer the name Dalit
(“Crushed” or “Oppressed”). Among the Scheduled Castes, however, there are numerous
subdivisions, each of which regards itself as superior to others.
Traditional Hindus maintain that the ritual impurity and “untouchability” inherent in
these groups does not essentially differ from that temporarily associated with mourners
or menstruating women. This, and the fact that some exterior group or other might rise
in estimation and become an interior one or that individual outcastes might be well-todo, does not alter the fact that there was social discrimination. The Scheduled Castes
were subjected to various socioreligious disabilities before mitigating tendencies helped
bring about reform. After independence, social discrimination was prohibited, and the
practice of preventing access to religious, occupational, or civil rights on the grounds of
untouchability was made a punishable offense. Despite these prohibitions, Scheduled
Castes were sometimes barred from the use of temples and other religious institutions
and from public schools.
From the traditional Hindu point of view, this social system is the necessary
complement of the principles of dharma, karma, and samsara. Corresponding to hells
and heavenly regions in the hereafter, the castes are the mundane social frame within
which karma is manifested and worked out.
Social protest
For many centuries certain Indian religious communities have been dedicated in whole
or in part to the elimination of caste discrimination. Many have been guided
by bhakti sentiments, including the Virashaivas, Sikhs, Kabir Panthis, Satnamis, and
Ramnamis, all of whom bear a complicated relation to the greater Hindu fold. A major
theme in bhakti poetry throughout India has been the ridicule of caste and the etiquette
of ritual purity that relates to it. In North India this element is stronger among
the bhakti poets who accept the concept of nirguna, which holds that brahman is to be
characterized as without qualities, than among the poets who advocate the idea
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of saguna, which maintains that brahman possesses qualities. This tendency is not
evident among bhakti poets of South India.
Other religions have provided members of low-ranked castes with a further hope for
escaping social hierarchies associated with Hindu practice. Sikhism has traditionally
rejected caste, a position clearly emphasized in the gurdwaras, where access to sacred
scripture, the Adi Granth, is granted without regard to caste and communal meals are
served to all Sikhs. Nevertheless, some practices associated with the castes were
retained. Islam also offered hope to low-ranked castes in Kerala from the 8th century
onward and elsewhere in India from the 12th century, but some convert groups retained
their original caste organization even after embracing Islam. Christianity exercised a
similar force, serving for centuries as a magnet for disadvantaged Hindus, but to a large
extent converts continue to identify themselves in terms of their original Hindu castes.
In 1956 B.R. Ambedkar, the principal framer of the Indian constitution and a member of
the scheduled Mahar caste, abandoned Hinduism for Buddhism, and millions of his
lower-caste followers eventually also converted to Buddhism. Yet many Ambedkarite
Dalits continue to venerate saints such as Kabir, Chokhamela, and Ravidas, who figure
in the general lore of Hindu bhakti. Other Dalits, especially members of
the Chamar caste (traditionally leather workers), have gone further, identifying
themselves explicitly as Ravidasis, creating a scripture that features his poetry and
building temples that house his image. Still other Dalit communities have claimed since
the early 20th century that they represent India’s original religion (adi dharma),
rejecting caste-coded Vedic beliefs and practices.
Renunciants and the rejection of social order
Another means of rejecting the social order, which forms the background for significant
portions of Hindu belief and practice, is renunciation (self-denial and asceticism). The
rituals of sannyasa, which serve as a gateway to a life of religious discipline, often mimic
death rituals, signifying the renouncer’s understanding that he (or, less typically, she) no
longer occupies a place in family or society. Other rituals serve to induct the initiate into
a new family—the alternative family provided by a celibate religious order, usually
focused on a guru. In principle this family should not be structured along the lines of
caste, and the initiate should pledge to renounce dietary restrictions. In practice,
however, some dietary restrictions remain in India’s most influential renunciant
communities (though not in all), and some renunciant orders are closely paired with
specific communities of householders. This follows a pattern that is loosely present
everywhere. Householders and renunciants offer each other mutual benefits, with the
former dispensing material substance to the theoretically propertyless holy men and
women while the latter dispense religious merit and spiritual guidance in return. Such
an enactment of the values of dharma and moksha is symbiotic to be sure, but that does
not serve to domesticate renunciants entirely. Their existence questions the ultimacy of
anything tied to caste, hierarchy, and bodily well-being.
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Religious orders and holy men
Members of the various denominations who abandon all worldly attachment enter an
“inner circle” or “order” that, seeking a life of devotion, adopts or develops particular
vows and observances, a common cult, and some form of initiation.
Initiation
Hindus are free to join a religious order and must submit to its rites and way of living
after joining it. The initiation (diksha), a rite of purification or consecration involving
the transformation of the aspirant’s personality, is regarded as a complement to, or even
a substitute for, the previous initiation ceremony (the upanayana that all twice-born
Hindus undergo at adolescence), which it strikingly resembles. Such religious
groups integrate ancient, widespread ideas and customs of initiation into the framework
of either the Vaishnava or Shaiva patterns of Hinduism.
Vaishnavism emphasizes their character as an introduction to a life of devotion and as
an entrance into closer contact with God, although happiness, knowledge, a long life,
and a prospect of freedom from karma are also among the ideals to which they
aspire. Shaivas are convinced of the absolute necessity of initiation for anyone desiring
final liberation and require an initiation in accordance with their rituals. All
communities agree that the authority to initiate belongs only to a qualified spiritual
guide (guru), usually a Brahman, who has previously received the special gurudiksha (initiation as a teacher) and is often regarded as representing God himself. The
postulant is sometimes given instruction in the esoteric meaning of the scriptures. The
initiate receives a devotional name and is given the sacred mantras of the community.
There are many complicated forms of initiation: the Vaishnavas differentiate between
the members of the four classes; the Shaivas and Tantrists take into account the natural
aptitude and competency of the recipients and distinguish between first-grade initiates,
who are believed to obtain access to God, and higher-grade initiates, who remain in a
state of holiness.
Yoga
The initiate guided by a guru may practice Yoga (a “methodic exertion” of body and
mind) in order to attain, through mortification, concentration, and meditation, a higher
state
of consciousness and
thereby
find
supreme
knowledge,
achieve
spiritual autonomy, and realize oneness with the Highest (or however the ultimate goal
is conceived). Yoga may be atheistic or theistic and may adopt various philosophical or
religious principles. Every denomination attempted to implement Yogic practices on a
theoretical basis derived from its own teachings. There are many different forms of
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Yoga, and the practices vary according to the stage of advancement of the adepts. All
serious yogis, however, agree in disapproving the use of Yogic methods for worldly
purposes.
Sectarian symbols
The typical Hindu ascetic (sadhu) usually wears a distinctive mark (pundra) on his
forehead and often carries some symbol of his religion. A Vaishnava might possess a
discus (chakra) and a conch shell (sankha), replicas of Vishnu’s flaming weapon and his
instrument of beneficent power and omnipresent protection, or a shalagrama stone or a
tulsi plant, which represent, respectively, Vishnu’s essence and that of his
spouse Lakshmi. A Shaiva might impersonate Shiva and carry a trident (trishula),
denoting empire and the irresistible force of transcendental reality; wear a small lingam;
carry a human skull, showing that he is beyond the terror inspired by the transitoriness
of the world; or smear his body with apotropaic (supposed to avert evil) and
consecratory ashes. These emblems are sacred objects of worship because the divine
presence, when invoked by mantras, is felt to be in them.
A sadhu.
The J. Allan Cash Photolibrary
Brian K. SmithVasudha NarayananThe Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
62
CHAPTER
Tantric Cultural expressions: visual arts, theatre, and
dance
The structure of Indian temples, the outward form of images, and indeed the very
character of Indian art are largely determined by the religion and unique worldview
of India, which penetrated the other provinces of culture and welded them into
a homogeneous whole. Moreover, the art that emerged is highly symbolic. The muchdeveloped ritual-religious symbolism presupposes the existence of a spiritual reality that
may make its presence and influence felt in the material world and can also be
approached through its representative symbols.
The production of objects of symbolic value is therefore more than a technique. The
artisan can begin work only after entering into a state of supranormal consciousness and
must model a devotional image after the ideal prototype. After undergoing a process of
spiritual transformation, the artisan is believed to transform the material used to create
the image into a receptacle of divine power. Like the artisan, the worshiper (sadhaka,
“the one who wishes to attain the goal”), must grasp the esoteric meaning of a statue,
picture, or pot and identify his or her self with the power residing in it. The usual
offering, a handful of flowers, is the means to convey the worshiper’s “life-breath” into
the image.
Types of symbols
If they know how to handle the symbols, the worshipers have at their disposal an
instrument for utilizing the possibilities lying in the depths of their own subconscious as
well as a key to the mysteries of the forces dominating the world.
Yantra and mandala
The general term for an “instrument [for controlling]” is yantra, which is especially
applied to ritual diagrams but can also be applied to devotional images, pictures, and
other such aids to worship. Any yantra represents some aspect of the divine and enables
devotees to worship it immediately within their hearts while identifying themselves with
it. Except in its greater complexity, a mandala does not differ from a yantra, and both
are drawn during a highly complex ritual in a purified and ritually consecrated place.
The meaning and the use of both are similar, and they may be permanent or provisional.
A mandala, delineating a consecrated place and protecting it against disintegrating
63
forces represented in demoniac cycles, is the geometric projection of the universe,
spatially and temporally reduced to its essential plan. It represents in a schematic form
the whole drama of disintegration and reintegration, and the adept can use it to identify
with the forces governing these. As in temple ritual, a vase is employed to receive the
divine power so that it can be projected into the drawing and then into the person of the
adept. Thus, the mandala becomes a support for meditation, an instrument to provoke
visions of the unseen.
A good example of a mandala is the shrichakra, the “Wheel of Shri” (i.e., of
God’s shakti), which is composed of four isosceles triangles with the apices upward,
symbolizing Shiva, and five isosceles triangles with the apices downward, symbolizing
Shakti. The nine triangles are of various sizes and intersect with one another. In the
middle is the power point (bindu), visualizing the highest, the invisible, elusive centre
from which the entire figure and the cosmos expand. The triangles are enclosed by two
rows of (8 and 16) petals, representing the lotus of creation and reproductive vital force.
The broken lines of the outer frame denote the figure to be a sanctuary with four
openings to the regions of the universe.
Another kind of mandala is seen in the grid drawn on a site where a temple is to be
built. Here, the “spiritual” foundation is provided by a yantra, called the mandala of the
Vastu Purusha (spirit) of the site, that is also drawn on the site on which a temple is
built. This rite is a reenactment of a variant of the myth of the Vastu Purusha, an
immortal primeval being who obstructed both worlds until he was subdued by the gods;
the parts of his body became the spirits of the site.
Lingam and yoni
One of the most common objects of worship, whether in temples or in household
worship, is the lingam, a symbol of Shiva. Often much stylized and representing the
cosmic pillar, it emanates its all-producing energy to the four quarters of the universe.
As the symbol of male creative energy, it is frequently combined with its female
counterpart, the yoni, the latter forming the base from which the lingam rises. Although
the lingam originally may have had no relation to Shiva, it has from ancient times been
regarded as symbolizing Shiva’s creative energy and is widely worshipped as his
fundamental form.
Visual theology in icons
The beauty of votary objects is believed to contribute to their power as sacred
instruments, and their ornamentation is held to facilitate the process of inviting the
divine power into them. Statues of gods are not intended to imitate ideal human forms
but to express the supernatural. A divine figure is a “likeness” (pratima), a
temporary benevolent or terrifying expression of some aspect of a god’s nature.
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Iconographic handbooks attach great importance to the ideology behind images and
reveal, for example, that Vishnu’s eight arms stand for the four cardinal and
intermediate points of the compass. A deity’s four faces may illustrate the concept of
God’s fourfoldness, typifying his strength, knowledge, lordship, and potency. The
emblems express the qualities of their bearers—e.g., a deadly weapon symbolizes the
forces used to destroy evil, and many-headedness symbolizes omniscience. Much use is
made of gestures (mudras); for example, the raised right hand, in the “fear-not” gesture
(abhaya-mudra), bestows protection. Every iconographic detail has its own symbolic
value, helping devotees to direct their energy to a deeper understanding of the various
aspects of the divine and to proceed from external to internal worship. For many
Indians, a consecrated image is a container of concentrated divine energy, and Hindu
theists maintain that it is a form taken by the deity to make himself accessible to the
devotee.
Vishnu on the serpent Shesha, Badami, India.Frederick M. Asher
The arts
Religious principles in sculpture and painting
65
Like literature and the performing arts, the visual arts contributed to the perpetuation
of myths. Images sustain the presence of the god: when Devi is shown seated on her
lion, advancing against the buffalo demon, she represents the affirmative forces of the
universe and the triumph of divine power over wickedness. Male and female figures in
uninterrupted embrace, as in Shaiva iconography, signify the union of opposites and the
eternal process of generation. In Hindu sculpture the tendency is toward hieratic poses
of a god in a particular conventional stance (murti; image), which, once fixed,
perpetuates itself. An icon is a frozen incident of a myth. For example,
one murti of Shiva is the “destruction of the elephant,” in which Shiva appears dancing
before and below a bloody elephant skin that he holds up before the image of his
consort; the stance is the summary of his triumph over the elephant demon. A god may
also appear in a characteristic pose while holding in his multitudinous hands his various
emblems, on each of which hangs a story. Lovers sculpted on temples
are auspicious symbols on a par with foliage, water jars, and other representatives of
fertility. Carvings, such as those that appear on temple chariots, tend to be more
narrative; even more so are the miniature paintings of the Middle Ages. A favourite
theme in the latter is the myth of the cowherd god Krishna and his love of the
cowherdesses (gopis).
Religious organization of sacred architecture
Temples must be erected on sites that are shubha—i.e., suitable, beautiful, auspicious,
and near water—because it is thought that the gods will not come to other places.
However, temples are not necessarily designed to be congenial to their surroundings,
because a manifestation of the sacred is an irruption, a break in phenomenal continuity.
Temples are understood to be visible representations of a cosmic pillar, and their sites
are said to be navels of the world and are believed to ensure communication with the
gods. Their outward appearance must raise the expectation of meeting with God. Their
erection is a reconstruction and reintegration of Purusha-Prajapati, enabling him to
continue his creative activity, and the finished monuments are symbols of the universe
that is the unfolded One. The owner of the temple (i.e., the individual or community that
paid for its construction)—also called the sacrificer—participates in the process of
reintegration and experiences his spiritual rebirth in the small cella, aptly called the
“womb room” (garbhagriha), by meditating on the God’s presence, symbolized or
actualized in his consecrated image. The cella is in the centre of the temple above the
navel—i.e., the foundation stone—and it may contain a jar filled with the creative power
(shakti) that is identified with the goddess Earth (who bears and protects the
monument), three lotus flowers, and three tortoises (of stone, silver, and gold) that
represent earth, atmosphere, and heaven. The tortoise is a manifestation of Vishnu
bearing Mount Mandara, sometimes thought to be the cosmic pillar; the lotus is the
symbol of the expansion of generative possibilities. The vertical axis or tube, coinciding
with the cosmic pillar, connects all parts of the building and is continued in the finial on
the top; it corresponds to the mystical vertical vein in the body of the worshiper through
which his soul rises to unite itself with the Highest.
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Lakshmana temple, Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India.
Frederick M. Asher
The designing of Hindu temples, like that of religious images, was codified in the Shilpashastras (craft textbooks), and every aspect of the design was believed to offer the
symbolic representation of some feature of the cosmos. The idea of microcosmic
symbolism is strong in Hinduism and comes from Vedic times; the Brahmanas are
replete with similar cosmic interpretations of the many features of the sacrifice. The
Vedic idea of the correspondence (bandhu) between microcosm and macrocosm was
applied to the medieval temple, which was laid out geometrically to mirror the structure
of the universe, with its four geometric quarters and a celestial roof. The temple also
represents the mountain at the navel of the world and often somewhat resembles a
mountain. On the periphery were carved the most worldly and diverse images, including
battles, hunts, circuses, animals, birds, and gods.
The erotic scenes carved at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh and Konarak in Orissa
express a general exuberance that may be an offering of thanksgiving to the gods who
created all. However, that same swarming luxuriance of life may also reflect the concern
that one must set aside worldly temptations before entering the sacred space of the
temple, for the carvings decorate only the outside of the temple; at the centre, the
sanctum sanctorum, there is little if any ornamentation, except for symbols of the god or
goddess. Thus, these carvings simultaneously express a celebration of samsara and a
movement toward moksha.
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Detail of a wall of the Lakshmana temple at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India, c. 941.
P. Chandra
Theatre and dance
Theatrical performances are events that can be used to secure blessings and happiness;
the element of recreation is indissolubly blended with edification and spiritual elevation.
The structure and character of classical Indian drama reveal its origin and function: it
developed from a magico-religious ceremony, which survives as a ritual introduction,
and begins and closes with benedictions. Drama is produced for festive occasions with a
view to spiritual and religious success (siddhi), which must also be prompted by
appropriate behaviour from the spectators; there must be a happy ending; the themes
are borrowed from epic and legendary history; the development and unraveling of the
plot are retarded; and the envy of malign influences is averted by the almost
obligatory buffoon (vidusaka, “the spoiler”). There are also, in addition to films, which
often use the same religious and mythic themes, yatras, a combination of stage play and
various festivities that have contributed much to the spread of the Puranic view of life.
Dancing is not only an aesthetic pursuit but also a divine service. The dance executed
by Shiva as king of dancers (Nataraja), the visible symbol of the rhythm of the universe,
represents God’s five activities: he unfolds the universe out of the drum held in one of
his right hands; he preserves it by uplifting his other right hand in abhaya-mudra; he
reabsorbs it with his upper left hand, which bears a tongue of flame; his transcendental
essence is hidden behind the garb of apparitions, and grace is bestowed and release
made visible by the foot that is held aloft and to which the hands are made to point; and
the other foot, planted on the ground, gives an abode to the tired souls struggling
in samsara. Another dance pose adopted by Shiva is the doomsday tandava, executed
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in his destructive Bhairava manifestation, usually with 10 arms and accompanied
by Devi and a horde of other beings. The related myth is that Shiva conquered a mighty
elephant demon whom he forced to dance until he fell dead; then, wrapped in the blooddripping skin of his victim, the god executed a dance of victory.
There are halls for sacred dances annexed to some temples because of this association
with the divine. The rhythmic movement has a compelling force, generating and
concentrating power or releasing superfluous energy. It induces the experience of the
divine and transforms the dancer into whatever he or she impersonates. Thus, many
tribal dances consist of symbolic enactments of events (harvest, battles) in the hope that
they will be accomplished successfully. Musicians and dancers accompany processions
to expel the demons of cholera or cattle plague. Even today religious themes and the
various relations between humans and God are danced and made visual by the codified
symbolic meanings of gestures and movements (see South Asian Arts: Dance and
theatre).
Arthur Llewellyn BashamJ.A.B. van BuitenenWendy DonigerVasudha NarayananThe
Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
69
CHAPTER VII
Hinduism And The World Beyond-Hinduism and religions
of Indian origin
Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism emerged from the same milieu: the circles of world
renouncers of the 6th century BCE. All share common non-Vedic practices (such
as renunciation itself and various Yogic meditational techniques) and doctrines (such as
the belief in rebirth and the goal of liberation from perpetual transmigration), but
Buddhists and Jains do not accept the authority of the Vedic tradition and therefore,
with some exceptions, are regarded as less than orthodox by Hindus. From the 6th to
the 11th century there was strong competition for royal patronage between the three
communities—with Brahmans representing Hindu values—as well as between
Vaishnavas and Shaivas. In general, the Brahman groups prevailed. In a typically
absorptive gesture, Hindus in time recognized the Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu,
usually the ninth. However, it was sometimes held that Vishnu assumed this form to
mislead and destroy the enemies of the Veda. Hence, the Buddha avatar is rarely
worshipped by Hindus, though it is often highly respected by them. At an institutional
level, certain Buddhist shrines, such as the one marking the Buddha’s enlightenment
at Bodh Gaya, have remained partly under the supervision of Hindu ascetics and are
visited by Hindu pilgrims.
Hinduism has much in common with Jainism, which until the 20th century remained
an Indian religion, especially in social institutions and ritual life; for this reason, many
Hindus still consider it a Hindu sect. The points of difference—e.g., a stricter practice
of ahimsa (“noninjury”) and the absence of sacrifices for the deceased in Jainism—do
not give offense to orthodox Hindus. Moreover, many Jain laypeople worship images as
Hindus do, though with a different rationale. There are even places outside India where
Hindus and Jains have joined to build a single temple, sharing the worship space.
Hinduism and Islam
Hindu relations with Islam and Christianity are in some ways quite different from the
ties and tensions that bind together religions of Indian origin. Hindus live with
a legacy of domination by Muslim and Christian rulers that stretches back many
centuries—in northern India, to the Delhi sultanate established at the beginning of the
13th century. The patterns of relationship between Hindus and Muslims have been
different between north and south India. While there is a history of conquest and
domination in the north, Hindu-Muslim relations in Kerala and Tamil Nadu have been
peaceful. Islam came to south India very early, possibly about the 7th century, through
traders and sea routes. There is a vast body of literature on Islam in Tamil composed
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over almost a thousand years. The early 19th-century Sira Puranam, a biography of the
Prophet Muhammad, is an excellent example. There are also hundreds of
shared ritual spaces, called dargahs (literally, “doorway” or “threshold”), for Hindus
and Muslims. These mark shrines for revered Muslim (frequently Sufi) leaders and are
visited by both Muslims and Hindus. Moreover, close proximity and daily interaction
throughout the centuries has led to efforts to accommodate the existence of the two
religions. One manifestation of such coexistence occurred among some devotional
groups who believed that one God, or the “universal principle,” was the same regardless
of whether it was called Allah or brahman. Various syntheses between the two religions
that emphasize nonsectarianism have arisen in northern India.
Yet there were periods when the political ambitions of Islamic rulers took strength from
iconoclastic aspects of Muslim teaching and led to the devastation of many major Hindu
temple complexes, from Mathura and Varanasi (Banaras) in the north to Chidambaram,
Sriringam, and Madurai in the far south; other temples were converted to mosques.
Episodically, since the 14th century this history has provided rhetorical fuel for Hindu
anger against Muslim rulers. The bloody partition of the South Asian subcontinent into
India and Pakistan in 1947 added a new dimension. Mobilizing Hindu sensibilities about
the sacredness of the land as a whole, Hindus have sometimes depicted the creation of
Pakistan as a dismemberment of the body of India, in the process demonizing Muslims
who have remained within India’s political boundaries.
These strands converged at the end of the 20th century in a campaign to destroy the
mosque built in 1528 by a lieutenant of the Mughal emperor Bābur in Ayodhya, a city
that has traditionally been identified as the place where Rama was born and ruled. In
1992 militant Hindu nationalists from throughout India, who had been organized by the
Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP; “World Hindu Council”), the Rashtriya Swayamsevak
Sangh (RSS; “National Volunteer Alliance”), and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP;
“Indian People’s Party”), destroyed the mosque in an effort to “liberate” Rama and
establish a huge “Rama’s Birthplace Temple” on the spot. The continuing tensions in the
Kashmir region have also spawned outbursts of sectarian violence on both sides,
including the destruction of some Hindu temples there by militant Muslims. Yet,
although the relationship between Hindus and Muslims within India remains
complicated and there are occasional eruptions of tension and violence, in many areas
they have been able to coexist peacefully.
Hinduism and Christianity
Relations between Hinduism and Christianity have been shaped by unequal balances of
political power and cultural influence. Although communities of Christians have lived in
southern India since the middle of the 1st millennium, the great expansion of Indian
Christianity followed the efforts of missionaries working under the protection of British
colonial rule. Their denigration of selected features of Hindu practice—most notably
image worship, suttee, and child marriage (the first two were also criticized by
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Muslims)—was shared by certain Hindus. Beginning in the 19th century and continuing
into the 21st, a movement that might be called neo-Vedanta has emphasized
the monism of certain Upanishads, decried “popular” Hindu “degenerations” such as the
worship of idols, acted as an agent of social reform, and championed dialogue between
other religious communities.
Many Hindus are ready to accept the ethical teachings of the Gospels, particularly
the Sermon on the Mount (whose influence on Gandhi is well known), but reject the
theological superstructure. They regard Christian conceptions about love and its social
consequences as a kind of bhakti and tend to venerate Jesus as a saint, yet many resent
the organization, the reliance on authorities, and the exclusiveness of Christianity,
considering these as obstacles to harmonious cooperation. They subscribe to Gandhi’s
opinion that missionaries should confine their activities to humanitarian service and
look askance at conversion, finding also in Hinduism what might be attractive in
Christianity. A far more typical sentiment is expressed in the eagerness of Hindus of all
social stations, especially the middle class, to send their children to high-quality (often
English-language) schools established and maintained by Christian organizations. No
great fear exists that the religious element in the curriculum will cause Hindu children
to abandon their parents’ faith.
Diasporic Hinduism
Since the appearance of Swami Vivekananda at the World’s Parliament of Religions in
Chicago in 1893 and the subsequent establishment of the Vedanta Society in various
American and British cities, Hinduism has had a growing missionary profile outside the
Indian subcontinent. Conversion as understood by Christians or Muslims is usually not
the aim. As seen in the Vedanta Society, Hindu perspectives are held to be sufficiently
capacious that they do not require new adherents to abandon traditions of worship with
which they are familiar, merely to see them as part of a greater whole. The Vedic
formula “Truth is one, but scholars speak of it in many ways” (“Ekam sat vipra bahudha
vadanti”) is much quoted. Many transnational Hindu communities—including Radha
Soami Satsang Beas, Transcendental Meditation, the self-realization fellowship
Siddha Yoga, the Sathya Sai Baba Satsang, and the International Society for
Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON, popularly called Hare Krishna)—have focused on
specific gurus or on forms of religious praxis such as devotional worship or meditation,
particularly in their stages of most rapid growth. They frequently emphasize techniques
of spiritual discipline more than doctrine. Of these groups, only ISKCON has a deeply
exclusivist cast—which makes it, in fact, generally more doctrinaire than the Gaudiya
Vaishnava lineages out of which its founding guru, A.C. Bhaktivedanta, emerged.
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Vivekananda.
From The Science and Philosophy of Religion, by Swami Vivekananda, 1915
At least as important as these guru-centred communities in the increasingly
international texture of Hindu life are communities of Hindus who have emigrated
from South Asia to other parts of the world. Their character differs markedly according
to region, class, and the time at which emigration occurred. Tamils in Malaysia celebrate
a festival to the god Murugan (Thaipusam) that accommodates body-piercing vows.
Formerly indentured labourers who settled on the Caribbean island of Trinidad in the
mid-19th century have consolidated doctrine and practice from various locales in
Gangetic India, with the result that Rama and Sita have a heightened profile. Many
migrants from rural western India, especially Gujarat, became urbanized in East
Africa in the late 19th century and resettled in Britain. Like those Gujaratis who came
directly to the United States from India since the liberalization of U.S. immigration laws
in 1965, once abroad they are more apt to embrace the reformist guru-centred
Swaminarayan faith than they would be in their native Gujarat, though this is by no
means universal.
Professional-class emigrants from South India have spearheaded the construction of a
series of impressive Shrivaishnava-style temples throughout the United States,
sometimes receiving financial and technical assistance from the great Vaishnava temple
institutions at Tirupati. The placement of some of these temples, such as the Penn Hills
temple near Pittsburgh, Pa., reveals the desire to evoke Tirupati’s
natural environment on American soil. Similarly, Telugu-speaking priests from the
Tirupati region have been imported to serve at temples such as the historically
important Ganesha temple, constructed in Queens, New York, in 1975–77. Yet the
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population worshipping at these temples is far more mixed than that in India. This
produces on the one hand sectarian and regional eclecticism and on the other hand a vigorous
attempt to establish doctrinal common ground. As Vasudha Narayanan observed, educational
materials produced at such temples typically hold that Hinduism is not a religion but a
way of life, that it insists in principle on religious tolerance, that its Godhead is
functionally trinitarian (the male trimurti of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva is meant,
although temple worship is often very active at goddesses’ shrines), and that Hindu
rituals have inner meanings consonant with scientific principles and are conducive to good
health.
A small fraction of diaspora Hindus are also important contributors to the VHP, whose efforts
since 1964 to find common ground among disparate Hindu groups have not only helped establish
educational programs for youths but sometimes also contributed to displays of
Hindu nationalism such as were seen at Ayodhya in 1992. The struggle between “left”
and “right” within the Hindu fold continued into the early 21st century, with diasporic
groups playing a more important role than ever before. Because of their wealth and
education, because globalizing processes lend them prestige and enable them to
communicate constantly with Hindus living in South Asia, and because their experience
as minorities tends to set them apart from their families in India itself, their
contribution to the evolution of Hinduism has been a very interesting one.
“Hinduism,” originally an outsider’s word, designates a multitude of realities defined by
period, time, sect, class, and caste. Yet the veins and bones that hold this complex
organism together are not just chimeras of external perception. Hindus themselves—
particularly diasporic Hindus—affirm them, continuing and even accelerating a process
of self-definition that has been going on for millennia. Vasudha Narayanan
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CHAPTER VIII
The Secrets of Hindu Worship
The Role of Mantra, Tantra and Yantra In Hinduism
V.Jayaram Sir -https://www.hinduwebsite.com/secretsofworship.asp
by Jayaram V
History of tantra
It is difficult to trace the history of tantra which is mostly obscure as in case of the history of
religions. Many tantras offer mythical explanations for their origins, often setting themselves as
the given word of either Siva or a goddess such as Devi. Scholarly depictions of their origins are
often as varied, ascribing tantras to pre-Aryan, Indus Valley civilizations or similar aboriginal,
tribal groups or as integral part of an Indian cultural fabric.
In reality, no definitive accounting of the origins of tantra can be made owing to the significant
polyvariance of the term tantra in Sanskrit. Tantra, which in its earliest written form was a
distinctly iconoclastic, private, and esoteric practice, evolved into a number of respected,
exoteric orders (sampradaya). It is convenient, although somewhat false, to group the orders into
two categories: left-handed and right-handed. Left-handed tantras (vaama marg) incorporate five
sacraments (pancamakarapuja) of fish, meat, parched grain, wine and sexual intercourse into
ritual practice. Right-handed tantras, on the other hand, advocate the visualization of these
antinomian practices. Both groups rejected many aspects of Brahamanic orthopraxy, most
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notably the caste system and patriarchy. Despite this, Tantra was accepted by some high-caste
Hindus, most notably the Rajput princes. Nowadays Tantra has a large, though not always wellinformed, following worldwide.
Hindu tantra
Tantra exists in Vaisnava, Shaiva, and Shakta forms, among others. Extolled as a short-cut to
self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected as
dangerous by most orthodox Hindus. The popular perception of tantra among Hindus espoused
in Indian journalism, equates it with black magic.
Some tantric aspirants simply feel the union is accomplished internally and with spiritual entities
of various kinds. For this reason, almost all tantric writing has a gross, higher and subtle
meaning. This tripartite system of understanding readily obscures the true purport of many
passages for those without the necessary background or deeper understandings so crucial to
tantra. Thus, a 'union' could mean the actual act of sexual intercourse, ritual uniting of concepts
through chanting and sacrifice, or realization of one's true self in the cosmic joining of the divine
principles of Shiva and Shakti in Para Shiva.
According to John Woodroffe, one of the foremost Western scholars on Tantra, and translator of
its greatest works (including the Mahanirvana Tantra):
"The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga,
and as such are the voluminous source of present and practical orthodox "Hinduism." The
Tantra Shastra is, in fact, and whatever be its historical origin, a development of the Vaidika
Karmakanda, promulgated to meet the needs of that age. Shiva says: "For the benefit of men of
the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula
doctrine, O auspicious one! is given" (Chap. IX., verse 12). To the Tantra we must therefore look
if we would understand aright both ritual, yoga, and sadhana of all kinds, as also the general
principles of which these practices are but the objective expression." - Introduction to Sir John
Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra.."
While Hinduism is typically viewed as being Vedic, the Tantras are not considered part of the
orthodox Hindu/Vedic scriptures. They are said to run alongside each other, The Vedas of
orthodox Hinduism on one side and the Agamas of Tantra on the other. However, the practices,
mantras and ideas of the Atharva Veda are markedly different from those of the prior three and
show signs of powerful non-Aryan influence. Indeed, the Atharva Veda is cited by many Tantra
texts as a source of great knowledge. it is notable that throughout the Tantras, such as the
Mahanirvana Tantra, they align themselves as being natural progressions of the Vedas. Tantra
exists for spiritual seekers in the age of Kaliyuga, when Vedic practices no longer apply to the
current state of morality and Tantra is the most direct means to realization. Thus, aside from
Vajrayana Buddhism, much of Tantric thought is Hindu Tantra, most notably those that council
worship of Lord Shiva and the Divine Mother, Kali.
A tantra typically takes the form of a dialogue between the Hindu gods Shiva and Shakti/Parvati.
Shiva is known in Hinduism as 'Yogiraj' or 'Yogeshwara,' 'The King of Yoga' or 'God of Yoga'
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while his consort is considered his perfect feminine equal. Each explains to the other a particular
group of techniques or philosophies for attaining moksha (liberation/ enlightenment), or for
attaining a certain practical result. (Agamas are Shiva to Shakti, and Nigamas are Shakti to
Shiva.)
This extract from the beginning of the Yoni Tantra (translated by Mike Magee) gives an idea of
the style.
Seated upon the peak of Mount Kailasa the God of Gods, the Guru of all creation was questioned
by Durga-of-the-smiling-face, Naganandini.
Sixty-four tantras have been created O Lord, tell me, O Ocean of Compassion, about the chief of
these.
Mahadeva (Shiva) said:: "Listen, Parvati, to this highly secret one, Dearest. Ten million times
have you wanted to hear this. Beauteous One, it is from your feminine nature that you
continually ask me. You should conceal this by every effort. Parvati, there is mantra-pitha,
yantra-pitha and yoni-pitha. Of these, the chief is certainly the yoni-pitha, revealed to you from
affection."
Tantric practices
Because of the wide range of groups covered by the term "tantra," it is hard to describe tantric
practices definitively. The basic practice, the Hindu image-worship known as "puja" may include
any of the elements below.
Mantra and Yantra: As in all of Hindu and Buddhist yogas, mantras play an important part in
Tantra for focusing the mind, often through the conduit of specific Hindu gods like Shiva, Ma
Kali (mother Kali, another form of Shakti) and even Ganesh, the elephant-headed god of wisdom
(refer to the Ganesha Upanishad). Similarly, puja will often involve concentrating on a yantra or
mandala.
Identification with deities: Tantra, being a development of early Hindu-Vedic thought,
embraced the Hindu gods and goddesses, especially Shiva and Shakti, along the Advaita
(nondualist Vedic) philosophy that each represents an aspect of the ultimate Para Shiva, or
Brahman. These deities may be worshipped externally (with flowers, incense etc.) but, more
importantly, are used as objects of meditation, where the practitioner imagines him- or herself to
be experiencing the darshan or 'vision' of the deity in question. The ancient devadasi tradition of
sacred temple-dance, seen in the contemporary Bharata Natyam is an example of such meditation
in movement. The divine love is expressed in Sringara and Bhakti.
Concentration on the body: Tantrikas generally see the body as a microcosm; thus in the
Kaulajnana-nirnaya, for example, the practitioner meditates on the head as the moon, the heart as
the sun and the genitals as fire. Many groups hold that the body contains a series of energy
centers (chakra - "wheel"), which may be associated with elements, planets or occult powers
(siddhi). The phenomenon of kundalini, a flow of energy through the chakras, is controversial;
most writers see it as essential to Tantra, while others regard it as unimportant or as an
abreaction. As it is, kundalini is nothing but the flow of the central sushumna nadi, a spiritual
current, that, when moving, opens chakras, and is fundamental to the siddhi concept that forms a
part of all tantra, including hatha yoga.
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Sahasrara
Ajna
Vishuddha
Anahata
Manipura
Swadhisthana
Muladhara
Bindu
Taboo-breaking: The act of breaking taboos is the definitive feature of left-hand Tantra. While
the breaking of sexual taboos is perhaps the most recognized of tantric practices, it is not
considered generally beneficial. All tantras state that there are specific levels of preparation
required for breaking taboos. Tantras practiced by inadequately prepared individuals are
considered harmful rather than beneficial to the practitioner. The normal state of human
preparation is referred to as pasu-bhava (animal disposition). A person in the state of pasu-bhava
is one who regularly eats meat and indulges in intoxication. They are considered dishonest,
promiscuous, greedy and violent. A fundamental requirement of all tantras is the initial
transcendence beyond this base state.
Tantras prescribe a strict regimen of penance, meditation, sensory control, cleansing the self of
negative thoughts and seeking truth and justice before an individual can hope to transcend from
her or his natural state. An individual who successfully practices these tasks may eventually take
a vow of viravrata (a hero's vow) to be of vira-bhava (heroic disposition). The demarcation vira
is potentially transient as it is considered a state of being free of desires.
In the Kaula and Vamachara schools of tantra the pañca makara (5 M's) ritually/sacramentally
broken in order to free the practitioner from binding convention are:
madya (wine)
mamsa (meat)
matsya (fish)
mudra (parched grain)
maithuna (sex)
The "sacramental" or ritual breaking was only for the vira practitioner, not the divya or pasu. The
pasu would misunderstand and get caught up in the literal act while the divya will have already
progressed beyond and not need the literal act to understand the inner meaning.
There also exist tantric schools that substitute innocuous items for the taboo substances and acts,
claiming that literal interpretations of the pañca makara miss the inner truth of the rite.
Tantra in the modern world
Tantra is used in the West as a general term which relates to sexual practice as a spiritual
evolutionary scheme. There are in fact many different approaches as to how this manifests in
American society - and also examples of the same development in Europe (see further down).
There have been many civilizations which have deified sexuality as the most approximate
expression of cosmic love or God. Regardless, the point is that tantra is moldable. It changes
with each moment and environment. It especially depends on the nature of the practitioner.
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In traditional pockets of Tantric practice in India, such as in Assam near the venerated Hindu
temple of Kali, Kammakha, in parts of West Bengal, in Siddhanta temples of South India, and in
Kasmiri Shiva temples up north, Tantra has retained its true form. Its variance in practice is seen
where many tantrics are known to frequent cremation grounds in attempts to transcend their
worldly attachment to life, while others perform still more arcane acts. But what is common to
them all is the intense secrecy in which their rituals are kept and the almost godlike reverence
paid to the Guru, who is seen as the pinnacle of Tantra. It would be safe to say that every single
Hindu Tantra Yogin in India is a Shiva and/or Shakti worshipper, and the more wide-spread
practices to which all Hindus commit themselves, like pooja and worship through devotion, are
maintained while more occult yogic practices involving sacred rites continue. Tibet too has a
very strong Buddhist Tantric background which continues, albeit many have been transplanted to
monasteries in India, and claims to be a right-hand path, in contrast to the more varied Hindu
counterparts (that include both left and right-hand practices).
Tibetan Tantra or Vajrayana flourishes in America and other countries in a relatively pure and
genuine, if somewhat attenuated form, under the guidance of many Tibetan teachers either of the
first or second generation to escape from Tibet. There are hundreds of Tibetan Buddhist centers
outside Tibet and India, primarily in the Americas and Europe, but also in eastern countries such
as Malaysia, Taiwan, Russia and others. Practices in these centers, with Tibetan gurus or those
trained directly by them, emphasize the true Mahayana ideal of rapidly gaining the
enlightenment that characterizes a Buddha entirely dedicated to the purpose of relieving the
suffering of others. This is claimed to be the Bodhisattva ideal of Mahayana Buddhism
represented historically and mythologically by Avaloketishvara, Tara and others, as well as today
in the person of the Dalai Lama and other Tibetan teachers. In the Tantric or Vajrayana aspects
of this system, harnessing the energies of the body, emotions and mind, including, joy, wrath and
sexual energy, is not an end in itself but a potent means to the ultimate goal of realizing the true
nature of reality, emptiness or Shunyata, thus attaining complete spiritual enlightenment and
relief from the endless dissatisfaction of life, and using the power thus gained exclusively to help
others do so as well.
Modern Tantra may be divided into practices based on Hinduism and Buddhism. The form of
Hindu Tantra popularly practiced In America is said by Hindu Tantra traditionalists to represent
a mutilated and extremely narrow-minded, sensationalist approach encompassing only a
misguided thinking about "sacred sexuality," with little reference to its true practice. Traditional
Tantrists say their practice involves much more than mere wizardy or sexual titillation: like the
rest of Yoga (Hindu), it requires self-analysis and the conquest of material ignorance, often
through the body, but always through a pure outlook of the mind. 'Real Tantra' is about
transforming one's sexual energy into spiritual progress, and has nothing to do with 'sex just for
fun'. Those without a guru or lacking in discipline of the mind and body are unfit. It is telling that
a Tantrica in West Bengal, a devotee of the Hindu goddess Kali, once said that "those most fit
for Tantra almost never take it up, and those least fit pursue it with zeal."
Be it a complicated form of Vedic sacrificial ritual such a yajna or a homa or a simple form of
domestic worship (puja), which is performed in millions of Hindu households by common
people every day, the worship of divinities in Hinduism invariably involves the use of three basic
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techniques, namely the Mantra, the Tantra and the Yantra. They also represent three basic types
of knowledge (vidyas) in Hinduism.
Tantra, Mantra and Yantra
Fundamentally, the three represent the three basic approaches available to human
beings to harness the power of God and use it to perform their duties upon earth as part
of their obligatory duties. They are employed in the three important paths, which are
mentioned in the Bhagavadgita namely the path of action (karma marg), the path of
knowledge (jnana marg) and the path of renunciation (sanyasa marg). They can be used
for constructive purposes to achieve peace and prosperity and liberation or for
destructive ends to create chaos, cast evil spells or inflict pain and suffering upon others.
The method of Mantra is used to invoke divine power for positive and negative purposes
through the use of mind or thought power (man+tra). In Yantras the restraining power
(yan + tra) of the will is used for the same purpose. The Tantras are meant for the
transformation and transmission of the physical (sexual) power of the body (tan) from
the lower planes to higher planes through the use of tantu (nerve fibers or nadis). Thus,
Tantra means the use of the body power (tan + tra) or the use of the nerves in the body
(tant + tra) or both. Tantu is also a symbolic reference to God or Self (Tantunama or
Tantu Nadha), who is the lord of the body. In that sense, Tantra means the use of the
power (Shakti) of God for self-transformation and liberation.
In the practice of Mantras, the mind and intelligence are active. In the practice of
Tantra, the organs of actions and the organs of perception are active, whereas in the
practice of Yantra, the ego is active. From the perspective of the triple Gunas, the
Mantra method is predominantly sattvic, the Yantra is rajasic, and the Tantra tamasic.
In Hinduism the three constitute the three fundamental methods of divine worship and
devotional service by which one may perform obligatory duties, practice self-purification
or achieve liberation. They are also the basic and universal approaches which
worshippers use in Hinduism to uphold Dharma, fulfill desires and achieve the four
aims of human life (purusharthas).
However, as with many other aspects of Hinduism, their distinction is rather
amorphous since Mantras may be used in the practice of Yantra and Tantra and vice
versa. Hence, in most Hindu forms of worship you see that the elements of all the three
are present or deeply intermingled. They are also present in the Vedic sacrificial
ceremonies. Mantras are used to invoke gods, Yantras to construct the sacrificial pit
(yajna stala) in specific geometric formations to impart to them certain purifying and
magical powers, and Tantra to discipline the body before or during the ceremony, and to
sacrifice (offer) the body and or its elements during the sacrifice.
The Vedas personify the power of Brahman in sound form. The mantras represent
aspects or aural manifestations of him. When they are chanted loudly, it is Brahman
who carries them through space to the designated deity and facilitates the
communication between the worshipper and the worshipped. Hence, it is rightly stated
that Brahman is the cause as well as the effect of the Vedic hymns. He is also the
ultimate recipient of all sacrificial offerings.
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When a complicated yajna such as a soma sacrifice, horse sacrifice, or some other yajna
is performed, not one but many deities are invoked simultaneously by groups of priests
who chant or sing hymns from one or more Vedas. The chanting is usually loud. Each
mantra begins or ends with specific set of sacred syllables such as Aum, Hime, Hrim,
Swaha, etc. Depending upon their specialization, the priests go by different names. Each
sacrifice has a beginning, a middle and an end, during which the priests chant selected
hymns from the Vedas to make the sacrifice effective and beneficial. Their chanting
creates powerful vibrations, which travel through the mid-region (the space between the
earth and the heaven) to the heaven, where they awaken the deities and facilitate their
descent to the place of worship.
The chanting and the sounds constitute but one part of the sacrificial rituals. There are
other components of Tantra and Yantra, which are vital to their success. They augment
the manifesting power and make the rituals successful. We will later discuss their
importance in Hindu ritual worship. The mechanics of the Vedic rituals and sacrifices
are discussed in the Brahmana and the Aranyaka parts of the Vedas in considerable
detail. Much of this knowledge is lost or has become obsolete as we have lost their ritual,
spiritual, and symbolic significance.
As stated before, the Mantras represent gods in sound or speech form. Hidden in each of
them is the energy of a particular deity, which remains latent until the Mantra is
pronounced accurately with right intention, intonation and aspiration as prescribed in
the scriptures. The deity of the Mantra awakens only if the sounds create right
frequencies, and if the rest of the sacrifice is performed correctly with right attitude,
right offerings and in the prescribed manner. Fate and karma also play an important
role in the efficacy of the mantras. Some mantras do good, some cause harm, and
depending upon their use and intention they produce positive and negative
consequences. The mechanical and procedural aspects of the rituals are therefore
important. Indeed, the Purva Mimansa school of Hinduism holds the Vedic rituals,
rather than God, as the source of all existence and the highest manifesting power in
itself.
The Use of Tantra
Tantra is the systematic use of the body (including the perceptual mind) and its parts
(tattvas) for self-transformation and self-realization. The body and the perceptual mind
constitute the lower self. They are considered an obstacle to liberation since they induce
the beings to indulge in desire-ridden actions and worldly pleasures under the influence
of the triple gunas, namely, sattva, rajas and tamas, and bind them to the cycle of births
and deaths. As the instruments of Nature, they are responsible for the modifications of
the mind and body, which the beings experience variously as suffering, attractions and
aversion, attachment, delusion, ignorance, birth and death, egoism, etc. As beings act
and react under their influence, they remain bound to the mortal world and the law of
karma.
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In Tantra, the practitioners use the very obstacles and impurities that are usually
shunned in other methods to achieve control over them and transcend them. Desires are
not resisted but used to overcome the gunas that induce them. Controlled sexual
intercourse is allowed to transform impure sexual energy (retas) into pure spiritual
energy (ojas) and body vigor (tejas). Through such revolutionary and transformative
practices, Tantra aims to liberate and transform the mind and body from their natural
impulses and binding impurities, and make them fit for self-absorption and selfrealization. Different postures, breathing and meditation techniques, and selfpurification practices are used for this purpose.
Some schools of Tantra employ extreme methods of self-torture, graveyard rituals, and
chemical substances to achieve quick results. Because of their extreme nature, the
Tantra methods and practices are not liked by many. Hence, many of its practices are
kept secret and revealed only to qualified members, which has made Tantra even more
controversial in the eyes of the people. Currently, a lot of myth and misinformation have
become associated with the left-hand methods (vamachara) of Tantra. However, Tantra
is a spiritual discipline, which aims to set the mind free from habitual thoughts,
judgments, and conditioning to which is it is subject. It aims to achieve righteous ends
through a set of conventional and unconventional methods as a departure from the rigid
norms of society. Hence, since ancient times Tantra has been an important and integral
part of Hindu spiritualism, and it has successfully retained its place and importance in
the ritual and spiritual practices of Hindu ascetic and renunciant traditions.
Tantra is not for Tantrics only
There is a misconception among many that Tantra is used by Tantrics only through the
medium of sex and other objectionable means. This is not true. Tantra has a darker side,
but it is only one side of it. Tantra revolutionized Hinduism and made it down-to-earth.
Elements of Tantra are now an integral part of Hindu ritual worship. Atharvaveda seems
to have been greatly influenced by the beliefs and practices of Tantra. What we see in
traditional Tantrism is an extreme form of Tantra where the body and the mind are
allowed to express themselves freely under the supervision of an enlightened master to
come to terms with them and achieve complete mastery over them. Nevertheless, Tantra
in its milder and normal forms can be seen in action in everyday life. For example, the
Yoga of Patanjali, is a kind of Tantra only, where yogis aim to achieve bodily control
through certain physical postures, purification practices, and mind control techniques.
The traditional domestic worship (puja) incorporated many elements of tantric worship,
such as purification of the ritual place, the use of mystic syllables, symbols and objects
such the sacred pot (kalas), vermillion, mystic diagrams, and swastika, installation and
consecration of the idols, prostrating before the deity, joining the hands in front of the
deity, applying sacred marks on the body to awaken the energy centers, wearing
rudraksha beads, purification of the body through fasting and bathing, worshipping the
physical body of the deity from head to toe, use of sacred gestures (mudras) and
postures (nyasa), controlling the mind and body through yoga practices such as
withdrawal of the senses, breath control, meditation and devotional singing. In pure
devotional forms of worship, the body and the mind are offered to God as an act of
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supreme self-sacrifice and inner detachment, thereby allowing the divine power (Shakti)
to descend into the body and do the purification and transformation.
In a complicated Vedic ritual also we can see the influence of Tantra. A Vedic ritual
bears no fruit if the body and mind of the performer are not adequately trained and
prepared to participate in the ritual with the required degree of purity and sincerity. All
the chanting of the Mantras is futile and the sacrifice will be ineffective if these two are
not in harmony with the goals of the ritual. The host of the sacrifice (yajmana) and the
priests have to maintain utmost purity and observe strict discipline before performing
the rituals. Besides, as in Tantra, the Vedas also recognize sexual intercourse as a form
of Vedic ritual only.
The Use of Yantra
Yantra means that which controls, dominates, regulates, restrains, protects or prevents.
In common parlances, Yantras refer to names, forms, diagrams, patterns and sound
forms that have the five powers of God, namely the power to create, uphold, conceal,
manifest and destroy. In Hindu ritual practices, which date back to the Vedic times,
Yantras are created using certain objects, symbols, sounds, names and forms, and
specific divisions of time to invoke the power of a deity for any of the five purposes
which are mentioned before. Yantras act like temporary energy centers. They radiate
spiritual energy, or the power of the deity who presides over it. They are used to enhance
one's own will power or weaken that of others, ward off evil, seek protection from the
enemies or destroy them. The more benign forms of Yantras can be seen even in the
right hand methods of Vedic worship.
For example, the act of folding of hands in front of a deity is but a kind of Yantra only. It
is meant to restrain the mind and the body and facilitate concentration so that the mind
can communicate with the deity through the force of will. The manner in which a
fireplace is built for the performance of a Vedic sacrifice, the method in which the place
is prepared and the materials (sambhra) are assembled, the manner in which the
oblations are poured into the fire, the way the priests sit around the altar, and in fact the
very act of chanting of the Mantras with mechanical precision serve the same purpose as
the Yantras. They are meant to enhance the magical and manifesting powers of the
rituals and to control and regulate the lives of the worshippers who participate in them,
ensuring their welfare, peace and prosperity, or to protect them from possible harm.
Yantras are also used in Tantric rituals to invoke mystic powers, and to design good luck
charms, amulets, spells, etc. Because a lot of secrecy and superstition are associated with
them, some charlatans use them to exploit people, and make money.
The very design of the temple as a physical symbol of existence and creation in the
material plane, the act of visiting a temple, circling around it to earn the grace of the
deity, entering the temple, and the lighting of the lamps in front of the divine follow the
pattern of Yantras. The decorations and the ornamentation that are so characteristic of Hindu
temples and places of worship, the manner in which the images are built and installed, the
lighting of the lamps, the offerings, the method of worship, the partaking of prasad, and in short
any practice that is mechanical, symbolic and ritualistic to a degree also form part of the same
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Yantric approach. They are meant to invoke the power of God and use it for material or spiritual
purposes.
The Practical Significance of Mantra, Tantra and Yantra in human life
Small minds always look at things negatively or suspiciously and ignore the larger picture which
is hidden in them. There is a lot you can learn by introspection, without jumping to conclusions
using a few surface impressions. People are easily influenced by negative criticism directed
against ancient ritual practices of Hinduism. This is because of the assumption that only
spirituality is good, and the rest of the religious practices are mere acts of superstition. However,
are all spiritual practices equally effective? A lot of superstition is associated even with prayers
and yoga practices. When someone says that yoga can cure cancer, it may be a belief or a mere
superstition. No one can say when a belief becomes superstition, because belief itself has no
rational basis. The difference between belief (faith) and blind belief (superstition) is notional.
Logically speaking, belief itself is blind. It has no rational validity. You either accept it or reject
it. Otherwise, it cannot be considered belief. Therefore, anyone who argues that some aspects of
the religion are true and acceptable and others are superstition is merely echoing the logical
fallacy to which the human mind is subject.
In this regard, let us examine whether Mantra, Tantra and Yantra have any significance to human
life, beyond their outward ritual importance. Every religion has outward observances. You can
look at them without much thinking and consider them mere acts of superstition, which many
people do, or you can examine them closely to see whether they have any hidden significance.
Anyone who is familiar with Hinduism knows that any religious discipline or knowledge cannot
always be taken on its face value because it may have a lot of symbolism and hidden
significance, which becomes self-evident only when you are in a certain state of mind or when
your mind and body are sufficiently purified. You can take its knowledge literally and base your
faith on it until your mind opens, or you can go deeper into its scriptures and look for the higher
and symbolic knowledge, which is hidden in them.
The same holds true for Mantra, Tantra and Yantra methods of religious worship. They are not
mere acts of superstition, as some people would like to argue. It is true that they are often
misused by frauds and charlatans to exploit innocent people and create a wrong impression about
them. Their essential purpose is purification of the mind and body and make them fit instruments
for self-realization.
The Mantra, Tantra and Yantra methods contain an important, hidden lesson about life. They
teach you that you are an aspect of God, and you can awaken the power of God which is latent in
you through the triple means of your mind, body and will. Many people might have read the
book the Secret or watched the video. It may be surprising to know that the book contains many
elements of Tantra which are vital to invoke the hidden powers of your mind and body to
manifest your thoughts and desires.
Mantra, Tantra and Yantra are the three fundamental means by which you can manifest your
intentions or your destiny. In Hinduism they are called the chief aims of human life, namely
duty, wealth, pleasure, and liberation or ultimate freedom. To reach any goal in your life, you
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have to use the three powers which are naturally gifted to you namely the mind power, the body
power and the power of your intention. You have to rely upon your mind and speech (the Mantra
method) to become self-aware or let others know what you need, desire or wish to manifest.
Then, you have to use your will power and determination to train your skills, gather necessary
resources and create right conditions and circumstances (Yantra) to manifest them. Finally, you
have to make adequate physical effort (Tantra) to give shape to your dreams and desires, and
make them happen. Thus, you can see that whether you are an atheist or a theist you have to
invariably rely upon the three approaches to attain your goals. They are not mere mumbo-jumbo,
as some would like to argue, but valuable tools to bring out the best in you and manifest your
dreams and desires according to your vision, strength and intelligence.
Hindu Worship, a Means to Evolution
Mantra, Tantra and Yantra are three supreme means on the path of liberation in the spiritual
advancement of the soul. They purify the mind and body and strengthen the souls. They awaken
the hidden supernatural powers and energy centers, burn their impurities and past life
impressions. The Hindu way of worship which incorporates these three disciplines is not a
superstitious ritual, but a complicated form of divine worship. In that sacred effort the higher
universal forces are invoked in the energy field of the mind and body to facilitate inner
awakening and deeper awareness. They help the worshippers to achieve not only specific
worldly ends but also spiritually evolve into higher beings, radiating the power and intelligence
of God.
The Concept of Chakras or Energy Centers Of The Human Body
The Sanskrit word chakra or cakra has multiple meanings. It is most commonly used to denote a
wheel such as that of a carriage, a potter, any sharp, disc shaped weapon such as that of Vishnu
(chakradhara), a circle or a ring, the shape of the sun and the moon, realm of an emperor
(chakravarti), a province or district, military formation (Chakravyuha), a whirlpool or a
whirlwind (chakravaatam) and the name of a bird (chakravakam). It is pronounced as chuck+rah
(cha as in church and kra as in crust).
In the ritual and spiritual traditions of Hinduism, chakra is used to denote any phenomenon
which has a cyclical or circular motion or aspect to it. For example, it is used to describe the
wheel of Time (kala chakra), the wheel of Dharma (dharma chakra), the wheel of life (jivana
chakra) and the wheel of creation (srishti chakra). All these are cyclical in nature.
In the Svetasvatara Upanishad, the highest God, Brahman himself is described as a wheel
(Brahma chakram) because he is the source of order and regularity or the rhythm of things (rta).
Kram means order. Chakram denotes the orderly progression of a thing or phenomenon.
Therefore, very aptly it symbolizes the idea of Rta or the order and regularity of creation, which
is enforced by a set of divine and moral duties, which are collectively known as Dharma.
The significance of Kundalini Chakras
Chakra is also used to denote the energy centers in the spinal region of the body and the mystic
diagrams (yantras) which are used in ritual worship. Some traditional sources describe five or
seven such chakras, and some eight. The Kundalini chakras are described as being aligned in an
ascending column from the base of the spine to the top of the head. In some new age practices,
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each chakra is associated with a certain color. In various traditions chakras are associated with
multiple physiological functions, aspects or levels of consciousness, classical elements and other
distinguishing characteristics. They are visualized as lotuses, with a different number of petals in
every chakra.
It is believed that the chakras vitalize the physical body and influence the physical, emotional
and mental movements of the mind and body. They are considered to be the loci of life-energy
(known as prana, shakti or chi), which also flow through them along the pathways called nadis.
The main function of the chakras is to draw in the prana by spinning around their own axes and
hold it in their respective spheres to maintain and balance the spiritual, mental, emotional and
physical wellbeing of the mind and body. The idea of energy centers in the body has parallels in
other culture. For example, the traditional Chinese medicine also relies on a similar model of the
human body as an energy system containing the life force called chi.
The New Age movement and the popularity of yoga led to an increased interest in the West
regarding chakras. Many in this movement point to a correlation between the position and role of
the chakras and those of the glands in the endocrine system. Some people in the New Age also
claim that other chakras, besides the above, exist — for instance, ear chakras — and have
described many more chakras than the ones mentioned in the traditional texts. Frequently,
references are made to the chakras in the New Age "sacred sexuality" or neotantra movement.
The chakras are described in the tantric texts, the Sat-Cakra-Nirupana, and the Padaka-Pancaka,
in which they are described as emanations of consciousness from Brahman, an energy emanating
from the spiritual which gradually turns concrete, creating these distinct levels of chakras, and
which eventually finds its rest in the Muladhara chakra. They are therefore part of Emanation
theories (that the material universe originated from a transcendental first principle), like that of
the kabbalah in the west, Lataif-e-sitta in Sufism or Neo-Platonism. The energy that was
unleashed in creation, called the Kundalini, lies coiled and asleep at the base of the spine. The
tantric or kundalini forms of yoga aim to arouse this energy, and cause it to rise back up through
the increasingly subtler chakras, until union with God is achieved in the Sahasrara chakra at the
crown of the head. With the return of the energy to the transcendental from the physical, the
cycle is complete.
Apart from the descriptions found in these primary texts from India, different Western authors
have tried to describe the chakras, most notably the Theosophists. Many New Age writers, such
as the Danish author and musician, Peter Kjaerulff in his book, The Ringbearer's Diary, or
Anodea Judith in her book Wheels of Life, have written their opinions about the chakras in great
detail, including the reasons for their appearance and functions.
The seven chakras are said by some to reflect how the unified consciousness of humanity (the
immortal human being or the soul), is divided to manage different aspects of earthly life
(body/instinct/vital energy/deeper emotions/communication/having an overview of life/contact to
God). The chakras are placed at differing levels of spiritual subtlety, with Sahasrara at the top,
representing pure consciousness, and Muladhara at the bottom representing matter, which is seen
simply as crude consciousness.
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Origins and development of the concept of chakras
The earliest known mention of chakras is found in the later Upanishads, including specifically
the Brahma Upanishad and the Yogatattva Upanishad. These Vedic models were adapted in
Tibetan Buddhism as Vajrayana theory, and in the Tantric Shakta theory of chakras.
It is the Shakta theory of 7 main chakras that most people in the West adhere to, either
knowingly or unknowingly, largely thanks to a translation of two Indian texts, the Sat-CakraNirupana, and the Padaka-Pancaka, by Sir John Woodroffe, alias Arthur Avalon, in a book
entitled The Serpent Power.
This book is extremely detailed and complex, and later the ideas were developed into what is
predominantly western view of the Chakras by the Theosophists, and largely the controversial (in
theosophical circles) views of C. W. Leadbeater in his book The Chakras, which were mostly
formulated from his own meditations and insights on the matter.
That said, many present-day Indian gurus who incorporate the knowledge of chakras within their
systems of philosophy do not seem to radically disagree with the western view of chakras, at
least on the key points. Thus, both the eastern and western views have developed in large part
from the Shakta Tantra school.
There are various other models of chakras in other traditions, notably in the Chinese medicine,
and also in Tibetan Buddhism. Even in the Jewish kabbalah, the different Sephiroth are
sometimes associated with parts of the body. In Islamic Sufism, Lataif-e-Sitta ( Six Subtleties )
are considered psycho-spiritual "organs" or faculties of sensory and suprasensory perception, the
activation of which makes a man complete. Attempts are made to try and reconcile these systems
with each other, and with some notable success. Common ground was found even between such
diverged traditions as Shakta Tantra, Sufism and Kabbalism, where Chakras, Lataif (psychic
organs) and Sefirot or Sephiroth (emanations) can seemingly represent the same archetypal
spiritual concepts. In Surat Shabda Yoga, initiation by a living Satguru (true teacher) is required,
which involves reconnecting a soul to the Shabda (mystic sound) and stationing the Inner Shabda
Master (the Radiant Form of the Master) at the third eye chakra.
The seven basic chakras
The traditional model as described by Sir Arthur Avalon in his book, the Serpent Power, presents
a seven-chakra system along the spinal column, from the anus to the head region. The following
is a description of each chakra, its associated psycho-spiritual importance and presiding deities.
Sahasrara, the Crown Chakra
Sahasrara or the crown chakra is the source of the highest intelligence (prajnanam). Located at
the tip or crown of the head, it is the chakra of pure consciousness, the master chakra that
controls all the others, and the destination of the rising Kundalini where upon one enters the state
of Samadhi or unified consciousness without the distinction of subject and object. Its role is very
similar to that of the pituitary gland, which secretes hormones that control the rest of the
endocrine system and connects to the central nervous system via the hypothalamus. The
thalamus (which is mainly responsible for sensory and motor activities of humans and regulates
wakeful consciousness) is thought to have a key role in the physical basis of consciousness.
Sahasrara is symbolized by a lotus with a thousand petals.
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Ajna, the Third Eye Chakra
Ajna or the third eye chakra is the source of intuitive or psychic knowledge and linked to the
pineal gland. It represents, the syllable AUM and the dual state of Shiva as Shiva and Shakti.
Hence, it is said to be presided over by Ardhanarisvara. Ajna is the chakra of time, awareness
and light. The pineal gland is a light sensitive gland, which produces the hormone melatonin and
which regulates the instincts of going to sleep and waking up. It is suspected that it may also
produce trace amounts of the psychedelic chemical dimethyltryptamine. Ajna chakra is
symbolized by a lotus with two petals. (Some argue that the pineal and pituitary glands should be
exchanged in their relationship to the Crown and Brow chakras, based on the description in
Arthur Avalon's book on kundalini called Serpent Power or empirical research).
Vishuddha, the Throat Chakra
Vishuddha or the throat chakra is the source of sacred speech and related to communication and
growth, growth being a form of expression. It is presided over by the fivefold Shiva
(Panchavaktra Shiva) who performs the fivefold functions of creation and is represented by the
syllable HAM. Shakini is his associated Shakti. This chakra is paralleled to the thyroid, a gland
that is also present in the throat, and which produces thyroid hormone, which is responsible for
growth and maturation. It is symbolized by a lotus with sixteen turquoise petals encircling a
triangle with a silver moon inside.
Anahata, the Heart Chakra
Anahata or the heart/emotions chakra is related to love, equilibrium, and well-being and acts as
the source of emotional intelligence. It is related to the thymus, located in the chest. This organ is
part of the immune system and the endocrine system. It produces T cells (which are responsible
for fighting off disease) and is adversely affected by stress. Symbolized by a lotus with twelve
green petals, it is called the heart-mind, which encircles a yantra of two intersecting triangles,
forming a hexagram, symbolizing the union of the male and female. It is represented by syllable
YAM and said to be the seat of emotions and passions.
Manipura, the Stomach Chakra
Manipura or the solar plexus chakra is related to metabolism, energy, assimilation and digestion,
and is said to correspond to the roles played by the pancreas and the outer adrenal glands, the
adrenal cortex. They play an important role in digestion and conversion of food into energy for
the body. Symbolized by a lotus with ten petals with a downward triangle at the cente, it is
presided over by Bradda Rudra, with Lakini as his Shakti, and represented by the seed syllable
RAM. It is the source of physical and mental power, will and resolve.
Swadhisthana, the Sacral Chakra
Swadhisthana or the sacral chakra is located in the groin, and is related to emotion, sexuality and
creativity. This chakra is said to correspond to the testicles or the ovaries, which produce the
various sex hormones that are involved in the reproductive cycle, which can cause dramatic
mood swings. It is symbolized by a white lotus with six petals and a crescent moon inside. With
Brahma as its presiding deity and Rakini as his Shakti, it is represented by the syllable VAM. As
the charka which empowers the reproductive organs, it is the source of creative and reproductive
power.
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Muladhara, the Base Chakra
Muladhara, the base or the root chakra is related to security, survival and the basic human
potentiality. This center is located in the region between the genitals and the anus. Although no
endocrine organ is placed here, it is said to relate to the inner adrenal glands, the adrenal
medulla, and responsible for the fight and flight response when survival is under threat. In this
region is located a muscle, which controls ejaculation in the sexual act. A parallel is drawn
between the sperm cell and the ovum, where the genetic code lies coiled, and the kundalini.
Symbolized by a lotus with four petals encircling a rectangle, with an inverted triangle in it.
Ganesha is its presiding deity, with Dakini as his Shakti. LAM is the seed syllable.
The eight Tantric Chakras
The Tantric and Shakti traditions identify eight basic chakras instead of seven. The seven
chakras are the same as mentioned above. In addition, they identify the Bindu chakra as the
lowest, below the Muladhara. The eight chakras are listed below.
1. Sahasrara
2. Ajna
3. Vishuddha
4. Anahata
5. Manipura
6. Swadhisthana
7. Muladhara Bindu
Are the chakras real?
There is a lot of speculation associated with the Chakras. What are they? Are they real and
physical or imaginary? Just as the nadis, which are subtle channels that crisscross the whole body
as a complex network, the chakras are subtle and cannot be really identified or located by any
physical means. They may not even exist as fixed entities outside our imagination. However,
they can be activated during meditation and brought to life to facilitate the upward movement of
the Kundalini. Just as the internet comes into existence when you switch on a computer or a
digital device, the chakras come into existence when you practice meditation and visualize the
chakras in your body at specific locations. The practice facilitates the flow of pranic energy
through the three main energy channels namely the central Sushumna, the left Ida and the right
Pingala. The three nadis meet in the Muladhara region. The opposite energies of the right and left
nadis meet in the central Sushumna, which then activates the Kundalini and rises up to activate
the other six chakras, as the Kundalini keeps rising up through each chakra.
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PART II
The Basics of Tantra
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CHAPTER IX
The Path of Tantra or Mantramarg
Tibet deity Vajradhara (Holder of the Thunderbolt) in maithuna.
Tantra (/ˈtʌntrə, ˈtæn-/; Sanskrit:
तन्त्र,
literally
"loom,
weave,
warp")
denotes
the esoteric traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism that developed in India from the middle of the
1st millennium CE onwards. The term tantra, in the Indian traditions, also means any systematic
broadly applicable "text, theory, system, method, instrument, technique or practice".[1][2] A key
feature of these traditions is the use of mantras, and thus they are commonly referred to
as Mantramārga ("Path of Mantra") in Hinduism or Mantrayāna ("Mantra Vehicle")
and Guhyamantra ("Secret Mantra") in Buddhism.
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Starting in the early centuries of common era, newly revealed Tantras centering
on Vishnu, Shiva or Shakti emerged. There are tantric lineages in all main forms of modern
Hinduism, such as the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition, the Shakta sect of Sri-Vidya, the Kaula,
and Kashmir Shaivism.
In Buddhism, the Vajrayana traditions are known for tantric ideas and practices, which are based
on Indian Buddhist Tantras. They include Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Japanese Shingon
Buddhism and Nepalese Newar Buddhism.
Tantric Hindu and Buddhist traditions have also influenced other Eastern religious
traditions such as Jainism, the Tibetan Bön tradition, Daoism, and the Japanese Shintō tradition.
Certain modes of non-Vedic worship such as Puja are considered tantric in their conception and
rituals. Hindu temple building also generally conforms to the iconography of tantra. Hindu texts
describing these topics are called Tantras, Āgamas or Samhitās. In Buddhism, tantra has
influenced the art and iconography of Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism, as well as historic cave
temples of India and the art of Southeast Asia.
Tantra (Sanskrit: तन्त्र) literally means "loom, warp, weave".[16][1][17] According to Padoux, the
verbal root Tan means: "to extend", "to spread", "to spin out", "weave", "display", "put forth",
and "compose". Therefore, by extension, it can also mean "system", "doctrine", or "work".
The connotation of the word tantra to mean an esoteric practice or religious ritualism is
a colonial era European invention. This term is based on the metaphor of weaving, states Ron
Barrett, where the Sanskrit root tan means the warping of threads on a loom. It implies
"interweaving of traditions and teachings as threads" into a text, technique or practice.
The word appears in the hymns of the Rigveda such as in 10.71, with the meaning of "warp
(weaving)".[16][22] It is found in many other Vedic era texts, such as in section 10.7.42 of
the Atharvaveda and many Brahmanas. In these and post-Vedic texts, the contextual meaning
of Tantra is that which is "principal or essential part, main point, model, framework,
feature".[16] In the Smritis and epics of Hinduism (and Jainism), the term means "doctrine, rule,
theory, method, technique or chapter" and the word appears both as a separate word and as a
common suffix, such as atma-tantra meaning "doctrine or theory of Atman (soul, self)".
The term "Tantra" after about 500 BCE, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism is a bibliographic
category, just like the word Sutra (which means "sewing together", mirroring the metaphor of
"weaving together" in Tantra). The same Buddhist texts are sometimes referred to as tantra or
sutra; for example, Vairocabhisambodhi-tantra is also referred to as Vairocabhisambodhi-sutra.
The various contextual meanings of the word Tantra vary with the Indian text and are
summarized in the appended table.
Appearance of the term "Tantra" in Indian texts hide
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Period
Text or author
Contextual
tantra
meaning
of
1700–
1100
BCE
Ṛigveda X, 71.9
Loom (or weaving device)
1700-?
BCE
Sāmaveda, Tandya Brahmana
Essence (or "main part",
perhaps
denoting
the
[25]
quintessence of the Sastras)
1200900
BCE
Atharvaveda X, 7.42
Loom (or weaving)
14001000
BCE
Yajurveda, Taittiriya Brahmana 11.5.5.3
Loom (or weaving)
600-500
Pāṇini in Aṣṭādhyāyī 1.4.54 and 5.2.70
BCE
Warp (weaving), loom
pre-500
BCE
Essence (or main part; see
above)
Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa
350-283
Chanakya on Arthaśāstra
BCE
300 CE
Science; system or shastra
Īśvarakṛṣṇa author of Sānkhya Kārikā (kārikā 70)
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Doctrine (identifies Sankhya as
a tantra)
320 CE
Viṣṇu Purāṇa
Practices and rituals
320-400
Poet Kālidāsa on Abhijñānaśākuntalam
CE
Deep understanding or mastery
of a topic
423
Gangdhar stone inscription in Rajasthan
Worship
techniques
(Tantrodbhuta) Dubious link
to Tantric practices
550
Sabarasvamin's commentary on Mimamsa Sutra Thread, text; beneficial action
11.1.1, 11.4.1 etc.
or thing
500-600
Chinese Buddhist canon (Vol.
(Vajrayāna) or Tantric Buddhism
600
Kāmikāgama or Kāmikā-tantra
606–
647
Sanskrit
scholar
and Set of sites and worship
poet Bāṇabhaṭṭa (in Harṣacarita and in Kādambari), methods
to
goddesses
in Bhāsa's Cārudatta and in Śūdraka's Mṛcchakatika or Matrikas.
975–
1025
Philosopher Abhinavagupta in his Tantrāloka
Set of doctrines or practices,
teachings,
texts,
system
(sometimes called Agamas)
1150–
1200
Jayaratha, Abhinavagupta's
on Tantrāloka
18–21: Tantra
Set of doctrines or practices
Extensive
knowledge
principles of reality
of
commentator Set of doctrines or practices,
teachings
94
1690–
1785
System of thought or set of
doctrines or practices, a canon
Bhaskararaya (philosopher)
Ancient and medieval era
The 5th-century BCE scholar Pāṇini in his Sutra 1.4.54–55 of Sanskrit grammar, cryptically
explains tantra through the example of "Sva-tantra" (Sanskrit: स्वतन्त्र), which he states means
"independent" or a person who is his own "warp, cloth, weaver, promoter, karta
(actor)". Patanjali in his Mahābhāṣya quotes and accepts Panini's definition, then discusses or
mentions it at a greater length, in 18 instances, stating that its metaphorical definition of "warp
(weaving), extended cloth" is relevant to many contexts.[39] The word tantra, states Patanjali,
means "principal, main".
He uses the same example of svatantra as a composite word of "sva" (self) and tantra, then
stating "svatantra" means "one who is self-dependent, one who is his own master, the principal
thing for whom is himself", thereby interpreting the definition of tantra. Patanjali also offers a
semantic definition of Tantra, stating that it is structural rules, standard procedures, centralized
guide or knowledge in any field that applies to many elements.
The ancient Mimamsa school of Hinduism uses the term tantra extensively, and its scholars offer
various definitions. For example:
When an action or a thing, once complete, becomes beneficial in several
matters to one person, or to many people, that is known as Tantra. For
example, a lamp placed amidst many priests. In contrast, that which
benefits by its repetition is called Āvāpa, such as massaging with oil. (...)
— Sabara, 6th century,
Medieval texts present their own definitions of Tantra. Kāmikā-tantra, for example, gives the
following explanation of the term tantra:
Because it elaborates (tan) copious and profound matters, especially relating to the principles of
reality (tattva) and sacred mantras, and because it provides liberation (tra), it is called a tantra.
Modern era
The occultist and businessman Pierre Bernard (1875–1955) is widely credited with introducing
the philosophy and practices of tantra to the American people, at the same time creating a
misleading impression of its connection to sex.
In modern scholarship, Tantra has been studied as an esoteric practice and ritualistic religion,
sometimes referred to as Tantrism. There is a wide gap between what Tantra means to its
followers, and the way Tantra has been represented or perceived since colonial era writers began
commenting on it. Many definitions of Tantra have been proposed since, and there is no
universally accepted definition.[43] André Padoux, in his review of Tantra definitions offers two,
then rejects both. One definition, due to Padoux, is found among Tantra practitioners — it is any
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"system of observances" about the vision of man and the cosmos where correspondences
between the inner world of the person and the macrocosmic reality play an essential role.
Another definition, more common among observers and non-practitioners, is some "set of
mechanistic rituals, omitting entirely the ideological side".
Tantric traditions have been studied mostly from textual and historical
perspectives. Anthropological work on living Tantric tradition is scarce, and ethnography has
rarely engaged with the study of Tantra. This is arguably a result of the modern construction of
Tantrism as occult, esoteric and secret. Some scholars have tried to demystify the myth of
secrecy in contemporary Tantric traditions, suggesting new methodological avenues to overcome
the ethical and epistemological problems in the study of living Tantric traditions.[45]
According to David N. Lorenzen, two different kinds of definitions of Tantra exist, narrow and
broad. According to the narrow definition, Tantrism, or "Tantric religion", is the elite traditions
directly based on the Sanskrit texts called the Tantras, Samhitas, and Agamas. Lorenzen's "broad
definition" extends this by including a broad range of "magical beliefs and practices" such
as Yoga and Shaktism.
Richard Payne states that Tantra has been commonly but incorrectly associated with sex, given
popular culture's prurient obsession with intimacy. Tantra has been labelled as the "yoga of
ecstasy", driven by senseless ritualistic libertinism. This is far from the diverse and complex
understanding of what Tantra means to those Buddhists, Hindu and Jains who practice it.
David Gray disagrees with broad generalizations and states that defining Tantra is a difficult task
because "Tantra traditions are manifold, spanning several religious traditions and cultural worlds.
As a result they are also diverse, which makes it a significant challenge to come up with an
adequate definition".The challenge of defining Tantra is compounded by the fact that it has been
a historically significant part of major Indian religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism and
Jainism, both in and outside South Asia and East Asia. To its practitioners, Tantra is defined as a
combination of texts, techniques, rituals, monastic practices, meditation, yoga, and ideology.
According to Georg Feuerstein, "The scope of topics discussed in the Tantras is considerable.
They deal with the creation and history of the world; the names and functions of a great variety
of male and female deities and other higher beings; the types of ritual worship (especially of
Goddesses); magic, sorcery, and divination; esoteric "physiology" (the mapping of the subtle or
psychic body); the awakening of the mysterious serpent power (kundalinî-shakti); techniques of
bodily and mental purification; the nature of enlightenment; and not least, sacred sexuality."
Hindu puja, temples and iconography all show tantric influence. These texts, states Gavin Flood,
contain representation of "the body in philosophy, in ritual and in art", which are linked to
"techniques of the body, methods or technologies developed within the tantric traditions intended
to transform body and self".
Tantrism
The term tantrism is a 19th-century European invention not present in any Asian
language; [20] compare "Sufism", of similar Orientalist origin. According to Padoux, Tantrism is
a Western term and notion, not a category that is used by the "Tantrists" themselves.[19][note 4] The
term was introduced by 19th-century Indologists, with limited knowledge of India and in whose
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view Tantrism was a particular, unusual and minority practice in contrast to Indian traditions
they believed to be mainstream.
Robert Brown similarly notes that "tantrism" is a construct of Western scholarship, not a concept
of the religious system itself. He defines Tantrism as an apologetic label of Westerners for a
system that they little understand that is "not coherent" and which is "an accumulated set of
practices and ideas from various sources, that has varied between its practitioners within a group,
varied across groups, across geography and over its history". It is a system, adds Brown, that
gives each follower the freedom to mix Tantric elements with non-Tantric aspects, to challenge
and transgress any and all norms, experiment with "the mundane to reach the supramundane".[43]
Teun Goudriaan in his 1981 review of Hindu Tantrism, states that Tantrism usually means a
"systematic quest for salvation or spiritual excellence" by realizing and fostering the divine
within one's own body, one that is simultaneous union of the masculine-feminine and spiritmatter, and has the ultimate goal of realizing the "primal blissful state of non-duality".[55] It is
typically a methodically striven system, consisting of voluntarily chosen specific practices which
may include Tantric items such as mantras (bijas), geometric patterns and symbols (mandala),
gestures (mudra), mapping of the microcosm within one's body to the macrocosmic elements
outside as the subtle body (kundalini yoga), assignments of icons and sounds (nyasa), meditation
(dhyana), ritual worship (puja), initiation (diksha) and others.[56] Tantrism, adds Goudriaan, is a
living system that is decidedly monistic, but with wide variations, and it is impossible to be
dogmatic about a simple or fixed definition.
Tantrism is an overarching term for "Tantric traditions", states David Gray in a 2016 review, that
combine Vedic, yogic and meditative traditions from ancient Hinduism as well as rival Buddhist
and Jain traditions. it is a neologism of western scholars and does not reflect the selfunderstanding of any particular tantric tradition. While Goudriaan's description is useful, adds
Gray, there is no single defining universal characteristic common to all Tantra traditions, being
an open evolving system. Tantrism, whether Buddhist or Hindu, can best be characterized as
practices, a set of techniques, with a strong focus on rituals and meditation, by those who believe
that it is a path to liberation that is characterized by both knowledge and freedom.[58]
Tantrika[edit]
According to Padoux, the term "Tantrika" is based on a comment by Kulluka Bhatta
on Manava Dharmasastra 2.1, who contrasted vaidika and tantrika forms of Sruti (canonical
texts). The Tantrika, to Bhatta, is that literature which forms a parallel part of the Hindu
tradition, independent of the Vedic corpus. The Vedic and non-Vedic (Tantric) paths are seen as
two different approaches to ultimate reality, the Vedic approach based on Brahman, and Tantrika
being based on the non-Vedic Āgama texts. Despite Bhatta attempt to clarify, states Padoux, in
reality Hindus and Buddhists have historically felt free to borrow and blend ideas from all
sources, Vedic, non-Vedic and in the case of Buddhism, its own canonical works.
One of the key differences between the Tantric and non-Tantric traditions – whether it be
orthodox Buddhism, Hinduism or Jainism – is their assumptions about the need for monastic or
ascetic life. Non-Tantrika, or orthodox traditions in all three major ancient Indian religions, hold
that the worldly life of a householder is one driven by desires and greeds which are a serious
impediment to spiritual liberation (moksha, nirvana, kaivalya). These orthodox traditions teach
renunciation of householder life, a mendicant's life of simplicity and leaving all attachments to
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become a monk or nun. In contrast, the Tantrika traditions hold, states Robert Brown, that "both
enlightenment and worldly success" are achievable, and that "this world need not be shunned to
achieve enlightenment".
Proto-Tantric elements in Vedic Religion
The Keśin hymn of the Rig Veda (10.136) describes the "wild loner" who, states Karel Werner,
"carrying within oneself fire and poison, heaven and earth, ranging from enthusiasm and
creativity to depression and agony, from the heights of spiritual bliss to the heaviness of earthbound labor".The Rigveda uses words of admiration for these loners, and whether it is related to
Tantra or not, has been variously interpreted. According to David Lorenzen, it
describes munis (sages) experiencing Tantra-like "ecstatic, altered states of consciousness" and
gaining the ability "to fly on the wind".In contrast, Werner suggests that these are
early Yoga pioneers and accomplished yogis of the ancient pre-Buddhist Indian tradition, and
that this Vedic hymn is speaking of those "lost in thoughts" whose "personalities are not bound
to earth, for they follow the path of the mysterious wind".
The two oldest Upanishadic scriptures of Hinduism, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad in section
4.2 and Chandogya Upanishad in section 8.6, refer to nadis (hati) in presenting their theory on
how the Atman (soul) and the body are connected and interdependent through energy carrying
arteries when one is awake or sleeping, but they do not mention anything related to Tantric
practices. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad describes breath control that became a standard part of
Yoga, but Tantric practices do not appear in it. Likewise, the Taittiriya Upanishad discusses a
central channel running through the body and various Vedic texts mention the
bodily pranas (vital breaths) that move around in the body and animate it. However, the idea of
consciously moving the bodily pranas through yoga is not found in these sources.[67] According
to Lorenzen, Vedic ideas related to the body later diversified into the "mystical
anatomy" of nadis and chakras found in Tantra. The yogic component of Tantrism appears
clearly in Bāṇabhaṭṭa's Harshacharita and Daṇḍin's Dashakumaracharita. In contrast to this
theory of Lorenzen, other scholars such as Mircea Eliade consider Yoga and the evolution of
Yogic practices to be separate and distinct from the evolution of Tantra and Tantric practices.[70]
According to Geoffrey Samuel, the inner development of a spiritual energy called tapas becomes
a central element of Vedic religion in the Brahmanas and Srauta texts. In these texts, ascetic
practices allow a holy man to build up tapas, a kind of magical inner heat, which allows them to
perform all sorts of magical feats as well as granting visions and divine revelations.[71] Samuel
also notes that in the Mahabharata, one of the commonest use of the term "yoga" refers to "a
dying warrior transferring himself at death to the sphere of the sun through yoga, a practice that
links up with Upanisadic references to the channel to the crown of the head as the pathway by
which one can travel through the solar orb to the World of Brahman." This practice of
transferring one's consciousness at death is still an important practice in Tibetan
Buddhism. Samuel also notes that sexual rituals and a spiritualized sexuality are mentioned in
the late Upanishads. According to Samuel, "late Vedic texts treat sexual intercourse as
symbolically equivalent to the Vedic sacrifice, and ejaculation of semen as the offering." This
theme can be found in the Jaiminiya Brahmana, the Chandogya Upanisad, and
the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad. The Brhadaranyaka contains various sexual rituals and practices
which are mostly aimed at obtaining a child which are concerned with the loss of male virility
and power.
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David Gordon White views Yogini cults as foundational to early tantra but disagrees with
scholars who maintain that the roots of such cults lie in an "autochthonous non-Vedic source"
such as indigenous tribes or the Indus Valley Civilization.[74] Instead, White suggests
Vedic Srauta texts mention offerings to goddesses Rākā, Sinīvālī, and Kuhū in a manner similar
to a tantric ritual. Frederick Smith – a professor of Sanskrit and Classical Indian Religions,
considers Tantra to be a religious movement parallel to the Bhakti movement of the 1st
millennium AD. Tantra along with Ayurveda, states Smith, has traditionally been attributed
to Atharvaveda, but this attribution is one of respect not of historicity. Ayurveda has primarily
been an empirical practice with Vedic roots, but Tantra has been an esoteric, folk movement
without grounding that can be traced to anything in Atharvaveda or any other vedic text.
Proto-Tantric elements in Buddhism
A Buddhist dhāraṇī (incantation), the Nilaṇṭhanāmahṛdaya dhāraṇī, in Siddham Script with
Chinese transliteration.
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Balinese sculpture of a yakṣiṇī (2nd century), Mathura region.
Pre-tantric Buddhism contains elements which could be seen as proto-tantric, and which may
have influenced the development of the Buddhist Tantric tradition. The use of magical chants or
incantations can be found in the early Buddhist texts as well as in some Mahayana sutras. These
magical spells or chants were used for various reasons, such as for protection, and for the
generation of auspiciousnessIn the Pali tradition, protection chants are called parittas, and
include texts such as the Ratana Sutta which are widely recited today in
the Theravada tradition. Mahayana incantations are called dhāraṇīs. Some Mahayana sutras
incorporate the use of mantras, a central feature of tantric practice.
According to Geoffrey Samuel, sramana groups like the Buddhists and Jains were associated
with the dead. Samuel notes that they "frequently settled at sites associated with the dead and
seem to have taken over a significant role in relation to the spirits of the dead." To step into this
realm required entering a dangerous and impure supernatural realm from the Indian perspective.
This association with death remains a feature of modern Buddhism, and in Buddhist countries
today, Buddhist monks and other ritual specialists are in charge of the dead.[81] Thus, the
association of tantric practitioners with charnel grounds and death imagery is preceded by early
Buddhist contact with these sites of the dead.
Some scholars think that the development of tantra may have been influenced by the cults of
nature spirit-deities like Yakṣas and Nagas. Yakṣa cults were an important part of early
Buddhism. Yakṣas are powerful nature spirits which were sometimes seen as guardians or
protectors. Yakṣas like Kubera are also associated with magical incantations. Kubera is said to
have provided the Buddhist sangha with protection spells in the Āṭānāṭiya Sutta. These spirit
deities also included numerous female deities (yakṣiṇī) that can be found depicted in major
Buddhist sites like Sanchi and Bharhut. In early Buddhist texts there is also mention of fierce
demon like deities called rākṣasa and rākṣasī, like the children eating Hārītī. They are also
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present in Mahayana texts, such as in Chapter 26 of the Lotus Sutra which includes a dialogue
between the Buddha and a group of rākṣasīs, who swear to uphold and protect the sutra. These
figures also teach magical dhāraṇīs to protect followers of the Lotus Sutra.
A key element of Buddhist Tantric practice is the visualization of deities in meditation. This
practice is actually found in pre-tantric Buddhist texts as well. In Mahayana sutras like
the Pratyutpanna Samādhi and the three Amitabha Pure land sutras.[87] There are other
Mahāyāna sutras which contain what may be called "proto-tantric" material such as
the Gandavyuha and the Dasabhumika which might have served as a source for the imagery
found in later Tantric texts. According to Samuel, the Golden Light Sutra (c. 5th century at the
latest) contains what could be seen as a proto-mandala. In the second chapter, a bodhisattva has a
vision of "a vast building made of beryl and with divine jewels and celestial perfumes. Four
lotus-seats appear in the four directions, with four Buddhas seated upon them: Aksobhya in the
East, Ratnaketu in the South, Amitayus in the West and Dundubhīśvara in the North."[89]
A series of artwork discovered in Gandhara, in modern-day Pakistan, dating from about the 1st
century CE, show Buddhist and Hindu monks holding skulls. The legend corresponding to these
artworks is found in Buddhist texts, and describes monks "who tap skulls and forecast the future
rebirths of the person to whom that skull belonged". According to Robert Brown, these Buddhist
skull-tapping reliefs suggest that tantric practices may have been in vogue by the 1st century CE.
An Introduction to Tantra
Mention tantra, and you’ll probably get the response that having sex for seven hours sounds
really unappealing—as mythologized by an off-hand Sting quote from 1990 that still dominates
the entire conversation about this ancient practice. So, what exactly is tantra? We were surprised
to find that it’s not actually about sex at all—or specifically, not at all about sexual technique.
It’s really about the bedrock of intimacy—and re-establishing sexual polarity, or in laymen
terms, sexual tension. As Michaela Boehm, who lectures and teaches seminars about the subject,
explains, “Many of the couples who come to me have stopped having sex altogether—it’s really
about the building the basics of intimacy, of opening our eyes.” More thoughts from Michaela
below.
Q
So what exactly is tantric sex? What is tantra?
A
Tantra as it is seen in the West is very different from the original ways it was practiced. It is
essentially a tradition in which awakening is pursued through embodiment (vs. disembodiment in
meditation, etc.) and union is sought through relationship and intimacy. In the West it has been
mostly pursued for its emphasis on using sexual union as one of the vehicles to awakening
(enlightenment). In reality, only a small portion of tantra has anything to do with sex, and only as
a way to merge with the divine. There is a much larger tantric discipline that deals with allowing
all feelings to be met with equal acceptance, and for each person to become deeply sensitive to
what they are feeling. Subsequently, they are then able to feel others and their needs.
“In reality only a small portion of tantra has anything to do with sex, and only as a
way to merge with the divine.”
Q
How do you work with clients? Is there touching?
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A
Sessions are individualized depending on what the person or couple needs. These days I mostly
teach groups. Both in sessions and workshops there is no sexually explicit touching, no nudity
and strict rules to ensure safety and maximum freedom in applying the techniques used. All the
practices I teach are energetic in nature and can be done fully clothed. In personal sessions I
might give the couple homework and assignments. In workshops I teach how to create intimacy
and how to revive or increase sexual chemistry.
Q
Do people come to you to experience more pleasure? Or do they come to you because they’re
not experiencing any pleasure at all?
A
Both. Some people have traumatic, habitual, societal or other closures in their body that prevent
them from experiencing pleasure. Some people just have not experienced pleasure yet. Some
people want to enhance the intimacy, connection, and pleasure they have.
Q
What’s the disconnect? Why the lack of intimacy?
A
We are educated in most areas of our life, but there is no real sexual/relational/intimate
education. We mostly see what our parents do and then fumble through our first few
relationships. Many people have had a lack of intimacy in their upbringing and no sexual/sensual
education as they started relationships. Life these days is increasingly disconnected and often the
emphasis in relationships is on making money or raising kids—intimacy only becomes a goal
when the relationship already suffers.
“Life these days is increasingly disconnected and often the emphasis in relationships
is on making money or raising kids—intimacy only becomes a goal when the
relationship already suffers.”
Q
Can you explain the masculine and feminine aspects, and how this becomes distorted as we age
as a couple?
A
Each human has both masculine and feminine in them. We usually tend to enjoy one aspect more
than the other—that’s what is called the essence.
The feminine in men and women alike enjoys the flow of life and love, revels in the ability to
enjoy beauty, nature, textures, colors, and experiences. Fullness is the feminine principle.
Sexually speaking, the partner with a feminine essence enjoys the aspects of surrender,
dissolution, and being ravished.
The masculine in men and women alike enjoys the forward motion of directed action and
purpose. A time/space grid of linear planning and thinking feels enjoyable to the masculine. The
masculine principle is emptiness. Through meditation, watching sports, competition, having a
drink, “zoning out” in front of a TV, and relaxation through sex are activities the masculine in a
person enjoys.
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“In long term relationships partners often become very much the same—we start to
like the same things, do the same things—over time, the couple resonates rather
than polarizes and hence has less sexual chemistry.”
Men and women have both traits, but in a polarized (meaning sexually oriented) relationship one
partner takes on the feminine expression and one takes on the more masculine expression and the
radical differences in orientation create a strong arc of sexual polarity. The further the “poles”
are apart, the stronger the sexual attraction.
In long term relationships, partners often become very much the same—we start to like the same
things, do the same things—over time, the couple resonates rather than polarizes and hence has
less sexual chemistry.
Q
How do you re-establish the polarity when it’s gone? How do you create sexual chemistry?
A
Gender has very little to do with polarity practices. The only important thing is that one partner
animates one end of the spectrum, while the other partner goes as far to the other end as possible
for the sake of the strong arc of polarity. Polarity works like physics, with easily applicable rules
that can produce polarity almost instantly. (In workshops I can teach these techniques and even
strangers can effortlessly produce polarity). It’s much easier producing polarity than it is to find a
compatible loving relationship.
Here are a couple of examples that I encounter frequently—keep in mind that there is no issue if
you and your partner want to be friends. But if you’d like to have sex, then it’s important to be
conscious of creating sexual tension when you are planning on a romantic evening. While for
simplicity, I’m describing a hetero couple, these same principles apply to any gender
combination.
SETTING THE SCENE
More and more women these days work out of the home—and as a matter of course, they spend
their days in the masculine aspect, making decisions and directing others. In fact, the first thing
many women may want to do after work is to get “full” again, to get back into their feminine
aspect. They might want to do this by having a glass of wine, taking a bath, chatting with a
friend, their mother, or their children, or downloading their husband on their day. Meanwhile,
their husband might want to either get into, or stay in, his masculine aspect—this means that he
wants to get “empty” or be quiet. And this becomes a source of disconnect and dissonance: As
she “downloads” him on her day, he is craving silence—neither one of them is getting what they
want or need.
“This becomes a source of disconnect and dissonance: As she ‘downloads’ him on her
day, he is craving silence—neither one of them is getting what they want or need.”
This is not to say that this can’t happen—the intimacy, the conversation. A few things need to
happen first, though, in order to create the ideal tension rather than dislocation. First,
understanding that this polarity needs some time to happen is essential, as it adds a filter of
acceptance. Second, both parties need to own their individual aspects. What needs to happen to
create ideal sexual tension (again, a non-issue if you just want to be buddies for the evening), is
for the husband to direct the wife when she steps through the door to have a glass of wine, or a
bath, or to go relax and change. He is directing her to get full. Women balk at this, but for sexual
tension, it’s essential. There needs to be that separation—getting full and getting empty—before
they can come together again fully charged.
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WHAT’S FOR DINNER
For many reasons, the onus of making dinner is often on women, which feels unfair, particularly
for women who work outside the home—after making decisions all day, I often hear that the last
thing they want to do when they leave work is to figure out what to make, order, or book.
Think about the rules of dating, though, and it’s interesting that the onus of “taking charge” is on
men. Women like it when a man plans a date, and directs the activities of the evening. It’s sexy.
But as relationships carry on, more and more of this falls on women.
“For many women, the idea of coming home from work and being greeted at the door
by a smiling, apron-clad husband actually feels disconcerting—even though the idea
of a husband who makes dinner is very appealing.”
There was a fascinating study a few years ago that found that in marriages where men do more,
or an equal amount of housework, the couple have less sex. Understandably, this study got a
tremendous amount of pick-up, and many women felt like it undermined an equality that had
been decades in the making. (My guess is that in marriages where there is a more equal split,
there is greater friendship.) So here is the thing: This equality is a great thing, it’s just all in the
framing. For many women, the idea of coming home from work and being greeted at the door by
a smiling, apron-clad husband actually feels disconcerting—even though the idea of a husband
who makes dinner is very appealing. However, with a subtle shift—coming home to a husband
who directs you to have a glass of wine while he finishes up dinner prep suddenly sounds quite
sexy. (Substitute in calling in an order, making a reservation, picking up take-out.) The
direction—the assumption of the masculine aspect—is a subtle but essential necessity.
GIVING DIRECTIONS
Biologically, women are not inclined to have sex with a man they do not trust—and trust can
mean many things. It can mean dishonesty, but it can also revolve around competency. I.e., a
forgetful, unreliable man is not attractive. Interestingly, in my marriage, and in the marriages of
many of my clients, guys are not as good at directions and navigating. This is a situation my
husband and I would have all the time. I would know he was going the wrong way, would
suggest he change course, and then be annoyed and turn away from him or I’d pick a fight. It
was unattractive all around. Now we have a system in place that is empowering: It empowers me
to ensure that we get to where we’re supposed to go, and it makes him not look or feel
incompetent as a driver. It’s very simple: We get in the car, he turns to me, and he tells me to tell
him where to go. He is directing me to direct him.
10 Tips For Creating Wild Passion & Deep Intimacy
1. Define the Purpose of Your Relationship.
Each relationship has a purpose, spoken or unspoken. For instance, you might get together to
have children, build a community, create a partnership in which you also pursue business
together, come together to experience sexual expansion, personal growth, or just plain fun. The
more we can define the relational purpose, the more clarity and definition we can apply to the
way we love, have sex, and create. Often relationships get stale when the purpose is not defined
or has changed in one partner. Once you are aligned in your relational purpose you can create the
practices and actions that support the deepening and growth you desire.
2. Discover Your Natural Sexual Essence.
Each human has masculine and feminine aspects with them. To be a full and deep human being it
is important to express both. But we all have a place we call “home,” where we rest happily and
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feel the fullest expression. That does not mean we need to live there all the time, but it is the
place we return to when we want to recharge and it is the disposition we offer our lover as a gift
to create passion.
If you have a masculine essence, you prefer the structure of time and space over the wild chaos
of existence. You enjoy spiritual pursuits that bring you towards emptiness, and activities that
result in a blissful moment of nothingness. You enjoy creating schedules, objectives, and
accomplishing goals. Your whole life is aligned with your purpose.
“Often relationships get stale when the purpose is not defined or has changed in one
partner.”
If you have a feminine essence, you love the chaotic swirl of life, nature, bliss, color, texture,
flavor, and communion. You love to relate, exchange, dance, celebrate, adorn and deepen into
the fullness of existence.
3. Practice Offering Your Essence as a Gift.
Once you have defined your “home base,” your sexual essence, you can begin to practice the
bodily expression of that essence as a gift to your partner. Like an artist or a musician you
practice the offering of your gift. As a masculine essence, you deepen into meditation to still
your mind, exercise to strengthen your body, breath, and stamina. You relax into being
unwavering in the face of chaos and learn how to take charge, guide well, and pursue your
purpose with integrity.
4.
5.
6.
7.
As a feminine essence you relax into the ever changing swirls of emotion and texture,
movement, and sound. You practice experiencing pleasure in your body and showing that
pleasure to your chosen partner. You cultivate ways to move energy through your body and learn
how to become responsive and give instant feedback.
Relax.
The number one “passion killer” is tightness and strain. Open and relax your body, then have
some humor. Most of what we hold in our minds as a “problem” is really more an artifact of our
past. Relationships and sex are not perfect and the need to “get it right” and “perform well”
keeps us from being creative and uninhibited.
Breathe.
Breath is life force. Breath is also the vehicle of connection and bodily communication. Learn
how to breathe into your belly, not just into your chest. Let your belly expand, which brings
energy into your lower body where sex actually happens…Once you know how to breathe
without constriction you can breathe together and create depth and incredible connection.
“Practice looking at each other, while staying relaxed, breathing and simply noticing
when you have reached a threshold where it’s just a bit too intimate.”
Use Eye Contact to Open.
Our eyes are really the windows to our souls. Falling into each other through eye contact, while
our bodies are open and unguarded is delicious (and yes, a bit scary). Practice looking at each
other, while staying relaxed, breathing and simply noticing when you have reached a threshold
where it’s just a bit too intimate. Hang out there for a bit and you will find that this can be as
good as sex!
Connect Heart to Heart.
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Locate the tension in your chest and soften the actual muscles around your heart. Put your hands
over your heart and imagine that the whole area relaxes and opens. Imagine your heart radiating
outwards to your partner. Feel your own heart and it’s joys and sufferings, then feel your
partner’s heart. Connect with utmost care and compassion.
8. Expand Your Repertoire.
Most of us have strong habits as to how we connect and how we have sex. We offer a similar
invitation and “flavor” each time. Make the effort to learn different ways to entice your partner.
You can get a good idea of what your partner is craving by watching what they like in movies,
actors, and other public figures. You don’t have to live up to those types per se, a little bit goes a
long way. The same goes for actual sexual offerings. Mix it up, risk something new or unpack an
old and almost forgotten favorite. Learn some new techniques and have fun and humor
experimenting again. And finally, make friends with your “dark side.” Nothing enlivens
intimacy more. Go beyond the “love and light” flavors and live out some of what has always
been there but has not seen the light of day in a while, if ever. Talk dirty, go dark, risk
something. Just don’t forget to keep the heart in it…
9. Be Adventurous.
When we first meet, every date is an adventure, carefully planned for maximum effect.
Remember that when you want to have wild passion the most important element is new-ness and
surprise. Create a complete scenario, that includes something new, something out of your
habitual ways, something that stimulates both conversation and opens your bodies and hearts.
10. Create a Sacred Space.
Set the scene. Put some creation into the space you are going to be intimate in. Just setting the
space gets you out of the old habits. You can induce a state by creating a sacred space. This does
not have to mean special linens, candles and music, even though that never hurts. It could be just
turning various electronic devices off, making sure you are uninterrupted and having a shower or
bath to end the workday. If you are playing with new flavors or experimenting you might go all
out and decorate. Or go away to a different location… or nature… the options are unlimited.—
Michaela Boehm https://goop.com/wellness/sexual-health/an-introduction-to-tantra/#maincontent
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CHAPTER X
Proto-Tantric elements in Shaktism and Shaivism
A
modern aghori with
a
skull-cup
(Kapala).
Their
predecessors,
the
medieval Kapalikas ("Skull-men") were influential figures in the development of
transgressive or "left hand" Shaiva tantra.
The Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Devi Mahatmya in the Markandeya Purana all
mention the fierce, demon-killing manifestations of the Great Goddess, Mahishamardini,
identified with Durga-Parvati. These suggest that Shaktism, reverence and worship for the
Goddess in Indian culture, was an established tradition by the early centuries of the 1st
millennium. Padoux mentions an inscription from 423–424 CE which mentions the founding of a
temple to terrifying deities called "the mothers". However, this does not mean Tantric rituals and
practices were as yet a part of either Hindu or Buddhist traditions. "Apart from the somewhat
dubious reference to Tantra in the Gangadhar inscription of 423 CE", states David Lorenzen, it is
only 7th-century Banabhatta's Kadambari which provide convincing proof of Tantra and Tantric
texts.
Shaivite ascetics seem to have been involved in the initial development of Tantra, particularly
the transgressive elements dealing with the charnel ground. According to Samuel, one group of
Shaiva ascetics, the Pasupatas, practiced a form of spirituality that made use of shocking and
disreputable behavior later found in a tantric context, such as dancing, singing, and smearing
themselves with ashes.
Early Tantric practices are sometimes attributed to Shaiva ascetics associated with Bhairava,
the Kapalikas ("skull men", also called Somasiddhatins or Mahavartins).[96][97][98] Besides the
shocking fact that they frequented cremation grounds and carried human skulls, little is known
107
about them, and there is a paucity of primary sources on the Kapalikas. Samuel also states that
the sources depict them as using alcohol and sex freely, that they were associated with terrfying
female spirit-deities called yoginis and dakinis, and that they were believed to possess magical
powers, such as flight.
Kapalikas are depicted in fictional works and also widely disparaged in Buddhist, Hindu and Jain
texts of the 1st millennium CE. In Hāla’s Gatha-saptasati (composed by the 5th century AD), for
example, the story calls a female character Kapalika, whose lover dies, he is cremated, she takes
his cremation ashes and smears her body with it. The 6th-century Varāhamihira mentions
Kapalikas in his literary works. Some of the Kāpālika practices mentioned in these texts are
those found in Shaiva Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism, and scholars disagree on who
influenced whom.
These early historical mentions are in passing and appear to be Tantra-like practices, they are not
detailed nor comprehensive presentation of Tantric beliefs and practices. Epigraphic references
to the Kaulas Tantric practices are rare. Reference is made in the early 9th century to vama (lefthand) Tantras of the Kaulas. Literary evidence suggests Tantric Buddhism was probably
flourishing by the 7th-centuryMatrikas, or fierce mother goddesses that later are closely linked to
Tantra practices, appear both in Buddhist and Hindu arts and literature between the 7th and 10th
centuries.
The rise and development of Tantra
Buddhist Mahasiddhas practicing the sexual yoga of karmamudrā ("action seal").
108
According to Gavin Flood, the earliest date for the Tantra texts related to Tantric practices is 600
CE, though most of them were probably composed after the 8th century onwards.[106] According
to Flood, very little is known about who created the Tantras, nor much is known about the social
status of these and medieval era Tantrikas.
Flood states that the pioneers of Tantra may have been ascetics who lived at the cremation
grounds, possibly from "above low-caste groups", and were probably non-Brahmanical and
possibly part of an ancient tradition. By the early medieval times, their practices may have
included the imitation of deities such as Kali and Bhairava, with offerings of non-vegetarian
food, alcohol and sexual substances. According to this theory, these practitioners would have
invited their deities to enter them, then reverted the role in order to control that deity and gain its
power. These ascetics would have been supported by low castes living at the cremation places.
Samuel states that transgressive and antinomian tantric practices developed in both Buddhist and
Brahmanical (mainly Śaiva ascetics like the Kapalikas) contexts and that "Śaivas and Buddhists
borrowed extensively from each other, with varying degrees of acknowledgement." According to
Samuel, these deliberately transgressive practices included, "night time orgies in charnel
grounds, involving the eating of human flesh, the use of ornaments, bowls and musical
instruments made from human bones, sexual relations while seated on corpses, and the like."[111]
According to Samuel, another key element of in the development of tantra was "the gradual
transformation of local and regional deity cults through which fierce male and, particularly,
female deities came to take a leading role in the place of the yaksa deities." Samuel states that
this took place between the fifth to eighth centuries CE. According to Samuel, there are two main
scholarly opinions on these terrifying goddesses which became incorporated into Śaiva and
Buddhist Tantra. The first view is that they originate out of a pan-Indian religious substrate that
was not Vedic. Another opinion is to see these fierce goddesses as developing out of the Vedic
religion.
Alexis Sanderson has argued that tantric practices originally developed in a Śaiva milieu and was
later adopted by Buddhists. He cites numerous elements that are found in the
Śaiva Vidyapitha literature, including whole passages and lists of pithas, that seem to have been
directly borrowed by Vajrayana texts. This has been criticized by Ronald M. Davidson however,
due to the uncertain date of the Vidyapitha texts. Davidson argues that the pithas seem to have
been neither uniquely Buddhist nor Śaiva, but frequented by both groups. He also states that the
Śaiva tradition was also involved in the appropriation of local deities and that tantra may have
been influenced by tribal Indian religions and their deities. Samuel writes that "the female
divinities may well best be understood in terms of a distinct Śākta milieu from which both Śaivas
and Buddhists were borrowing," but that other elements, like the Kapalika style practices, are
more clearly derived from a Śaiva tradition.
Samuel writes that the Saiva Tantra tradition appears to have originated as ritual sorcery carried
out by hereditary caste groups (kulas) and associated with sex, death and fierce goddesses. The
initiation rituals involved the consumption of the mixed sexual secretions (the clan essence) of a
male guru and his consort. These practices were adopted by Kapalika styled ascetics and
influenced the early Nath siddhas. Overtime, the more extreme external elements were replaced
by internalized yogas that make use of the subtle body. Sexual ritual became a way to reach the
liberating wisdom taught in the tradition.
109
The Buddhists developed their own corpus of Tantras, which also drew on various Mahayana
doctrines and practices, as well as on elements of the fierce goddess tradition and also on
elements from the Śaiva traditions (such as deities like Bhairava, which were seen as having
been subjugated and converted to Buddhism). Some Buddhist tantras (sometimes called "lower"
or "outer" tantras) which are earlier works, do not make use of transgression, sex and fierce
deities. These earlier Buddhist tantras mainly reflect a development of Mahayana theory and
practice (like deity visualization) and a focus on ritual and purity. Between the eighth and tenth
centuries, new tantras emerged which included fierce deities, kula style sexual initiations, subtle
body practices and sexual yoga. The later Buddhist tantras are known as the "inner" or
"unsurpassed yoga" (Anuttarayoga or "Yogini") tantras. According to Samuel, it seems that these
sexual practices were not initially practiced by Buddhist monastics and instead developed outside
of the monastic establishments among traveling siddhas.
Tantric practices also included secret initiation ceremonies in which individuals would enter the
tantric family (kula) and receive the secret mantras of the tantric deities. These initiations
included the consumption of the sexual substances (semen and female sexual secretions)
produced through ritual sex between the guru and his consort. These substances were seen as
spiritually powerful and were also used as offerings for tantric deities. For both Śaivas and
Buddhists, tantric practices often took place at important sacred sites (pithas) associated with
fierce goddesses. Samuel writes that "we do not have a clear picture of how this network of
pilgrimage sites arose." Whatever the case, it seems that it was in these ritual spaces visited by
both Buddhists and Śaivas that the practice of Kaula and Anuttarayoga Tantra developed during
the eighth and ninth centuries. Besides the practices outlined above, these sites also saw the
practice of animal sacrifice as blood offerings to Śākta goddesses like Kamakhya. This practice
is mentioned in Śākta texts like the Kālikāpurāṇa and the Yoginītantra. In some of these sites,
such as Kamakhya Pitha, animal sacrifice is still widely practiced by Śāktas.
Another key and innovative feature of medieval tantric systems was the development of internal
yogas based on elements of the subtle body (sūkṣma śarīra). This subtle anatomy held that there
were channels in the body (nadis) through which certain substances or energies (such
as vayu, prana, kundalini, and shakti) flowed. These yogas involved moving these energies
through the body to clear out certain knots or blockages (granthi) and to direct the energies to the
central channel (avadhuti, sushumna). These yogic practices are also closely related to the
practice of sexual yoga, since sexual intercourse was seen as being involved in the stimulation of
the flow of these energies. Samuel thinks that these subtle body practices may have been
influenced by Chinese Daoist practices.
One
of
the
earliest
mentions
of
sexual
yoga
practice
is
in
the
Buddhist Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra of Asanga (c. 5th century), which states "Supreme self-control
is achieved in the reversal of sexual intercourse in the blissful Buddha-poise and the
untrammelled vision of one's spouse." According to David Snellgrove, the text's mention of a
‘reversal of sexual intercourse’ might indicate the practice of withholding ejaculation. Snellgrove
states that it is possible that sexual yoga was already being practiced in Buddhist circles at this
time, and that Asanga saw it as a valid practice. Likewise, Samuel thinks that there is a
possibility that sexual yoga existed in the fourth or fifth centuries (though not in the same
transgressive tantric contexts where it was later practiced).
110
It is only in the seventh and eighth centuries however that we find substantial evidence for these
sexual yogas. Unlike previous Upanishadic sexual rituals however, which seem to have been
associated with Vedic sacrifice and mundane ends like childbirth, these sexual yogas were
associated with the movement of subtle body energies (like Kundalini and Chandali, which were
also seen as goddesses), and also with spiritual ends. These practices seemed to have developed
at around the same time in both Saiva and Buddhist circles, and are associated with figures such
as Tirumülar, Gorakhnath, Virupa, Naropa. The tantric mahasiddhas developed yogic systems
with subtle body and sexual elements which could lead to magical powers (siddhis), immortality,
as well as spiritual liberation (moksha, nirvana). Sexual yoga was seen as one way of producing
a blissful expansion of consciousness that could lead to liberation.
111
According to Jacob Dalton, ritualized sexual yoga (along with the sexual elements of the tantric
initiation ritual, like the consumption of sexual fluids) first appears in Buddhist works
called Mahayoga tantras (which include the Guhyagarbha and Ghuyasamaja). These texts
"focused on the body’s interior, on the anatomical details of the male and female sexual organs
and the pleasure generated through sexual union." In these texts, sexual energy was also seen as
a powerful force that could be harnessed for spiritual practice and according to Samuel "perhaps
create the state of bliss and loss of personal identity which is homologised with liberating
insight."[132] These sexual yogas continued to develop further into more complex systems which
are found in texts dating from about the ninth or tenth century, including the
Saiva Kaulajñānanirṇaya and Kubjikātantra as
well
as
the
Buddhist Hevajra,
and Cakrasamvara tantras which make use of charnel ground symbolism and fierce
goddesses. Samuel writes that these later texts also combine the sexual yoga with a system of
controlling the energies of the subtle body.
The Tantric Age-Tantric Traditions of Hindu Tantra
Within Hinduism, the word tantra often refers to a text, which may or may not be "tantric".
Conversely, various tantric texts are actually not always called tantras (instead they may be
called āgama, jñāna, saṃhitā, siddhānta, vidyā). There are also tantric Upanishads, which are
late Upanishads as well as tantric Puranas (and Puranas influenced by tantric ideas).[167] Besides
these types of texts, there are also various types of tantric "sastras" (treatises) which may be
"commentaries, digests, compilations, monographs, collections of hymns or of names of deities,
and mantras and works on mantras." Though much of this vast body of tantric literature is in
Sanskrit, others have also been written in Indian vernacular languages. As noted by Padoux, the
largest portion of these tantric works are Shaiva texts.
Tantric texts and practitioners ("tantrikas") are often contrasted with Vedic texts and those who
practice Vedic religion ("Vaidikas"). This non-Vedic path was often termed Mantramarga ("The
way of mantras") or Tantrasastra ("Tantra teaching"). One of the most well known comments on
this dichotomy is Kulluka Bhatta's statement in his 15th century commentary to
the Manusmriti which states that revelation (sruti) is twofold — Vedic and Tantric.[166] Hindu
tantric teachings are generally seen as revelations from a divine being (such as Śiva, or the
Goddess) which are considered by tantrikas to be superior to the Vedas in leading beings to
liberation. They are also considered to be more effective during the Kali Yuga, a time of much
passion (kama). However, tantric thinkers like Abhinavagupta, while considering tantra as
superior, do not totally reject Vedic teachings, and instead consider them valid on a lower level
since they also derive from the same source, the supreme Godhead.
There are various Hindu tantric traditions within Shaivism, Shaktism and Vaishnavism. There
are numerous tantric texts for these different traditions with different philosophical point of
views, ranging from theistic dualism to absolute monism. According to David B. Gray, "one of
the most important tropes in the history of the dissemination of tantric traditions is that of
lineage, the transmission of teachings along an uninterrupted lineage, from master to disciple, the
so-called guruparaṃparā." These various traditions also differ among themselves on how
heterodox and transgressive they are (vis a vis the Vedic tradition). Since tantric rituals became
so widespread, certain forms of tantra were eventually accepted by many orthodox Vedic
thinkers such as Jayanta Bhatta and Yamunacarya as long as they did not contradict Vedic
teaching and social rules. Tantric scriptures such as the Kali centered Jayadrathayamala also
112
state that tantrikas can follow the Vedic social rules out of convenience and for the benefit of
their clan and guru. However, not all Vedic thinkers accepted tantra. For example, Kumarila
Bhatta wrote that one should have no contact with tantrikas nor speak to them.
Śaiva and Śākta Tantra -The Brihadishvara Temple, a Śaiva Siddhānta temple in Tamil
Nadu
Śaiva Tantra is called the Mantramārga, and is often seen as being a separate teaching than the
ascetic "Atimārga" tradition (which includes the Pāśupatas and Kāpālikas). There are various
doctrines, textual classes and schools of Shaiva Tantra, which often overlap with the Shakta
tradition in different ways.
The Śaiva Siddhānta tradition tradition is the earliest Śaiva Tantra school and was characterized
by public rituals performed by priests. Some of their texts, like the Niśvāsatattvasaṃhitā have
been dated to the fifth century. Their scriptures (the Śaiva Agamas) and basic doctrines are also
shared by the other traditions as a common Śaiva doctrine and many of their rites are also used in
other schools of Shaiva Tantra. The prescriptions and rituals of the Śaiva Siddhānta Agamas are
generally followed by Śaiva temples in South India and they are mostly compatible with
orthodox Brahmanism, lacking terrifying deities and animal sacrifice.
113
Crown, Brow, Throat Chakras, Rajasthan 18th Century
The Mantrapīṭha tradition on the other hand, worships Svacchanda Bhairava, a terrifying form
of Shiva also known as "Aghora" ("not fearsome"). This tradition promotes the Skull observance
(Kapalavrata), that is, carrying a skull, a skull staff (khatavanga) and worshipping in cremation
grounds. One contemporary group of Kapalika ascetics are the Aghoris.
There are also various traditions who are classified as "Vidyāpīṭha". The texts of this tradition
focus on worshipping goddesses known as Yoginīs or Ḍākinīs and include antinomian practices
dealing with charnel grounds and sexuality. These goddess centered traditions of the Śākta
tantras are mostly of the "left" current (vamachara) and are thus considered more heterodox.[179]
There are various Vidyāpīṭha traditions, which focus on a bipolar, bisexual divinity that is equal
parts male and female, Śaiva and Śākta. The Yamalatantras worship Bhairava along with
Kapalini, the goddess of the skull. The Goddess centered traditions are known as
the Kulamārga (Path of the Clans), referring to the clans of the goddesses and
their Shakti tantras, which may have been established around the 9th century. It includes sexual
rituals, sanguinary practices, the ritual consumption of liquor and the importance of spirit
possession. It includes various sub-traditions the developed in different regions of India, such as
the Trika lineage (which worships a trio of deities: Parā, Parāparā, and Aparā), the tradition of
114
the fierce goddess Guhyakālī, Krama tradition, focusing on the goddess Kālī, the Kubjikā cult,
and the southern tradition which worships the beautiful goddess Kāmeśvarī or Tripurasundarī.
During the 10th century, the syncretic Nondual School of Kashmir Śaivism developed.
According to Alexis Sanderson, this tradition arose out of the confrontation between the dualistic
and more orthodox Śaiva Siddhānta and the nondual transgressive traditions of the Trika and
Krama. According to David B. Gray, this school integrated elements from both of these
traditions, "the end result was a nondualistic system in which the transgressive elements were
internalized and hence rendered less offensive to the orthodox."
The philosophers of Kashmir Śaivism, especially Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025 ce) and his
student Jayaratha, are some of the most influential philosophers who wrote on Hindu
tantra.[180] These thinkers synthesized the various goddess and Śaiva lineages and philosophies
into a comprehensive and influential religious system. According to David White,
Abhinavagupta “sublimates, cosmeticizes, and semanticizes many of its practices into a type of
meditative asceticism whose aim is to realize a transcendent subjectivity.”[82] Thus, his work
domesticated the radically antinomian practices of Vidyāpīṭha lineages into meditative exercises.
The last major Śaiva tantric tradition is that of the Nāth or “Split-Ear” Kānphaṭa tradition, which
emerged in the 12th or 13th century. They produced various Haṭhayoga texts which draw on
tantric yogas.
While the Śākta traditions continued to develop in different ways, sometimes in a more popular
and devotional direction, many of them retain various tantric elements today. The two most
important and popular Śākta tantra traditions today are the Southern Kaula transmission, which
focus on the beautiful goddess Śrī (śrīkula) or Lalitā Tripurasundarī and the Northern and
Eastern transmission, focusing on the ferocious goddess Kālī (kālīkula).[82] The southern
transmission gave rise to the Śrī Vidyā tradition, an important tantric religion in South India.
Though it takes much of its philosophical and doctrinal system from Kashmir Shaivism, it
generally avoids the transgressive elements and is orthodox or "right handed". Bhaskararaya
(18th century) is considered a key thinker of this tradition. The Kālīkula tradition is particularly
important in East and South India and Kālī remains a popular goddess in India, a focus of much
devotion.
115
TYPES & CHARACTERISTICS
Tantras ("doctrine" or "framework" or "system" ) refers to numerous and varied scriptures
pertaining to any of several esoteric traditions rooted in Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. The
religious culture of the Tantras is essentially Hindu, and Buddhist Tantric material can be shown
to have been derived from Hindu sources. And although Hindu and Buddhist Tantra have many
similarities from the outside, they do have some clear distinctions.[3] The rest of this article deals
with Hindu Tantra. Buddhist Tantras are described in the article on Buddhist Tantras.
Classes of Hindu tantra: The word tantra is made up by the joining (sandhi in Sanskrit) of two
Sanskrit words: tanoti (expansion) and rayati (liberation). Tantra means liberation of energy and
expansion of consciousness from its gross form.[4] It is a method to expand the mind and liberate
the dormant potential energy, and its principles form the basis of all yogic practices. Hence, the
Hindu Tantra scriptures refer to techniques for achieving a result.
The Hindu Tantras total ninety-two scriptures; of these, sixty-four[5] are purely Abheda (literally
"without differentiation", or monistic), known as the Bhairava Tantras or Kashmir
Śaivite Tantras, eighteen are Bhedābheda (literally "with differentiation and without
differentiation" monistic or dualistic), known as the Rudra Tantras), and ten are
completely Bheda (literally "differentiated" or dualistic), known as the Śiva Tantras. The latter
two (Rudra Tantras and Śiva Tantras) are used by the Śaiva Siddhāntins, and thus are sometimes
referred to as Shaiva Siddhanta Tantras, or Śaiva Siddhānta Āgamas.
Tantra are mainly two types Agama and Nigama. Agamas are those texts in which Goddess
asked questions and the God replied. In Nigama texts God asked questions and Goddess replied.
This dialogue between God and Goddess is special feature of Hinduism Tantra.
Origin:In the Nāth Tradition, legend ascribes the origin of Tantra to Dattatreya, a semimythological yogi and the assumed author of the Jivanmukta Gita ("Song of the liberated
soul"). Matsyendranath is credited with authorship of the Kaulajñāna-nirnāya, a voluminous
ninth-century tantra dealing with a host of mystical and magical subjects. This work occupies an
important position in the Hindu tantric lineage, as well as in Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism.
In contradistinction to the Vaidik ritual, which is traditionally performed out-of-doors without
any idols nor emblems, the Tantrik ritual is largely a matter of temples and idols. The Tantras are
largely descriptions and specifications for the construction and maintenance of temple-structures
together with their enclosed idols and lingas—an example of type of text is the Ajita Māhātantra.
Another function was the conservation as state-secrets of texts for use by royalty to maintain
their authority through rituals directed to deities controlling the political affairs-of-state—an
example of this is the Śārada-tilaka Tantra.
Tantric texts are usually associated with a particular tradition and deity. The different types of
Tantric literature are tantra, Āgama, saṃhitā, sūtra, upaniṣad, purāṇa, tīkā (commentaries),
prakaraṇa, paddhati texts, stotram, kavaca, nighaṇṭu, koṣa and hagiographical literature. They are
written in Sanskrit and in regional languages. The major textual Tantra traditions with some key
exemplary texts is as follows:[8]
116
A Hindu Tantric Painting. India, Pahari, circa 1780-1800. Depicting from top to bottom:
Shiva, Sakti, Vishnu with his conch, Brahma sprouting from his navel, and Lakshmi.
Below is Harihara and four-headed Brahma. At bottom is Trimurti. All painted against a
gold ground forming the stylized seed syllable Om.
Śaiva – Sadaśiva (Śivagama), Vāma or Tumburu, Dakṣiṇa or Bhairava
o Kularnava Tantra
o Amṛteṣaṭantra or Netratantra
o Netragyanarṇava tantra
o Niḥśvāsatattvasaṃhitā
o Kālottārā tantra
o Sarvajñānottārā
o Ṣaivāgamas
o Raudrāgamas
o Bhairavāgamas
o Vāma Āgamas
o Dakṣiṇāgamas
Śivaśakti traditions – Yāmala (also part of Bhairava tradition)
o Brahma yāmala
o Rudra yāmala
o Skanda yāmala
o Viṣṇu yāmala
117
o
o
o
o
Yama yāmala
Yāyu yāmala
Kubera yāmala
Indra yāmala
A tantric form of the Hindu Goddess Kali. Folio from a book of Iconography, Nepal, 17th
century.
Śākta – Kālī traditions
(Kālī,
Others), Śrīkula tradition
o Shakta Agamas
o Muṇḍamālātantra
o Toḍalatantra
o Cāmuṇḍatantra
o Devīyāmala
o Mādhavakula
o Yonigahavara,
o Kālīkulārṇava tantra
o Kaṇkālamālinī tantra
o Jhaṃkārakaravīra,
o Mahākālasaṃhitā
o Kālī tantra
o Kālajñāna tantra
o Kumārī tantra
o Toḍala tantra
o Siddhalaharī tantra
o Niruttārā tantra
o Kālīvilāsa tantra
o Utpatti tantra
o Kāmadhenu tantra
o Nirvāṇa tantra
o Kāmākhyā tantra
o Tārā tantra
o Kaula tantra
o Matsya Sūkta / Tārā Kalpa
o Samayā tantra
o Vāmakeshvara tantra
o Tantrajā tantra
o Yoginī tantra
Kula - Kulamārga and Other tantras
o Kulārṇava tantra
o Mahānirvāṇa tantra
o Kulacūḍāmaṇitantra
Kālī
118
Viṣṇu, Kāmākhyā/Kubjika, Tārā and
Kulārṇavatantra
o Guptasādhanatantra
o Mātṛkābhedatantra.
Vaiṣṇava – Vaikhanasas, Pancharatra, bhakti-oriented tantras of Kṛṣṇa and Rāma
o Pāñcarātra saṃhitā texts
o Ahirbudhnya Saṃhitā
o Jayākhya saṃhitā
o Pārameśvara saṃhitā
o Pauśkara saṃhitā
o Pādma saṃhitā
o Nāradīya saṃhitā
o Haṃsaparameśvara saṃhitā
o Vaihāyasa saṃhitā
o Śrīkālapraā saṃhitā
o Vaikhānasa Āgamas
o Gautamīya tantra
o Bṛhadbrahmasaṃhitā
o Māheśvaratantra
o Sātvatatantra
o Rādhātantra
o Agastyasaṃhitā and Dāśarathīyatantra
o Īśānasaṃhitā and Ūrdhvāṃnāyasaṃhitā
Mantra-śāstra - textbooks on Mantras, metaphysics of mantric sound, related practices and
rituals
o Prapañcasāra tantra and its commentaries and Ṭīkās
o Śāradatilaka tantra by Lakṣmaṇa Deśikendra
o Mantramuktāvali of Paramahaṃsa Pūrṇaprakāśa
o Mantramahodadhi of Mahīdhara
o Mantradevaprakāśikā of Viṣṇudeva
o Mantrakamalākara of Kamalākara Bhaṭṭa
o Mantraratnākara of Yadunātha Cakravartin
o Mantramahārṇava of Mādhava Rāya Vaidya
o Tantrasāra of Kṛṣṇānanda āgamvāgiśa
Nibandha - handbooks on ritual worship, sadhana and puja
o Kriyākalpataru of śaktinātha Kalyānakara
o Kaulāvalīnirṇaya of Jñānānandagiri Paramahaṃsa
o śāktanandataraṃgiṇī of Brahmānanda Giri
o śāktakrama of Pūrṇānanda
o śrītattvacintāmaṇi of Pūrṇānanda
o āgamakalpadruma of Govinda
o āgamakalpalatikā of Yadunātha
o āgamatattvavilāsa of Raghunātha Tarkavāgīśa, and āgamachandrikā of Rāmakṛṣṇa
o
119
Tantrachintāmaṇi of Navamīsiṃha
o Prāṇatoṣiṇī of Rāmatoṣaṇa Vidyālaṃkāra
o Śhivarahasya
o Śaivakalpadruma
Saura Tantras
Ganapatya Tantras
Others – supernatural, chemistry, astrology, alchemy, etc.,
Translations
o
Most Hindu Tantras remain untranslated. One widely translated exception is the Vijñāna
Bhairava Tantra, which according to Christopher Wallis, is atypical of most Tantric scriptures.
Sir John Woodroffe translated the Tantra of the Great Liberation (Mahānirvāna Tantra) (1913)
into English along with other Tantric texts. Other tantras which have been translated into a
Western language include the Malini-vijayottara tantra, the Kirana tantra, and the Parakhya
Tantra.
Some translation of Tantra texts
1. The Kulachudamani Tantra and
Vamkehwar Tantra ,Louise M. Finn
2. Kularnava Tantra,Paramhansa Mishra
3. Kularnava Tantra ,Ram Rahim Rai
4. Yogini Hridaya, Vraj Vallabh Dwivedi
5. Yogini Tantra by GangaVishnu ShriKrishnadas
6.Maheshwar Tantra Sarala Hindi Vyakhya Sudhakar Malaviya Chowkambha(Narada Pancrata)
7. Kamratna Tantra, Hemchandra Goswami
Tantric Texts Series Arthur Avalon (John Woodroffe)
1. Tantrabhidhanam with Bijanighantu & Mudranighantu - A Tantric Dictionary
2. Shatchakranirupanam (Serpant Power) with 2 commentaries - Taranatha Vaidyaratna
3. Prapachasaratantram (reprinted as volumes 18 & 19)
4. Kulachudamani Tantra - Girish Chandra Vedantatirtha
5. Kularnavatantram edited by Taranatha Vaidyaratna
6. Kalivilasatantram edited by Parvati Charana Tarkatirtha
7. Shrichakrasambhara edited by Kazi Dawa samdup (Buddhist Tantra)
8. Tantraraja Part 1 commentary by Subhagananda Natha
9. Karpuradistotra with intro & commentary by Vimalananda Swami
10. Kamakalavilasa of Punyananda, commentary by Natananadanatha
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11. Kaula & Other Upanishads with commentaries by Bhaskararaya & others
12. Tantraraja Part 2 commentary by Subhagananda Natha
13. Mahanirvanatantram with commentary of Hariharananda Bharati
14. Kaulavalinirnayah of Jnanananda Paramahamsa
15. Brahmasamhita with commentary of Jiva Gosvami & Vishnusahasranama
16. Sharadatilakatantram of Lakshmana Desikendra with commentary Part 1
17. Sharadatilakatantram of Lakshmana Desikendra with commentary Part 2
18. Prapachasaratantram Part 1
19. Prapachasaratantram Part 2
20. Chidgaganachandrika - Swami Trivikrama Tirtha
21. Tarabhakti Sudharnava - Panchanana Bhattacharya Tarkaratna
22. Sataratna samgraha, with Sataratnollekhani - Edited by Panchanan Sastri
Vaiṣṇava
The main Vaiṣṇava tradition that is associated with tantra is the Pañcharatra. This tradition
produced a number of tantric texts, most of which are lost. However, this sect does not identify
itself as "tantric".[82] The worship and ritual of most of the Vaiṣṇava temples in South India
follow this tradition, which is ritually similar to the Shaiva Siddhanta. According to Padoux,
"from the doctrinal point of view, they are nearer to brahmanical orthodoxy (proudly asserted by
some of their affiliates) and their mantras are indeed often Vedic."
According to David B. Gray,
"During the medieval period another tantric Vaiṣṇava tradition emerged in Bengal. Known as
the Sahajiyā tradition, it flourished in Bengal around the 16th through 19th centuries. It taught
that each individual is a divinity, embodying the divine couple Kṛṣṇa and his consort Rādhā.
This tradition integrated earlier Hindu and Buddhist tantric practices within a Vaiṣṇava
theological framework.
Buddhist Tantra
There are various Buddhist tantric traditions throughout Asia which are called by different names
such as Vajrayana, Secret Mantra, Mantrayana and so on. The Indo-Tibetan Buddhist tradition
has been dominant in Tibet and the Himalayan regions. It first spread to Tibet in the 8th century
and quickly rose to prominence. The Tibetan Buddhist tantric teachings have recently been
spread to the Western world by the Tibetan diaspora. Nepalese Newar Buddhism meanwhile is
still practiced in the Kathmandu Valley by the Newar people. The tradition maintains a canon of
Sanskrit texts, the only Buddhist tantric tradition to still do so.
Buddhist Tantric practices and texts which developed from the 5th to the 8th centuries were
translated into Chinese and are preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon as well as in
the Dunhuang manuscripts. Chinese Esoteric Buddhism was only influential for a short period of
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time during the Tang Dynasty. It mostly disappeared from China due to the great Buddhist
persecution of the Wuzong emperor’s (武宗, 814–846; r. 840–846), but it spread to Korea and to
Japan, where it survives today as an independent tradition called Shingon.[82]
Other religions
The Hindu and Buddhist Tantric traditions significantly influenced many other religions such
Jainism, Sikhism, the Tibetan Bön tradition, Daoism, Shintō, Sufi Islam, and the Western "New
Age" movement.
In the Sikh literature, the ideas related to Shakti and goddess reverence attributed to Guru
Gobind Singh, particularly in the Dasam Granth, are related to tantra ideas found in Buddhism
and Hinduism.
The Jain worship methods, states Ellen Gough, were likely influenced by Shaktism ideas, and
this is attested by the tantric diagrams of the Rishi-mandala where the Tirthankaras are
portrayed.[191] The Tantric traditions within Jainism use verbal spells or mantra, and rituals that
are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms.
A Kali Puja (devotional ritual)
One of the main elements of the Tantric literature is ritual. Rather than one coherent system,
Tantra is an accumulation of practices and ideas from different sources. As Samuel writes, the
tantric traditions are "a confluence of a variety of different factors and components." These
elements include: mandalas, mantras, internal sexual yogic practices, fierce male and female
deities, cremation ground symbolism, as well as concepts from Indian Philosophy.
André Padoux notes that there is no consensus among scholars as to which elements are
characteristic for Tantra, nor is there any text that contains all those elements. Also, most of
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those elements can also be found in non-Tantric traditions. Because of the wide range of
communities covered by the term, it is problematic to describe tantric practices definitively.
However, there are sets of practices and elements which are shared by numerous tantric
traditions, and thus a family resemblance relationship can be established among them.
Different scholars give different main features of tantra. For example, David N. Lorenzen writes
that tantra shares various "shamanic and yogic" practices, worship of goddesses, association with
specific schools like the Kaulas and Kapalikas, as well as tantric texts. Christopher Wallis
meanwhile, basing himself on the definition given the tantric scholar Rāmakaṇṭha, gives four
main features of tantra: "1) concern with ritual modes of manipulation (of the environment or
one’s own awareness), 2) requirement for esoteric initiation (to receive access to the scriptural
teachings and practices), 3) a twofold goal of practice: the soteriological and supramundane one
of liberation (variously conceived) and/or the mundane one of extraordinary power over other
beings and one’s environment, and 4) the claim that these three are explicated in scriptures that
are the word of God (āgama) or the Buddha (buddhavacana)."
According to Anthony Tribe, a scholar of Buddhist Tantra, Tantra has the following defining
features:[197]
1. Centrality of ritual, especially the worship of deities
2. Centrality of mantras
3. Visualisation of and identification with a deity
4. Need for initiation, esotericism and secrecy
5. Importance of a teacher (guru, acharya)
6. Ritual use of mandalas (maṇḍala)
7. Transgressive or antinomian acts
8. Revaluation of the body
9. Revaluation of the status and role of women
10. Analogical thinking (including microcosmic or macrocosmic correlation)
11. Revaluation of negative mental states
There are a wide array of Tantric techniques or spiritual practices (sadhana) such as
Dakshina: Donation or gift to one's teacher
Guru yoga and Guru devotion (bhakti)
Diksha or Abhiseka: Initiation ritual which may include shaktipat
Yoga, including breathing techniques (pranayama) and postures (asana), is employed to
balance the energies in the body/mind.
Mudras, or hand gestures
Mantras: reciting syllables, words, and phrases
Singing of hymns of praise (stava)
Mandalas and Yantras, symbolic diagrams of forces at work in the universe
Visualization of deities and Identification these deities in meditation (deity yoga)
Puja (worship ritual) and other forms of bhakti
Ritual sacrifice, including animal sacrifice
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Use of taboo substances such as alcohol, cannabis, meat and other entheogens.
Prāyaścitta - an expiation ritual performed if a puja has been performed wrongly
Nyasa, installing mantras on the body
Ritual purification (of idols, of one's body, etc.)
Yatra: pilgrimage, processions
Vrata and Samaya: vows or pledges, sometimes to do ascetic practices like fasting
The acquisition and use of siddhis or supernormal powers. Associated with the left hand path
tantra.
Ganachakra: A ritual feast during which a sacramental meal is offered.
Ritual Music and Dance.
Sexual yoga: ritual sexual union (with an actual physical consort or an imagined deity).
Dream yoga
Worship and ritual
When Krishna Disguised as Kali
Worship or puja in Hindu Tantra differs from Vedic forms somewhat. While in the Vedic
practice of yajna there are no idols, shrines, and symbolic art, in tantra they are important means
of worship.
Rituals are particularly important in the dualistic Śaiva Siddhānta which according to Padoux "is
typically characterized by an overabundance of rituals, which are necessarily accompanied by
mantras. These rituals are not so much a succession of actions as a play of mentally visualized
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and experienced images, a situation common to all Tantric traditions, where rites, meditation,
and yoga are exercises in creative identifying imagination." The theory behind these rituals is the
idea that all humans have a fundamental impurity (mala) that binds them to rebirth. This impurity
can be removed by ritual action (along with proper knowledge). The initial step in this path is the
ritual of initiation (diksa), which opens to door to future liberation at death.
In the non-dualistic and transgressive (or "left hand") traditions like the Kali cults and the Trika
school, rituals and pujas can include certain left hand path elements that are not found in the
more orthodox traditions. These transgressive elements include the use of skulls and other human
bone implements (as part of the Kapalika vow), fierce deities like Bhairava, Kubjika and Kali
which were used as part of meditative visualizations, ritual possession by the deities (avesa),
sexual rites and offering the deity (as well as consuming) certain impure substances like meat,
alcohol and sexual fluids. Padoux explains the transgressive practices as follows:
On the ritual and mental plane, transgression was an essential trait by which the nondualistic
Tantric traditions set themselves apart from other traditions — so much so that they used the
term “nondualistic practice” (advaitacara) to refer to the Kaula transgressive practices as a
rejection of the duality (dvaita) of pure and impure in brahmanical society. Let us also note that
for the nondualistic Saiva systems, the Yoginis were not active merely in the world of spirits;
they were also powers present in humans — mistresses of their senses, governing their affects,
which acquired an intensity and super-natural dimension through this divinization. This led
adepts to an identification of their individual consciousness with the infinite divine
Consciousness, thus also helping them transcend the sexual plane.[202]
In both the Buddhist and Saiva contexts, the sexual practices are often seen as a way to expand
one's consciousness through the use of bliss.
There is also a fundamental philosophical disagreement between Śaiva Siddhānta and the nondualistic schools like the Trika regarding ritual. In Śaiva Siddhānta, only ritual can do away with
"innate impurities" (anavamala) that bind individual souls, though the ritual must be performed
with an understanding of their nature and purpose as well as with devotion. In the view of the
Trika school (especially in the work of Abhinavagupta), only knowledge (jñana) which is a
“recognition” (pratyabhijña) of our true nature, leads to liberation. According to Padoux, "this is
also, with nuances, the position of the Pñcaratra and of other Vaisnava Tantric traditions."[203]
Yoga, Mantra, Meditation
Tantric yoga is first and foremost an embodied practice, which is seen as having a divine esoteric
structure. As noted by Padoux, tantric yoga makes use of a "mystic physiology" which includes
various psychosomatic elements sometimes called the "subtle body". This imaginary inner
structure includes chakras ("wheels"), nadis ("channels"), and energies (like Kundalini, Chandali,
different pranas and vital winds, etc). The tantric body is also held to be a microcosmic reflection
of the universe, and is thus seen as containing gods and goddesses.[204] According to Padoux, the
"internalized image of the yogic body" is a fundamental element for nearly all meditative and
tantric ritual practices.
The use of mantras is one of the most common and widespread elements of tantric practice. They
are used in rituals as well as during various meditative and yogic practices. Mantra recitation
(japa) is often practiced along with nyasa ("depositing" the mantra), mudras ("seals", i.e. hand
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gestures) and complex visualizations involving divine symbols, mandalas and deities. Nyasa
involves touching various parts of the body while reciting mantra, which is thought to connect
the deity with the yogis body and transform the body into that of the deity.[206]
Mantras are also often visualized as being located within the yogi's body as part of tantric
meditations. For example, in the "Yogini Heart" tantra, a Śrī Vidyā text, the yogi is instructed to
imagine the five syllables (HA SA KA LA HRIM) of the deity's mantra in the muladhara chakra.
The next set of five syllables (HA SA KA HA LA HRIM) is visualized in the heart chakra and
the third cluster (SA KA LA HRIM) in the cakra between the eyebrows. The yogi is further
instructed to lengthen the enunciation of the M sound at the end of the HRIM syllable, a practice
called nada (phonic vibration). This practice goes through various increadingly subtle stages
until it dissolves into the silence of the Absolute.
Another common element found in tantric yoga is the use of visionary meditations in which
tantrikas focus on a vision or image of the deity (or deities), and in some cases imagine
themselves as being the deity and their own body as the body of the deity.[208] The practitioner
may use visualizations, identifying with a deity to the degree that the aspirant "becomes"
the Ishta-deva (or meditational deity). In other meditations, the deities are visualized as being
inside the tantrika's body. For example, in Abhinavagupta's Tantraloka (chapter 15), the Trika
"trinity" of goddesses (Parā, Parāparā, and Aparā) are visualized on the ends of the three prongs
of a trident (located above the head). The rest of the trident is imaged positioned along the
central axis of the yogi's body, with the blazing corpse of Shiva visualized in the head.[209]
Mandalas and Yantras
Yantra are mystical diagrams which are used in tantric meditation and ritual. They are usually
associated with specific Hindu deities such as Shiva, Shakti, or Kali. Similarly, a puja may
involve focusing on a yantra or mandala associated with a deity.[210]
According to David Gordon White, geometrical mandalas are a key element of Tantra.[211] They
are used to represent numerous tantric ideas and concepts as well as used for meditative focus.
Mandalas symbolically communicate the correspondences between the "transcendent-yetimmanent" macrocosm and the microcosm of mundane human experience.[211] The godhead (or
principal Buddha) is often depicted at the center of the mandala, while all other beings, including
the practitioner, are located at various distances from this center.[211] Mandalas also reflected the
medieval feudal system, with the king at its centre.[212]
Mandalas and Yantras may be depicted in various ways, on paintings, cloth, in three dimensional
form, made out of colored sand or powders, etc. Tantric yoga also often involves the mental
visualization of a mandala or yantra. This is usually combined with mantra recitation and other
ritual actions as part of a tantric sadhana (practice).
Sex and eroticism
While tantra involves a wide range of ideas and practices which are not always of a sexual
nature, Flood and Padoux both note that in the West, Tantra is most often thought of as a kind
of ritualized sex or a spiritualized yogic sexuality.[213][214][215] According to Padoux, "this is a
misunderstanding, for though the place of sex in Tantra is ideologically essential, it is not always
so in action and ritual." Padoux further notes that while sexual practices do exist and where used
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by certain tantric groups, they "lost their prevalence when Tantra spread to other larger social
groups."
In the tantric traditions which do use sex as part of spiritual practice (this refers mainly to the
Kaulas, and also Tibetan Buddhism), sex and desire are often seen as a means of transcendence
that is used to reach the Absolute. Thus, sex and desire are not seen as ends in themselves.
Because these practices transgress orthodox Hindu ideas of ritual purity, they have often given
tantra a bad image in India, where it is often condemned by the orthodox. According to Padoux,
even among the traditions which accept these practices, they are far from prominent and
practiced only by a "few initiated and fully qualified adepts".
What Is Tantric Sex?
Tantra is an ancient Indian practice that dates back more than 5,000 years. In Sanskrit, the
word tantra means woven together. People who practice Buddhist and Hindu meditation may also
practice tantric sex as a way to “weave” the physical with the spiritual.
This practice brings together spirituality and sexuality and emphasizes the importance of intimacy
during a sexual experience.
However, tantra isn’t just about sexual pleasure. It’s more about celebrating your body and feeling
heightened sensuality. The practice intertwines spirituality, sexuality, and a state of mindfulness. It
encourages a sensual experience that may be experienced alone or with a partner.
The goal of tantric sex is to achieve spiritual or energetic contact during a sensual experience. This
practice is slow and the aim is not always to achieve orgasm. Instead, it’s about feeling a connection
either to your partner or to yourself that’s both intense and enlightened. It includes breathing, sounds,
and movements to activate sexual energy.
Myths About Tantric Sex
Tantra isn’t just a sexual practice. It’s an Eastern philosophy that includes several spiritual concepts.
Tantric techniques include breathing, yoga, and meditation that can then increase sexual energy. A
common misconception about tantric sex is that it involves wild, uninhibited sexual experiences. While
tantric techniques can open you up to new sensations, it’s as much a mental practice as a spiritual one.
Another misconception around tantra is that it’s always necessary to have a partner. While
many couples practice tantric sex together, it can also be an individual practice.
In reality, genital contact or intercourse doesn’t even have to happen to have a tantric experience. Sexual
intercourse can enhance your experience, but you can also practice tantra to feel more connected to your
own mind and body and give yourself pleasure.
In fact, those who practice tantric techniques, or follow the tantric path, have the overall goal of freeing
the soul and expanding consciousness. This can be done in a number of ways, tantric sex being just one
of them.
Tantric sex also isn’t about bending into strenuous poses or positions. It’s about being close to your
partner in a way that’s comfortable for you. You have the freedom to move and touch however you and
your partner decide is best.
What Is the Difference Between Tantra and Neotantra?
As you look for information on tantric sex, a few words come up over and over again: tantra, tantric sex,
and neotantra. These terms often get used interchangeably, but it’s important to note there are some
small differences between tantra and neotantra.
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Tantra, as mentioned, is the ancient Eastern practice that developed more than 5,000 years ago.
Neotantra is the modern, Westernized version that’s associated with new religious movements.
Neotantra is a modern, New Age look at the ancient tantric texts. This means that neotantra includes
some unorthodox practices and techniques that aren’t necessarily used by those that follow the
traditional path of tantra.
How to Explore Tantric Sex
To explore tantric sex, there are a few techniques that you can try to get ready. The first thing to do is to
create the right environment. A good place to practice tantric techniques should be a place that’s
comfortable and free from distractions. Once you’ve found your preferred place, it’s time to relax and
settle in.
Meditation. Whether you’ve practiced meditation before or not, this simply means taking a moment to
be aware of your surroundings. Use your senses to really absorb everything going on around you.
Breathing. Inhale deeply and slowly, then exhale and empty out your lungs. Repeat this until you have
rhythm. The goal with tantric breathing is to breathe deep enough to start to feel sensation in
your sex organs.
Movement. Lay flat on your back and let go of tension. As you breathe, arch your back and lift up your
pelvis. You can repeat this to create a rhythm and feel yourself letting go of stress and starting to connect
with your body and emotions.
How Tantric Sex Works in Relationships
Many couples practice tantric sex to feel connected to their partner on a higher level. Tantric techniques
help to form close, intimate contact and allow you and your partner to explore each other’s bodies. You
both can discover what you really like and you can teach your partner along the way.
Tantric sex is meant to be slow and satisfying, and sessions are typically quite long. Many people aim at
putting off orgasm to enjoy the closeness and intimacy as long as possible.
If you’re ready to explore tantric sex with your partner, the first thing you can practice together is eye
contact. Start out by facing your partner, clothes on, and look at each other in the eyes. Practice the
breathing techniques and synchronize your breath. Once you’ve gotten into a rhythm, you can begin to
incorporate tantric techniques.
After you undress, you can begin touching, feeling, and moving with your partner however feels best for
you. The key here is to maintain eye contact and to continue to focus on your breathing. The only thing
that matters is the present moment and enjoying every sensation.
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CHAPTER XI
mandala: Buddhist Tantric Diagrams
Introduction
In the Tibetan tradition, all religious works of art are collectively referred to as sku gsun thugs
rten. rTen literally means "support," and in religious terminology it signifies a support for one of
the three "bodies" of enlightenment. sKu rten are "body supports," or images of the Buddha,
deities, or saints in the Buddhist pantheon, such as the images painted
in thangkas [see Jackson, Tibetan Thangka Painting, 1984]. gSun rten are "speech supports," or
scriptures such as sutras and tantras, or commentaries on these. Thugs rten are "mind supports,"
of which mchod rten, or "stupas," are examples. Another object in this category of "mind
supports", or representations of the spiritual embodiment of the Buddha, are dkyil khor, or
mandalas. The word dkyil khor means "center-circumference," and describes both the essential
geometric structure and ritual significance of mandalas. As one commentary clarifies
[Wayman, Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems, p. 270, n. 1]:
As for the center, that is the essence.
As for the circumference, that is grasping, thus grasping the essence.
This essence is the "heart" of the Buddha. In his enlightened form, the Buddha is no longer in
this world. As one of his epithets indicates, the Buddha is tathagata, or "thus-gone," and in the
absence of his physical body, the mandala represents his "body of enlightenment."
Nechung Monastery
Mandalas are used in the rituals of tantric initiation. They are constructed at the beginning of the
initiation, out of grains of colored sand carefully placed on a specially prepared platform. Thus
mandalas, like Vedic altars, are temporary structures built of impermanent materials. But while
the mud-bricks of altars are simply abandoned after the ritual sacrifice, mandalas are deliberately
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destroyed, their sand swept up upon completion of the initiation and and poured into a nearby
stream or river.
Mandala base at Nechung Monastery
All monks at Tibetan Buddhist monasteries are required to learn how to construct mandalas as
part of their training. The learning process is two-fold, including the memorization of texts that
specify the names, lengths, and positions of the primary lines that define the basic structure of
mandalas, as well as the manual techniques of drawing and pouring sand. These texts, however,
do not describe every line, nor every detail of each mandala, but rather serve as mnemonic
guides to the complete forms of mandalas that must be learned from the repeated practice of
construction under the guidance of experienced monks.
Monks constructing a mandala at Nechung
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The basic structure...[measure and proportion]. The process of construction...[accuracy and
precision]
The central square of 8 x 8 proportional units is shown by the gray area in the figure above. Note that in the
east-west direction, drawn vertically here, the furthest extent of the construction lines is proportionately
equal to that of the Vedic altar. Once the construction lines have been completed, guide-lines for the final
representation of the mandala are drawn:
These guide-lines include representations of a square wall, each side of which contains an opening, or 'door'
surmounted by a 'gate', and enclosing circles that define the limits of physical space. These guide-lines are
traditionally drawn with chalk, and serve as a base for the final rendering of the mandala with colored sand.
In the completed mandala, the colored sand completely covers the construction lines, resulting in the
following form:
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Details of the Guhyasamaja mandala...
fig. 1: walls and doors; fig. 2: central circle; fig. 3: gate.
In addition to their constructional similarities, altars and mandalas share a significant ritual
similarity as well: both are impermanent structures. Just as the Vedic altar is abandoned after the
completion of the sacrificial ritual, the sand of the mandala is swept away after the completion of
the tantric ritual, and then poured into a nearby stream or river.
The mandala represented above is known as Guhyasamaja, one of the five proportional classes
of mandalas given in the Vajravali tradition. The iconographic details of mandalas may further
vary within each proportional class. In the iconographic study by Loden Sherap Dagyab, for
instance, three different iconographic variations are given for the Guhyasamaja mandala:
fig. 4: Mi bskyod pa; fig. 5: Mar lugs mi bskyod pa; fig. 6: Gsan hdus rdor.
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In Buddhism, mandala is a symbolic image of mind.
“Mind” here means all our mental abilities. All the space of our perception.
All the perceived Universe can be regarded as the contents of the mind. So mandala can be called
“the image of the Universe” as well.Mandala is an object of concentration; therefore it usually
depicts clean mind — the Buddha’s mind — to help us to develop qualities of clean
mind.Therefore mandala in Buddhism depicts “Universe” or “Buddha’s mind”, or some
particular aspects of Buddha’s mind.For example, there are images of enlightened beings, such
as Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, embodiment of compassion. Bodhisattva Manjushri,
embodiment of wisdom. And so on. These are images of aspects of the awakened mind, and are
used in practices that help our mind to tune to the same qualities.
There are also mandalas that include many enlightened beings in some structure. For example, a
mandala of Five Tathagatas:
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It shows five kinds of Buddha’s wisdom.
There are particular relations between different aspects of our mind, and they are expressed in
mandalas using colors, cardinal directions, symbolic postures and items, surrounding details, etc.
All the details have meanings, so concentrating on mandalas and visualizing them we absorb
those meanings on a level of visual thinking.
Few more examples of Buddhist mandalas:
Unity of male and female in Buddhism usually means unity of wisdom-prajna (female) and
awakened activity (male). AFAIK it’s different from Hindu symbolism; though I’m not a
specialist in religions so I’ll not go into details here. Around the center — unity of wisdom and
action — you see images of Bodhisattvas, and other Tantric images, such as Dharma protectors.
The function of Dharma protectors is to ensure favorite conditions for the spiritual practice; so
they help to eliminate obstacles in our practice.
Mandalas are sacred energy circles .They are art frms that help you to reflect within and discover
your true self. lets say for e.g. You maybe currently experiencing thoughts and emotions that are
not very conducive to your life and resourceful. Creating a mandala with an intention to release
that thought can help .That’s where spiritual healers help to release stuck emotions or mental
thought patterns.
Such mandalas can be built as an offering of all the Universe, an offering of all our mind to
Buddha. Tantric Buddhist usually build such mandalas from colored rice or sand, and so on. At
the end of the session of practice these mandalas are destroyed, to depict impermanence and nonattachment
-__________________________________________________________________________
Alex Zendo-, Buddhist teacherhttps://www.quora.com/What-are-mandalas-in-TantricBuddhism-and-Tantric-Hinduism
Ranjini Rao, Mandala Art facilitator in individual & corporate settings
Some mandalas are detailed descriptions of various functions of our mind, and how they
correlate.
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Ardhanarishvara - the Symbolic Unity of Nature and Knowledge
"Champeya Gaurardha Shareerakayai Karpoora Gaurardha Shareerakaya
Dhammillakayai Cha Jataadharaya Namah Shivayai Cha Namah Shivaya"
This is the very first quatrain of the 9-quatrain Ardhanari Nateshwara Stotra. The meaning of this
verse is as follows:
"Salutations to Shivaa, who has a jasmine-colored, fair half-form and who has long and
beautiful curly locks
Salutations to Shiva, who has camphor colored half-form and who has matted tresses"
Ardhanarishvara is one of the 64 manifestations of Parashiva, the aspect of Lord Shiva, who is
Absolute, beyond all human comprehension and is hence considered the Nirguna Brahman (the
Supreme One, who is beyond attributes).
Ardhanarishvara - Shiva and Shakti 136
Ardhanarishvara is a composite androgynous form of Shiva and his consort Parvati. This form is
shown as a fusion of half-male and half-female forms, split down in the center. The right half is
depicted as Shiva, while the left half shows the female form of Parvati.
The very name Ardhanarishvara implies "the Lord who is half-woman". This form of Shiva is
also referred to as Ardhanarisha, Ardhanarinateshwara, Ardhayuvateeshwara,
Ardhagaureeshwara, Gaureeshwara, Naranaari, Parangada and Ammiappan.
Since Ardhanarishvara represents the perfect synthesis of male and female forms, it also
embodies the Prakriti and the Purusha, the feminine and masculine energies of the cosmos and
also illustrates how Shakti, the Sacred Feminine, is inseparable from Shiva, the male principle
of God. This form also symbolizes the all-pervasive, all-enduring nature of Lord Shiva.
Origin of Ardhanarishvara
The origin of the concept of Ardhanarishvara can be traced back to hermaphrodite figures in both
the ancient Hindu and Greek cultures. The earliest images of Ardhanarishvara date back to the
Kushan era, records of which exist from the first century CE.
Ardhanarishwar - Shiva Shakti - Mural Poster
It is believed that the iconography of Ardhanarishvara developed and evolved during the Gupta
period. The concept of Ardhanarishvara continues to be a popular iconographic form and can be
found in most Shiva temples throughout India. But strangely, there are very few temples in this
country that are actually dedicated to this deity.
It is believed that the early iconography of Ardhnareeshwara could have been inspired by the
Vedic literature's composite figure of Yama-Yami, the combination of the primordial Creator
Vishvarupa or Prajapati and Agni, the Fire God. This figure appears as a bull, who is also a cow.
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Interestingly, the androgynous forms of Hermaphroditus and Agdistis are famous in Greek
mythology as well.
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad says that this androgynous form occurs as a result of Purusha
splitting himself into two parts, male and female. These two halves copulate, thereby producing
all life. The Shwetashwatara Upanishad also talks about Rudra, the antecedent of the Puranic
Shiva, the maker of all and the root of Purusha and Prakriti (the female principle), adhering to
Samkhya philosophy.
Earliest Images of Ardhanarishvara
The earliest images of Ardhanarishvara show the male half as ithyphallic with an urdhvalinga
and the female left having a rounded breast and holding a mirror. This is the commonest
representation of Ardhanarishvara, which is also universally recognized.
The right side which shows the male half has matted hair with a skull and crescent moon, while
the left female side has well-combed hair decorated with pearls and flowers and wears a patrakundala (earring). The face of Ardhanarishvara has one common third eye as well.
The earliest Kushan images showed Lord Ardhanarishvara in a simple two-armed form, but later
texts and sculptures depict a more complex iconography of the deity. One can also find the deity
with three, sometimes even eight, arms. In the case of three arms, Parvati "owns" only one of
them, thereby showing her submissive, less dominant, nature.
Ardhanarishwar - Madhubani Folk Art - Book
In actuality, the principle of Ardhanarishvara seeks to unify the two sects of Shaivism and
Shaktism, dedicated to Shiva and the Devi respectively. Very rarely, in some schools of
Shaktism, one can also see the female half to the right side of the Ardhanarishvara image and the
male half to the left side.
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Ardhanarishvara - Brass Statue
The Male Half of the Ardhanarishvara
The male half dons a jata or piled, matted hair twisted on top of his head, adorned with a crescent
moon. Sometimes this jata is also ornamented with snakes and the Ganga (Ganges), flowing in a
stream through the hair. In the right ear is a nakra-kundala or sarpa-kundala (serpent-earring). In
some pictures, the male eye is depicted as smaller than the female one (this is also mentioned in
one other verse of the Ardhanarinateshwara stotra) and a half-moustache is also seen.
While most portraits show both half-forms sharing the trinetra or the third eye, sometimes, a half
third eye is shown on the male side of the forehead and Parvati's side of the forehead is adorned
with a half bindi or round dot.
In the two-armed form, one right hand holds a skull cap or kapala and the other shows the varada
mudra (gesture of succour).
In the four-armed version of Ardhanarishvara, one of the right hands holds a parashu or axe and
another one gestures an abhaya mudra. Sometimes, one of the right arms is slightly bent and rests
on the head of Nandi (Shiva's mount, the Bull), while the other holds the abhaya mudra. In yet
another pose, the right hands hold the Trishula or Trident and an akshamala or rosary another
makes an abhaya or varada hasta. Sometimes, the four-armed version shows the deity playing a
Veena or lute, using a left and a right arm. The other male arm holds a parashu and the female
one, a lotus.
The male half of the body has a flat masculine chest, broader shoulder, wider waist and muscular
thigh. He also wears a yagnopavita or sacred thread across the chest. This sacred thread may
sometimes divide the torso into its male and female halves.
In some images from North India, the male half may be depicted shorn of any clothing. In South
India though, the male side is usually covered in a dhoti (flowing garment tied at the waist) made
of cotton or silk, tiger-skin or a sarpa-mekhala or serpent girdle of sorts. The right side usually
rests on a Padma-Pitha or lotus pedestal. The entire right half is also usually covered with ashes.
The Female Half of the Ardhanarishvara
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The female half of the deity is shown having a karanda-mukuta or basket-shaped crown. The
well-combed hair is neatly held in place. The left ear wears a valika-kundala. A bindu or tilaka
adorns her forehead. While the male half of the neck is shown ornamented with a hooded
serpent, the female neck has a blue lotus.
In the case of two-armed icons, the left hand rests on Nandi's head, hangs loose or holds a
flower, a mirror or a parrot. Sometimes, the parrot is perched on Parvati's wrist. In the threearmed portrait, the left hand holds a flower, a mirror or a parrot. The four-armed female form
shows one of the left arms resting on Nandi's head, while the other is bent, holding a nilotpala or
blue lotus. Sometimes, this hand also hangs loosely to her side. Her hands are usually adorned
with ornaments like a keyura (bracelet) or kankana (bangles).
The female half of the deity has a well-rounded, full bosom and a narrow feminine waist
embellished with various haras or waistbands. She is also adorned with other ornaments, made of
diamonds and other gems. She is shown having a fuller thigh and a curvier body and hip than the
male part of the icon. The torso, hip and pelvis of the female are exaggerated so as to emphasize
the anatomical differences between the halves.
The female part of the body is always fully clothed. She wears a multi-coloured or white silken
garment or sari down to her ankle and one or three girdles around her waist. The left half wears
an anklet and her foot is painted red with Alta or Henna.
The left leg usually rests on a Padma-Pitha. The Parvati half is smeared with saffron and is
shown to be calm and gentle and is usually parrot-green or dark in colour.
The Tribhanga Posture
Ardhanarishwara - Brass and Copper Statue
The Ardhanarishvara is often shown in the Tribhanga posture, that is, bent at three areas of the
body: head (leaning to the left), torso (to the right) and right leg or in the sthanamudra position.
If the deity is shown standing on a lotus pedestal, it is referred to as the samapada. Very rarely is
the Ardhanarishvara shown in a sitting position.
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Ardhanarishvara - Brass Statue
Generally, the Nandi is shown as the vahana or vehicle of the Ardhanarishvara. But sometimes,
portraits may depict the Nandi standing or sitting near the Shiva half and a lion near the Devi's
half.
Legend of the Ardhanarishvara
Shiva Parvati - Resin Statue
There is a popular Tamil legend relating to the emergence of the Ardhanarishvara. Once,
the Gods and the Rishis (sages) gathered at Shiva's abode and paid their respects to Shiva and
Parvati. However, one particular Rishi, Bhringi, had vowed to worship only Shiva as the
supreme deity. He therefore ignored Parvati and continued his worship of Shiva, offering
circumambulations to him. A furious Parvati cursed Bhringi that he would lose all his flesh and
blood, and thereby reduced him to a mere skeleton. Bhringi could not stand erect in this form,
and so the compassionate Shiva blessed him with a third leg for support.
Deeply hurt, Parvati decided to punish herself by undertaking severe austerities, which pleased
Shiva. He granted her the boon of uniting with him forever, thereby compelling Bhringi to
worship her as well as himself in the form of Ardhanarishvara. However, the sage assumed the
form of a beetle, circumambulating only the male half, drilling a hole in the naval area of the
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deity, which separated the male half from the female half. Though not entirely pleased, Parvati
was amazed by his devotion to her Lord, reconciled with Bhringi and blessed him.
Other Legends
As is the case with Hindu mythology, there are several legends related to the emergence of the
Ardhanarishvara concept. The earliest legends originated in the Puranic canons. This half malehalf female form also finds mention in the Mahabharata epic.
According to the Skanda Purana, Goddess Parvati asks Shiva to permit her to stay with him
forever, embracing him "limb-to-limb". Ardhanarishvara was thus formed.
The Matsya Purana relates that Brahma, pleased with Parvati by her penance to him, rewards her
with a flawless golden complexion. This makes her many times more attractive to Shiva, who
fuses into her to form the Ardhanarishvara.
There is also another story relating to this form. It is said that the demon Andhaka wanted to
make Parvati his wife. Vishnu rescued Parvati and brought her to his own abode. But the demon
refused to relent and followed her there as well. Parvati then revealed her Ardhanarishvara form
to him, seeing which the demon lost interest in her and left. The interesting thing about this story
is that Lord Vishnu was amazed to see this form as well and also saw himself in the female part
of the form.
In the Kalika Purana, Parvati suspects Shiva of infidelity, when she sees her own reflection in
Shiva's breast. An argument ensues between them, which is also resolved as quickly. Thereafter,
Parvati wishes to stay eternally with Shiva, fusing with him as one single body.
Yet another lore talks about Parvati's jealousy when she sees Ganga perched on Shiva's head.
Though Shiva tries to appease her by placing her on his lap, Parvati continues to be upset. This is
when Shiva unites with the Goddess in the form of Ardhanarishvara.
According to the Shiva Purana, Brahma or Prajapati, the creator of all male beings, was once
faced with a steep decline in the pace of creation. A flustered Brahma approached Shiva for help.
Shiva appeared before him in the form of Ardhanarishvara and Brahma prayed to the female half
of Shiva to help him create females in order to continue the process of creation. The goddess
then created various female powers from her body, thus speeding up the process of creation.
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Devi Durga - Sholapith Sculpture Encased in Glass RIGHT Shiva Linga with Seven
Hooded Serpent - Brass Statue
According to a popular Tamil legend, Goddess Uma (another aspect of Parvati) once playfully
closed the eyes of Shiva, thus plunging the entire world into darkness. All living beings on earth
suffered due to this eternal darkness. Uma, realizing her folly, was forced to leave Kailas and
started to worship the Linga in order to absolve herself of her sin and to reunite with her Lord.
Lord Vishnu then appeared before her and gave her instructions on the austerities she needed to
perform in order to attain her Lord once more. Uma commenced her penance accordingly. At
this time, the evil demon, Mahishasura, came to the fore and started disturbing those of earth.
This is when Uma takes the form of Devi Durga and engages in a long battle with him, finally
slaying him. Lord Shiva then manifests as the Fire on top of the hill. He then merges into the
Devi and gives darshan as the Ardhanarishvara, with the Devi as his left half. This is celebrated
by devotees as the Deepavali day and the Lord Ardhanarishvaramoorthy blesses his devotees in
his Jyoti Swaroopa (form of Light).
According to various other Puranas such as the Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Linga Purana,
Kurma Purana, Skanda Purana and Markandeya Purana, Rudra, an aspect of Shiva, emerges
from Brahma's forehead. So hot is Rudra that he burns Brahma in the process. Brahma asks him
to divide himself and the latter agrees to do so, thus giving rise to several hundreds of beings,
including the 11 Rudras and many, many female Shaktis. The Goddess then reunites with Shiva
and promises him that she will be reborn on Earth as Sati and would wed him in human form as
well. The Ardhanarishvara form then enjoys his own other half by the "Path of Yoga" and creates
both Brahma and Vishnu from her body. It is believed that at the start of each new Yuga or
epoch, the Ardhanarishvara is ordained to reappear and continue ahead on the path of bringing
forth new creation on this Earth.
The common belief is that Shiva, being the Supreme Lord, split himself into two halves, male
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and female. Only some schools of Shaktism believe that Shakti split her body into male and
female halves.
Symbolism of the Ardhanarishvara
The concept of Ardhanarishvara has a profound inner meaning. The deity symbolizes the optimal
balance of the male and female energies in this world and also indicates that they are essentially
inseparable forces, which are complimentary to each other and must work together to maintain
equilibrium. It shows the unity in the opposites of Purusha and Prakriti.
Purusha is the passive force of the universe, while Prakriti is the active, dynamic force. Both
these forces must embrace and fuse with each other to generate and sustain the universe. This
idea is also brought forth by the union of Linga of Shiva and the Yoni of the Devi, thus giving
rise to the birth of the entire cosmos. The concept of Ardhanarishvara is also suggestive of Kama
or lust, which gives rise to procreation.
The Spiritual Symbolism
The concept of Ardhanarishvara indicates that "totality lies beyond duality" and the essentially
equal nature of both the masculine and feminine energies. It talks of both being part of the
Supreme Being, being two equal parts, making the whole.
Shiva's half part holding a rosary indicates asceticism, while Parvati's half holding the mirror is
an embodiment of the highly material and illusory world. The fusing of these two opposites
indicates that both the material and spiritual spheres have to coexist in one's life, for it to be
complete. Shiva and Shakti are inseparable and interdependent. This indicates that both these
opposing forces are one and the same and cannot be regarded as two individual identities.
Many cultures of the world also believe that hermaphrodite icons such as the Ardhanarishvara
also symbolize fertility and limitless growth. Shiva embracing Parvati is associated with the
boundless reproductive ability of Mother Nature herself. The supposedly opposing forces then
become so non-dual, that it would finally become impossible to locate the masculine in the
feminine and vice-versa.
Usually, the Shakti half is located to the left of the Ardhanarishvara and Shiva is shown on the
right side. Traditionally too, the wife is seated to the left of the husband and hence, she is known
as "Vamangi". The right side is often associated with masculine traits and cerebral functioning
such as logic, direction, systematic thought and so on, as also with valour and related traits. The
left side is related to the heart, therefore is also associated with typical feminine characteristics
such as creativity, intuition and so on.
The Vamabhaga or the left side is also indicative of being the "inferior" side, embodying
dependence in a relationship, while the right is considered to be the more dominant side, being
"superior" in bhoga or material indulgence, which is usually symbolized by the female form.
Shiva is regarded as the dominant half. That is probably why Nandi, Shiva's vahana is almost
always shown as the vahana for the Ardhanarishvara as well and not the Devi's lion.
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Of course, as mentioned earlier, some Shakta schools consider the Devi the more dominant half
and that is why, she is also portrayed as being on the right side of the male half-form of Shiva.
Worship of Ardhanarishvara
Ardhanarishvara, which is a popular aspect of Shiva, is found in some Shiva shrines in India and
in South-east Asia as well. In fact, evidence even suggests that there may have been an
Ardhanarishvara cult in existence at some point of time in India. However, this never went on to
become an established sect.
Followers sometimes worship Ardhanarishvara in order to attain salvation from this material
world. Here, the Linga is considered the Paramatma and the devotee, the Jeevatma, which tries to
reach the Supreme One. In fact, the 9th Century Nayanar saint Manikkavachakar has compared
Parvati to the devotee yearning for the grace of the Lord.
The Nayanar saints of Tamil Nadu gave the deith an exalted status in their culture. The
Ardhanarinateshwara stotra is very popular as well. To date, one can here this hymn or watch it
being performed in music and dance recitals. The renowned poet Kalidasa states that Shiva and
Shakti are both interdependent and inseparable.
Many sects of Tantra Shastra consider the hermaphrodite form of the Ardhanarishvara as their
tutelary deity, as it shows the divine union between the Prakriti and the Purusha.
Ardhanarishvara Likened to Yin-Yang
The concept of Ardhanarishvara is very similar to the Chinese concept of Yin and Yang. The Yin
Yang symbol describes how seemingly polar forces are actually intertwined with and
interdependent on each other and how they are actually complimentary to each other.
Like in India, Chinese philosophy also believes that opposites exist not in actuality, but only in
relation to each other. This philosophy reflects in everything they do and is actually a way of life
with them. It essentially forms the vital principle of many forms of traditional Chinese Medicine,
Chinese Martial Arts and so on. They think of the stark opposites of female and male; high and
low; dark and light and so on as different manifestations of Yin and Yang respectively.
Hanging Tie and Dye Foldable Red Lamp Shade with Hand Painted Yin-Yang - Cloth Lampshade
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CHAPTER XII
Yin and Yang
Yin and Yang, much like the Parvati and Shiva forces of the Ardhanarishvara, are
"complimentary opposites" and are equal halves of a greater whole. They are responsible for
creating and sustaining the universe and are part and parcel of the dynamic system of the
universe as we know it.
Yin is considered to be the feminine power, symbolizing softness, gentleness and passivity. It is
hence often associated with water, the earth, the moon and night-time. Yang, on the other hand,
embodies masculinity and is hence fast, aggressive, focused and sharp. It is usually associated
with powerful forces such as the sky, the sun, fire and daytime.
There may come a time when one of the halves may appear to become stronger than the other
and more forceful. But on closer examination, one would see that this process would show ebb
and flow over a long period of time and in the end, result in a perfect balance in the universe.
When a certain process in this universe reaches its peak, the tide begins to ebb, until it stops
altogether, only to create a new wave of activity.
The concept of Yin and Yang is usually symbolized by the Taijitu symbol, by which it is
popularly identified across cultures of the world.Tantra is esoteric rather than exotic:
embracing Samsara and Nirvana, and transforming our cravings.
“What does Buddhist Tantra have to do with love-making?”
The short answer is, it doesn’t. In Buddhist Tantra, sex is no more important than any other
activity:
“Making love, as we like to call it, is in itself no more profound than any other activity,” writes
Robin Kornman.
The longer answer, we tackle below, including a little controversy: the infamous self-described
“Omnipotent Oom” Pierre Bernard (October 31, 1875 – September 27, 1955) who abused his
position as a self-described tantric, to promote sex. [He wasn’t a Buddhist Tantric, but he made
the term Tantra famous in the West.] In Buddhism, specifically, Tantra is associated either with
Vajrayana, or Zen — but as a method, not as a sect or school. The majority of Vajrayanists or
Zen practitioners do not practice Tantra.
The Psychology of Tantra — It brings practice into everyday living
Psychologist Rob Preece describes the benefits and uniqueness of Tantric methods:
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“Tantra is the unfolding of a creative process, which occurs moment by moment in the act of
manifestation and transformation. In this sense, we continually experience the process of creative
transformation in every aspect of our lives.
Padmasambhava and consort. Padmasambhava, the second Buddha in Vajrayana, brought Buddhism to Tibet.
He taught Tantric methods, to help tranform our untamed minds. His consorts were “wisdom Dakinis”
symbolizing the important pairing of Compassion (Male Buddha) and Wisdom (Female Dakini.)
When the process unfolds naturally, as an expression of our true nature, we experience a flow of
vitality in all we do. But when this process becomes stuck or blocked, we experience varying
degrees of dis-ease and suffering… Each of us has the innate potential to awaken fully, and to
give individual expression to our true nature in our lives. This potential is the seed of our Buddha
nature, which, once awakened and allowed to manifest, can creatively enrich our lives. [9]
Tantra is creative and transformative
Tantra, then, is both a creative art and experience — we develop our imaginations, and “role
play” almost like actors — but also a transformative, psychologically-grounded method. (If
properly guided by a teacher.) But, before getting into what Tantra is, it’s important to wrestle
with this incorrect persona of “Tantra” as “sexual.” Where sex is involved, it’s in the context of
either symbolism, or tranformative process of an ordinary samsaric craving.
It’s important to separate the metaphor from the literal — a perspective issue in Western thinking
according to Robin Kornman:
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“The problem Westerners have in reading Buddhist tantra is that they cannot tell allegory from
literal speech. In the nineteenth century, the West discovered the existence of Hindu and
Buddhist tantra—paths that like Western alchemy emphasize transmutation of the ordinary into
the spiritual. Tantric iconography includes representations of fornicating deities, usually with
multiple heads and limbs (although strangely enough, their sexual organs are always true to life),
and it was perhaps for this reason that Western scholars thought tantra had something to do with
sex.”
The symbolism of Tantric images showing sexual union is the union of Enlightened Compassion
(symbolized as Male Buddha) and Enlightened Wisdom (symbolized as Female Buddha.)
Tantra is about transformation, rather than supression
Tantric methods are about “transformation” rather than subjugation of those very things that trap
us in Samsaric suffering. Joy, bliss, anger, greed, fear, and sex can all become attachments, even
addictions. [Aha! There is sex!] Suppressing our cravings doesn’t work for everyone — which
tends to be where Tantra steps in. By recognizing Samsara and Nirvana are inseparable, we find
we can transform the negative emotions. It is this aspect of transformation, versus suppression,
that has led many psycho-therapists to study and use some tantric methods.
The great Lama Yeshe described Tantra this way:
“The same desirous energy that ordinarily propels us from one unsatisfactory situation is
transmuted, through the alchemy of tantra, into a transcendental experience of bliss and wisdom.
The practioner focuses the penetrating brilliance of this blissful wisdom so that it cuts like a laser
beam through all false projections of this and that and pierces the very heart of reality.” [8]
Again, quoting from Robin Kornman’s excellent article:
Zen archery is another famously disciplined ritualistic activity that is also about
“transmutation.”
“Of course, one can make a big deal out of sex by giving it special attention. There are special
tantric yogas which can transmute the mundane act of fornication into a meditation practice, but
of course, everything can be transmuted that way. There are contemplative approaches to eating,
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to walking, to calligraphy, to, in fact, everything. There is a yogic way of taking a nap and a
yogic way of decorating a room. Anything can be turned into a yogic exercise if it is given
special attention. Dogen Zenji’s Shobogenzo even lays down regulations for dental hygiene.”
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Chakrasamvara Heruka and Vajrayogini are also Highest Yoga Tantra practices. Their imagery conveys the
union of Compassion (Father) and Wisdom (Mother).
Renunciation and Transformation
Buddhist monks renounce many “ordinary activities” yet they practice transformatively in meditation
and visualization. Here, they chant mantras.
Buddhist monks renounce sex — but they also renounce all ordinary activities. It’s not about sex,
it’s about attachments, including food, money, power, fashionable clothes. They might eat one
meal a day, given to them by lay people, following the example of the Bikkhus. However, it is
important to understand that in Buddhism, sex is not seen as evil, but, simply as a normal craving
to be overcome with discipline, concentration and meditation. Or, in the case of Tantra, with
transormative meditation.
The Lay (non-monastic) Tantric Buddhist embraces ordinary activities as the path. Instead of
“overcoming” cravings for pleasure, or trying to calm our anger, Tantra transforms them. The
classic Tantra example is transforming Anger into the energy to practice. In a wonderful teaching
“Wheel of Sharp Weapons” by Gelek Rimpoche, her explained:
“Mother beings and innocent beings are not fit to be the object of hatred or anger at all. On the
other hand, negative emotions that are creating suffering, in particular the imposter ego, is fit to
be the object of your hatred or anger.”
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Yamantaka, among the most wrathful of the wrathful Enlightened deities, is a practice focused
on tranforming anger into the path. All Tantric practices are about tranformation or transmutation of
base desireous energies into an energy that can be used in our practice.
In other words, we transform our fury and hatred towards an object that can virtuously benefit
from that directed power — in this case our own ego. Rimpoche adds, “When you use your
hatred, etc. on the right object, the recognized enemy, even though you will not get rid of anger
and hatred completely, doing that is transforming anger-hatred into the path. Using anger-hatred
on the negativities is using anger-hatred as the path, while using it against living beings is
negativity.”
Tantra everyday examples of transformation
Tantra practice is not really about the one hour in front of your shrine at night, generating
Bodhichitta with your Yidam’s Sadhana. It is about carrying the Buddha Dharma into every
moment of every day life. This is why in Higher Yogic Practices we have Yogas that take us
through the entire 24-hour cycle of daily Samsara:
Sleeping Yoga [For a related story on Dreaming Yoga, see>>]
Rising or Awakening Yoga
Tasting Nectar Yoga (When eating a meal)
Generating as Yidam and other practices
Everyday Activities as Yoga: where we try to subtly visualize ourselves as Enlightened
Deities throughout the day, as the Tantric texts say: “All sounds are Mantras, all beings
are Buddhas…”
Certainly, we aren’t really manifesting as a six-armed Hayagriva througout the day, except in our
own mindstreams. Yet, that awareness — in the same way as mindfulness (only, perhaps, more
actively) keeps us aware of our Buddha Nature in those times when we need to transform a
craving or anger or hate.
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For a full feature on Yamantaka, see>>
What do we mean? Every day life examples — which is where we practice actually Tantra —
might be:
An angry “boss” at work might redirect his anger, remembering his meditations on
Yamantaka (representing the transformation of anger) — and feel his anger transform
into energy to meet the deadline. He will not to vent on his team members, but rather turn
that furious energy into the power to make the deadline.
A lazy person might meditate on the wrathful energy of Hayagriva to inspire renewed
motivation. He might turn his anger on himself — incinerating the laziness with the
flames of enthusiasm to practice.
A person having lustful thoughts and considering an affair might transform these
dangerous cravings with Vajrayogini practices. The Yogas of Vajrayogini are particularly
effective in daily life.
A fearful person, incapacitated by fears, can find strength in Tara and Prajnaparamita —
and the solice of Emptiness.
These are skilled practices, taking years of training and guidance by a teacher, but they are very
effective.
For a full feature story on wrathful deity practices, a part of Tantra, see>>
Tantra: “Every ride in the amusement park”
It is the non-duality of Samsara and Nirvana that empowers Tantra and Zen both — in different
ways. Sasha Manu explains: “the journey of a Tantrika is a transformative process of
experiencing the realm of duality in its fullest, and then transcending it. Whereas the Zen journey
immediately attacks the misconceptions of Samsara and aims to quickly transcend all forms of
dualistic thinking. Zen is taught from the perspective of Nirvana, teachings are predicated on
Buddhahood being inherent within us. While Tantra is taught from within Samsara, with mastery
of the phenomenal world leading to transcendence of it. This leads to the Tantric path being
gradual and immersive, while Zen is simple and direct.” [6]
He also uses the humorous anecdote:
“A Zen pupil walks directly from the entrance of an amusement park to the exit, while the
Tantrika goes on every ride before exiting.”
The problem is, not everyone can absorb the full experience by going directly to the exit —
which is where Tantra excels. For those of us drowning in an ocean of passions and sensory
thrills, Tantra can be the path that transforms the “thrill rides” into Wisdom.
The Tantric enhancement: Unity of Samsara and Nirvana
152
The best “concise” description, explaining the difference between Tantra and Mahayana
generally — seems to be from an introduction to scholar Edward Conze’s Buddhist Texts
Through the Ages explaining that Tantrists hold “their conviction that the truth was but a matter
of inner realization, and that this was not to be found by fleeing from a world of which man is
essentially part, but by comprehending it in its true condition and by continuing to live in it. This
is what is meant [in the Tantras] by the unity of Samsara and Nirvana, which was for them the
limit of perfection.”
This is also expressed in the tantric expressions of “unity of Wisdom and Compassion” — as
symbolized in the ultimate Tantric symbols of Bell and Dorje (Ghanta and Vajra). Unity and
matrix is a core aspect of the meaning of Tantra (and the bell / Dorje):
Unity of Nirvana and Samsara
Indivisible Emptiness and Form
The inseparability of Wisdom and Compassion
Wisdom and Means joined
Six perfections of Wisdom (bell) and the five perfections of Means (five-spoked Dorje:
generosity, morality, patience, perseverance, concentration.
153
Haygriva is the wrathful emanation of the Compassionate Buddha Amitabha. His practice can help us tranform anger or
hate into power, energy, and compassionate practice. For example, anger over famine in the world, transformed into the
“energy” to actually do something to help.
The entire tapestry of life in Buddhist Tantra: analogous to
martial arts
A key element of Buddhist Tantra is practice. Another key element is the
Guru. In this way, Tantra is directly analogous to martial arts: to excel in
martial arts requires a teacher of known lineage and skills; and endless
practice. In Tantra, the Guru is central, certainly, since to walk the path we
must understand the path. Then, begins the long journey. One eminent
teacher of Vajrayana, H.E. Zasep Rinpoche, joked about the endless
practice and repetition in Vajrayana: “The Buddhas must be deaf.”
Clearly, then, practice in our daily lives is Tantra, especially:
Visualizing ourselves as Enlightened in our daily lives as a practice
Chanting mantras as verbal real-life practice
Daily “dissolving” of self into emptiness, and building back up into the mandala
(Generation practice)
Over time, we begin to understand that Samsara and Nirvana are one, that what we are seeking is
not separated from our daily lives. This also leads to an understanding, as explained by
Venerable Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche that
Vajrayana is “an advanced skilful method that enables practitioners to become free of clinging to
false notions and beliefs regarding inherent existence of appearances and experiences and
therefore of an individual self.”
Tantra is esoteric rather than exotic: and very upliftingly positive
Tantra requires a teacher to avoid misunderstandings, but it is above all irresistibly blissful and
wondrous. Instead of seeing Emptiness — not to be confused with Nihilism — through the lens
of intellect or stillness, in Tantra see through the lens of “Expansiveness” and “Bliss — and, the
participant is very engaged and active. Instead of trying to “empty our mind” or trying to remain
permanently “mindful” we engage the mind in visualization. Today, sports coaches,
psychotherapists and business leaders use visualization techniques, in much the same way as
Tantra — except they visualize mundane aspirations.
Although Tantric Buddhists do engage in traditional Samatha and Vipassana meditation, the key
point of difference in Tantra is the aspirational visualization guided by a teacher, incorporating
the motivational power of “bliss.”
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Unlike the sports coach, who teaches us to visualize the end goal of winning, in Tantra, we
visualize ourselves as we would like to be — as future Buddhas. For these reasons, Tantra is
irrepressibly cheerful in outlook because we undertake blissful visualizations. We see ourselves
in a state of happy realization; no, we’re not there, yet, but e never stop trying. It’s like a dressrehearsal for Enlightenment. Instead of analyzing concepts such as Emptiness, Bliss, Clear Light,
or trying to achieve realizations through one-pointed focus or mindfulness, Tantrics engage in
visualization and well-established rituals, dress-rehearsals of a script, based on methods
established by a long-lineage of accomplished teachers.
Real life and Buddha Nature — Tantra embraces both
Key to Tantra, as with Mahayana, is the concept that all beings, from ants to humans, have
Buddha Nature. This directly relates to the idea of Samsara and Nirvana as one. You don’t look
for enlightenment in denial — but in understanding the true nature of reality.
Although sex is a part of living and Samsara — and therefore appears in Tantra — for example
in the concept of consorts representing, again, wisdom and means — it is not what Tantra is
about. It’s part of what life is about, certainly, and therefore also a part of Tantra. Which brings
us back to that sensationalist, Pierre Bernard.
Sensationalist Bernard misrepresented Tantra
Although the sensationalist Pierre Bernard (1875-1955) is credited with popularizing nonBuddhist Tantra in North America, he is also the main reason it is erroneously associated with
sex, and other misunderstandings. He was notorious, charged with kidnapping teenage girls, and
making sex a focus of his version of tantra. [More on him later, if you’re curious.]
Removing the sex from Tantra?
If removing the sex from Tantra makes it less alluring, it shouldn’t, since Tantra includes “all the
rides,” including sex, and weaves “copious” methods designed to lead to “Liberation.” [The
word Tan-Tra means Copious (Tan) and Liberation (Tra.) ] And, as explained, these “copious”
methods embrace all of Samsara and Nirvana. The aim is transformation. A skilled practitioner
can transform sexual attachments, addiction to joy, afflictions of anger, or any other attachment
with Tantra.
Yes, there are sexual images in Buddhist thangkas. Again, quoting Robin Kornman:
“The sexual thangkas are just as allegorical as the thangkas that show wrathful deities sacrificing
live animals and eating human flesh. If these things were even 1% literal, Buddhism would be a
religion of enraged, horny maniacs.”
Tantra are ancient methods — not a single spiritual path limited to the Vedas, Hinduism or
Buddhism — and while it may be exotic, it has nothing to do with sexual positions. It’s also not
155
a “religion” or specific spiritual path, but rather a collection of methods — revolving around
visualization, mantras and guru training and initiation. Tantra predates Buddha, going back to the
Vedic era texts, including the Atharvaveda and Brahmanas. [1] The legendary root of it all was
Shiva, the Adiyogi (not referring here to the god), the “first yogi” from 15,000 years ago. [2]
In Buddhism, Tantra is normally associated with the more advanced practices of Vajrayana or
Zen. (Not all Vajrayana Buddhists or Zen Buddhists practice Tantra, any more than all Buddhist
practice one form of meditation, such as Samatha.) Again, they are a collection of methods,
taught by Guru, and normally including visualization and mantra, and a transformation of desires
or emotions.
These practices trace through the ancient Mimamsa; later, broader Hinduism, Vajrayana and Zen
Buddhism (both), and Daoism. Bernard, unfortunately, made it a “new age” sex thing,
trivializing an important spiritual method.
Buddhist and Hindu Tantra
In legend, the great Lord Shiva “does not give any philosophical explanations, but instead gives
very direct instructions on the methods to liberation. Siva Sutras and Vighyana Bhairava Tantra
are popular texts that contain specific techniques to liberate the embodied soul from the
limitations of the body and mind and experience his true blissful nature.” [2] Likewise, in Tantric
Buddhism, the methods are pointed out by a Guru, explored by the individual Yogi, and focus on
experiencing the “clear light of bliss.” Bliss is a central focus of Tantra — together with “direct
pointing out by a Guru” — and herein may have been the initial confusion of Bernard. Sex, and
bliss are not the same thing.
Why are Buddhist and Hindu Tantras similar? Even the visualizations and deities imagined — at
first — seem similar. Of course, Buddhism developed from ancient Vedic philosophies. The
words Dharma, Karma, Yoga, Tantra, Metta, Bodhichitta — these all pre-date Buddhism.
Buddhism has a special focus, the goal of Enlightenment as taught by Shakyamuni Buddha, but
it has roots in ancient Vedic religion. The methods may be similar, although the end goal is
different. It should not surprise anyone that “seated meditation” and “Tantra” — often associated
with Buddhism — are methods that pre-date the Buddha.
Then, what is Tantra?
Tantra’s copious methods also include Completion Stage practice. By working with the energies
of the Inner body — a complex but subtle system, made up of three main channels (central, left
and right) five main chakras with multiple branches (spokes) connected to a system of 72,000
nadis — the Yogi practices Bliss and Emptiness. Ultimately, in meditaiton, we work mainly with
the three channels and the five main chakras.
Just as it is nearly impossible to properly define Zen, Tantra proves just as elusive. The English
translation of the two syllables “Tan-Tra” is most commonly given as “Copious” (Tan) and
Liberation (Tra.) It is certainly associated with understanding the true nature of reality (Tattva).
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Another definition of Tantra, a literal translation, can be “loom, warp, weave.” [1] This can refer
to the “weaving” of different teachings and traditions together as a practice.
It could be said, that meditation is practiced by all spiritual paths in one way or another.
Likewise, there are Tantric practices in many spiritual paths. The methods are similar, the
destination is different.
Vajrayana Buddhism teaches, among other methods, Tantric methods, with that important goal
of “Purifying one’s impure perception of all appearances and experiences,” according to His
Eminence Jamgon Kongtrul Rinpoche the Third. Zen Buddhism also incorporates many Tantric
methods.
The Omnipotent Oom — Bernard a.k.a. Perry Baker
Terms such as “Tantrism” — just like the misleading term “Lamaism” — are Western inventions
of early scholars who did not understand the profound Tantras. Likewise, the association with
“sex” is the invention or exaggeration of a controversial early American non-Buddhist “Yogi”
who named himself Pierre Bernard (born Perry Baker, or Peter Coon, he kept his history secret)
who dabbled in occultism, mysticism, business, and called himself “Oom the Magnificent” —
sometimes “The Omnipotent Oom.” His teacher was Sylvais Hamati, who taught him hatha
yoga. Bernard, the sensationalist, became famous when he invited surgeons to push needles
through is cheek, lip and nostril, apparently without feeling pain. At one point he was charged in
1910, with kidnapping two teenage girls, Zella Hoppa and Gertrude Leo. He is credited with
associating sex with tantra, a sensationalist spin that stuck. [3]
Historian of religion Robert C. Fuller has commented that Bernard’s “sexual teachings generated
such scandal that he was eventually forced to discontinue his public promulgation of Tantrism.
By this time, Bernard had succeeded in making lasting contributions to the history of American
alternative spirituality.”
According to scholar Andre Padoux, author of The Heart of the Yogini, “Tantrism” is a Western
term and notion, not a category that is used by the so-called “Tantrists” themselves. [5]
Defining Characteristics of Tantra
Again according to Padoux, there is no consensus on what constitutes Tantra, but there are some
defining characteristics — whether Buddhist or non-Buddhist:
Visualization of self as deities as a method to “overcome” the illusion of ordinary
perceptions
Mantras are central as a focus (hence, the term Mantrayana in Buddhism)
Requires teaching and initiation, since the methods are easily misunderstood (for
example, the incorrect association of Tantra with exotic sex methods.)
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To this rather dry, scholarly definition, we would add Tantra practices transformation in
everyday Samsaric life, recognizing all beings are Buddhas, and Samsara and Nirvana are nondual.
C H A P T E R X I I I
M Y S T I C A L
S E X
T h e w o r l d o f t a n t r a , s a c r e d s e x
r i t u a l s , e s o t e r i c s e x c u l t s , p h a l l i c
w o r s h i p a n d m o r e …
Archive for Tantric sex
Lingam Puja
Posted in Tantric sex with tags penis, phallic worship, phallus, Ritual sex, Sanskrit terms, Tantric
sex on April 24, 2015 by alvinavalon
Tantra is an ancient spiritual tradition with sacred rituals dating back hundreds if not thousands
of years. Descriptions of Tantric practices sometimes read like a contemporary sex manual, as in
the following account of the ritual known as Lingam Puja:
The male penis is worshipped by the Pundai-Stri who blessed the pujari with her vaginal
libations. She will move her hands across his body in large circles, finally concentrating her
attention on the lingam or the erect penis. She will then hold the erect lingam in her hand and
stroke it gently, and then more vigorously until the lingam blesses her with its libations.
Sometimes, the yoni-stri will take the Penile libations in her mouth, with the
erect Lingam shooting its life-giving seminal fluids into her mouth.
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[Then] she takes the lingam to the mouth of her divine passage or yoni, and enjoys the warmth of
the throbbing penis. The warm embrace of the lingam by the unctuous yoni creates
a sangam (union) that generates cosmic energy that leads to liberation or a state of Nirvana that
must be experienced to be appreciated.
Chakra Sex
In the Tantric yoga tradition, chakras are energy points of the subtle body where life force is
concentrated. There are seven chakras, from the root chakra to the crown chakra, usually
depicted by a color-coded system. During sexual intercourse the chakra systems of the two
partners become united, as shown in the illustration above.
Yoga and Sex
Yoga is a healthy and sophisticated form of exercise, which in the Western world is mainly
practiced by women. Historically, however, there is a very close connection between yoga and
Tantric Sex, as William Broad pointed out in the New York Times: The discipline began as a sex
cult… Hatha yoga — the parent of the styles now practiced around the globe — began as a
branch of Tantra… Hatha originated as a way to speed the Tantric agenda. It used poses, deep
breathing and stimulating acts — including intercourse — to hasten rapturous bliss.
Some yoga poses are more obviously related to Kamasutra-style sexual intercourse than others.
The posture illustrated above is called yoganidrasana, and if performed naked it is one of the
most provocative positions a woman can adopt. By allowing deep penetration of the yoni,
the yoganidrasana posture can form the basis of prolonged and highly satisfying copulation if a
suitably energetic male partner is available.
The Kama Sutra size chart
According to the Kama Sutra, men can be classified on the basis of the size of their penis,
or lingam as it is called in Sanskrit. A person with a small penis is described as a hare-man, one
with an average-sized penis is described as a bull-man, and one with an unusually large penis is
described as a horse-man. Similarly, females can be classified according to the size of their yoni,
or vagina. A woman with a small yoni is called a deer, one with an average-sized yoni is a mare
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and one with an unusually large yoni is an elephant. The Kama Sutra identifies nine types of
Tantric union, based on each of the three lingam types copulating with each of the three yoni
types.
Fifty Shades of Tantric Sex
Posted in Tantric sex with tags ebooks, erotica, humor, Tantric sex on March 13, 2014 by
alvinavalon
What is Tantric Sex? The phrase means different things to different people. Traditional Buddhist
Tantra uses sexual symbolism as an aid to meditation. Hindu Tantrics engage in sexual rituals for
spiritual purposes. In modern times Tantra has been conflated with the sexual philosophies of
paganism, Taoism and other esoteric traditions. There are Tantric workshops for loving couples
and for swinging singles. Modern-day Dakinis, Tantrikas and Goddesses offer sexual services for
adventurous business people. It’s all become rather cynical and commercialized.
Here is a new picture book for adults, featuring cartoons and photomanipulations of the kind
often featured on this blog, which brings you face to face with fifty (fictional) Tantric
practitioners of different shades.
Tantric Sex and Tantric Buddhism
Modern Tantric teachers often downplay the role of Buddhism in Tantric sex, while teachers of
Tantric Buddhism tend to downplay the role of sex in Buddhist practice. In fact the two – Tantric
Sex and Tantric Buddhism – are inextricably linked, as John T. Houseman explains in his
fascinating new book Great Bliss: Tantric Sex and the Path to Inner Awakening. This is the first
complete modern instruction book on Tantric Buddhism, and the first on Buddhist sexual yoga.
The heart of the book is a first-ever translation from the Sanskrit of the Ninth Century master
Shabara’s The Sadhana of Secret Vajravilasini, a masterpiece of the world’s spiritual-erotic
literature, and an ideal text for sexual yoga practice. Great Bliss reveals thousand year-old
secrets, and is a landmark contribution to the study and practice of Tantric sex in the West. The
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book includes hundreds of authentic practices, making it an almost inexhaustible resource for
Tantra teachers and students.
John T. Houseman is a teacher of Tantric Buddhism in the tradition of the Indian siddhas. A
student of many Tantric traditions for over thirty years, he trained as a lama under the guidance
of the Tibetan master His Eminence Garchen Rinpoche, completing an intensive, solitary threeyear retreat. John also trained with many Western Tantra teachers including Margot Anand. He
received a Bachelor’s Degree with honors in Religion from Wesleyan University, where he
studied Buddhism with Robert Thurman, and earned his master’s degree from Columbia
University. For four years he served on the staff of Karma Triyana Dharmacakra monastery in
Woodstock, New York, the North American headquarters of His Holiness the 17th Karmapa. His
newly published book is the result of his twenty year search to find the original teachings of
Tantric Buddhism.
Taoist Sex: two dancing phoenixes
Posted
in Tantric
sex with
tags Copulation, erotic
positions, Taoism on March 2, 2013 by alvinavalon
art, group
sex, penis, sexual
Taoist Sex is the ancient Chinese equivalent of Tantric Sex. But whereas Tantra is the Way of
the Goddess, Taoist Sex is focused more on enhancing the health and longevity of the male
participant. While the sexual positions of the Kama Sutra are designed to heighten and prolong
the pleasures of the female , their Taoist equivalents are aimed more at the pleasure of the male.
This is particularly apparent in the position illustrated here (in a Japanese shunga print of the late
eighteenth century), in which a man is copulating simultaneously with two female partners. In
this position, called “two dancing phoenixes”, one female lies on top of the other, both spreading
their legs so that their vaginas (referred to in Taoism as “yin gates”) are easily accessible to
alternate thrusts of the man’s erect penis (“yang spear”).
The Goddess Kali
Posted in Tantric sex with tags Copulation, erotic art, Hindu deities, Tantric sex on November
10, 2012 by alvinavalon
When Tantric sex practitioners talk about “the Goddess”, the Goddess they are referring to is
Kali, the supreme deity of Hindu Tantra. Kali represents female empowerment or Shakti, and
many Tantrikas refer to Kali simply as “Shakti”.
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Kali is often depicted standing with one foot on the supine figure of her male consort Shiva, or—
as in this great image I found on Facebook—riding him in sexual intercourse. The God’s erect
penis, the sacred lingam, is shown penetrating the Goddess’s yoni. The imagery clearly depicts
the Tantric belief that female energy is active and dominant, while male energy is passive and
submissive.
Yab-Yum
Yab-Yum is the fundamental position of Tantric sex. The male partner, representing the God
Shiva, sits cross-legged while the female partner, representing the Goddess Shakti, lowers
her yoni (vulva) onto his erect lingam (penis) and commences to ride him for an extended session
of gentle, face-to-face sexual intercourse. This symbolism is derived from Hindu Tantra, in
which the female deity is seen as spiritually and physically superior to the male.
In Buddhism the situation is rather different. As shown on the left,
the female partner, referred to as a “consort”, is
physically much smaller than the Buddha. While artistic representations of this type are also
called “Yab-Yum”, they are not meant as a practical sexual technique but as an aid to meditation.
The male figure signifies wisdom and the female compassion, while the act of copulation
represents the mystical union of these two fundamental principles.
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163
Everything you need to know about tantric sex
Tantric sex originates from ancient Hinduism and revolves around sexual practices that focus on
creating a deep, intimate connection.
During tantric sex, the aim is to be present in the moment to achieve a sensual and fulfilling
sexual experience.
This article explores what tantric sex is, the processes of getting to know one’s body and one’s
partner’s body, how to prepare, and building the moment both alone and with a partner. It also
covers breathing techniques, positions, and tips.
Tantric sex or sexual yoga refers to a wide range of practices carried on
in Hinduist and Buddhist tantra to exercise sexuality in a ritualized or yogic context, often
associated to antinomian or impure elements, like consumption of alcohol, and offerings of
impure substances like meat to fierce deities. In particular, sexual fluids have been viewed as
"power substances" and used ritualistically, either externally or internally.
The actual terms used in the classical texts to refer to this practice include "Karmamudra"
(Tibetan: las kyi phyag rgya, "action seal") in Buddhist tantras and "Maithuna" (Devanagari:
मैथुन, "coupling") in Hindu sources. In Hindu Tantra, Maithuna is the most important of the five
makara (five tantric substances) and constitutes the main part of the Grand Ritual
of Tantra variously known as Panchamakara, Panchatattva, and Tattva Chakra. In Tibetan
Buddhism, karmamudra is often an important part of the completion stage of tantric practice.
While there may be some connection between these practices and the Kāmashāstra literature
(which include the Kāmasūtra), the two practice traditions are separate methods with separate
goals. As the British Indologist Geoffrey Samuel notes, while the kāmasāstra literature is about
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the pursuit of sexual pleasure (kāmā), sexual yoga practices are often aimed towards the quest for
liberation (moksha).
According to Samuel, late Vedic texts like the Jaiminiya Brahmana, the Chandogya Upanisad,
and the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, "treat sexual intercourse as symbolically equivalent to
the Vedic sacrifice, and ejaculation of semen as the offering." The Brhadaranyaka
Upanishad contains various sexual rituals and practices which are mostly aimed at obtaining a
child which are concerned with the loss of male virility and power. One passage from
the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad states:
Her vulva is the sacrificial ground; her pubic hair is the sacred grass; her labia majora are the
Soma-press; and her labia minora are the fire blazing at the centre. A man who engages in sexual
intercourse with this knowledge obtains as great a world as a man who performs a Soma
sacrifice, and he appropriates to himself the merits of the women with whom he has sex. The
women, on the other hand, appropriate to themselves the merits of a man who engages in sexual
intercourse with them without this knowledge. (Brhadaranyaka Upanishad 6.4.3, trans. Olivelle
1998: 88)[
One
of
the
earliest
mentions
of
sexual
yoga
is
in
the Mahayana Buddhist Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra of Asanga (c. 5th century). The passage states:
"Supreme self-control is achieved in the reversal of sexual intercourse in the blissful Buddhapoise and the untrammelled vision of one's spouse."[6]
According to David Snellgrove, the text's mention of a ‘reversal of sexual intercourse’ might
indicate the practice of withholding ejaculation.
According to Geoffrey Samuel, while it is possible that some kind of sexual yoga existed in the
fourth or fifth centuries,
Substantial evidence for such practices, however, dates from considerably later, from the seventh
and eighth centuries, and derives from Saiva and Buddhist Tantric circles. Here we see sexual
yoga as part of a specific complex of practices. On the Saiva side this is associated with a series
of named teachers in South and North India, the Cittar (Siddha) teachers in the south,
including Tirumülar and Bogar, and the so-called Nath teachers in the north, where the principal
names are Matsyendra (Matsyendranath) and Gorakh (Gorakhnath). On the Buddhist side, it is
associated with so-called Mahayoga Tantras. These developments appear to be happening at
more or less the same time in all three areas.
Jayanta Bhatta, the 9th-century scholar of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy and who
commented on Tantra literature, stated that the Tantric ideas and spiritual practices are mostly
well placed, but it also has "immoral teachings" such as by the so-called "Nilambara" sect where
its practitioners "wear simply one blue garment, and then as a group engage in unconstrained
public sex" on festivals. He wrote, this practice is unnecessary and it threatens fundamental
values of society.
Douglas Renfrew Brooks states that the antinomian elements such as the use of intoxicating
substances and sex were not animistic, but were adopted in some Kaula traditions to challenge
the Tantric devotee to break down the "distinctions between the ultimate reality of Brahman and
the mundane physical and mundane world". By combining erotic and ascetic techniques, states
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Brooks, the Tantric broke down all social and internal assumptions, became Shiva-like.[9] In
Kashmir Shaivism, states David Gray, the antinomian transgressive ideas were internalized, for
meditation and reflection, and as a means to "realize a transcendent subjectivity".[10]
Tantric sexual practices are often seen as exceptional and elite, and not accepted by all sects.
They are found only in some tantric literature belonging to Buddhist and Hindu Tantra, but are
entirely absent from Jain Tantra. In the Kaula tradition and others where sexual fluids as power
substances and ritual sex are mentioned, scholars disagree in their translations, interpretations
and practical significance. Yet, emotions, eroticism and sex are universally regarded in Tantric
literature as natural, desirable, a means of transformation of the deity within, to "reflect and
recapitulate the bliss of Shiva and Shakti". Pleasure and sex is another aspect of life and a "root
of the universe", whose purpose extends beyond procreation and is another means to spiritual
journey and fulfillment.
This idea flowers with the inclusion of kama art in Hindu temple arts, and its various temple
architecture and design manuals such as the Shilpa-prakasha by the Hindu scholar Ramachandra
Kulacara.
PRACTICES: Tantric sex is strongly associated with the practice of semen retention, as sexual
fluids are considered an energetical substance that must be reserved. However, while there is
already a mention of ascetics practicing it in the 4th century CE Mahabharata,[16] those
techniques were rare until late Buddhist Tantra. Up to that point, sexual emission was both
allowed and emphasized.
In its earliest forms, Tantric intercourse was usually directed to generate sexual fluids that
constituted the "preferred offering of the Tantric deities." Some extreme texts would go further,
such as the 9th century Buddhist text Candamaharosana-tantra, which advocated consumption
of bodily waste products of the practitioner's sexual partner, like wash-water of
her anus and genitalia. Those were thought to be "power substances", teaching the waste should
be consumed as a diet "eaten by all the Buddhas" without the slightest disgust.
Around the first millennium, Tantra registered practices of semen retention, like the penance
ceremony of asidharavrata and the posterior yogic technique of vajroli mudra. They were
probably adopted from ancient, non-Tantric celibate schools, like those mentioned
in Mahabharata. Buddhist Tantric works further directed the focus away from sexual emission
towards retention and intentionally prolonged bliss, thus "interiorizing" the tantric offering of
fluids directed to the deities.
In Buddhist Kalachakra Tantra, an 11th-century Tibetan tradition, emission of semen was
reserved only to masters and enlightened ones.
12th century Japanese school Tachikawa-ryu didn't discourage ejaculation in itself, considering it
a "shower of love that contained thousands of potential Buddhas".They employed emission of
sexual fluids in combination with worshipping of human skulls, which would be coated in the
resultant mix in order to create honzon However, those practices were considered heretic,
leading to the sect's suppression
166
A quote from a Tantra text on Hindu temple arts, sex and eroticism
In
this
context,
hear
the
rationale
for
erotic
sculpture
panels,
I will explain them according to the received tradition among sculptors.
Kama is the root of the world's existence. All that is born originates from Kama,
it is by Kama also that primordial matter and all beings eventually dissolve away.
Without [passion of] Shiva and Shakti, creation would be nothing but a figment,
nothing from birth to death occurs without activation of Kama.
Shiva is manifest as the great linga, Shakti essential form is the yoni,
By their interaction, the entire world comes into being; this is called the activity of Kama.
Canonical erotic art is an extensive subject in authoritative scriptures,
as they say, a place devoid of erotic imagery is a place to be shunned.
By Tantric authority, such places are considered inferior and to be avoided,
as if tantamount to the lair of death, of impenetrable darkness.
— Shilpa-prakasha 2.498–503, 11th-12th century,
Hindu Tantra text, Translated by Michael D. Rabe
What is tantric sex?
Share on PinterestTaking things slowly and focusing on deep breathing can help move sexual energy during
tantric sex.
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The concept of tantric sex came from ancient Hinduism and ideas around tantra. Tantra stems
loosely from religious texts that focus on spiritualism.
Tantric sex is a slow, meditative form of sex where the end goal is not orgasm but enjoying the
sexual journey and sensations of the body. It aims to move sexual energy throughout the body
for healing, transformation, and enlightenment.
Proponents of tantric sex believe that tantric techniques may help resolve sexual complications
such as premature ejaculation, erectile dysfunction, or anorgasmia.
Knowing one’s body
Tantric sex encourages people to get to know their own bodies and become in tune with them.
By understanding the desire of one’s own body, one can incorporate this during sex with a
partner. This may lead to greater sexual fulfillment and more intense orgasms.
To understand what one’s body wants, it can be useful to engage in tantric self-love
or masturbation.
If a person finds that they have emotional blocks around self-touch, they should be curious and
gentle with themselves as they explore what is preventing them from getting to know their own
body more intimately. The more a person knows about their body and pleasure zones, the more
likely they are to have a satisfying sexual experience.
If someone does not wish to engage in masturbation and has a partner, however, they may feel
more comfortable learning about their own body through partnered sex.
Knowing one’s partner’s body
Tantric sex is about honoring one’s body and the body of one’s partner. By taking time to get to
know one’s own body as well as that of one’s partner, it can help make the experience fulfilling
for both people.
A person may consider giving their partner a slow, full-body massage to learn about their body
and help awaken their sexual energy. This may also help a person become in tune with their
partner’s wants and desires.
As is the case with any sexual activity, if at any point a person or their partner becomes
uncomfortable, the activity should stop.
How to prepare
There are a few things a person or couple can do to help prepare for tantric sex. For example,
they can:
The more knowledge someone has on the topic of tantric sex, the more they are likely to feel
prepared.
Set aside time: Tantric sex is about moving slowly and being in the moment. In some
cases, it can last an hour or more. Therefore, be sure to set aside some time to fully
engage and enjoy the experience.
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Prepare the mind: Focusing on the moment can be difficult if a person is
experiencing stress or has many things on their mind. Meditating or stretching before
tantric sex may help achieve a clear mindset.
Find a good place: Environment has a key role in tantric sex. Ideally, it will take place in
a relaxing setting with a comfortable temperature. A person may want to dim the lights,
light a scented candle, or put on relaxing music.
Building the moment with oneself
To build the moment with oneself, a person can try the following tips:
Practice mindfulness: Tantric sex encourages people to be present in the moment. A
person should focus on their breathing and bodily sensations.
Explore the body: Giving a self-massage in which the person pays attention to their
touch and body may help heighten physical sensations and arousal.
Masturbate: A person may wish to engage in tantric self-love. Like with partnered sex,
the goal of this may not be orgasm. Instead, people may do this to try to feel more
connected with their own bodies.
Building the moment with a partner
To build the moment with a partner, people can try the following tips:
Adopt a hand-on-heart position: To gain a deep connection, couples should sit crosslegged and face each other. Both partners should place their right hand on the other’s
heart, with the left hand atop their partner’s. Feel the connection and try to synchronize
breathing.
Do not go linear: Normally, sexual activities might follow a script of foreplay,
intercourse, and orgasm. However, tantric sex is about experimenting, so it is best to stay
open to what feels good in the moment.
Make eye contact: Making eye contact may help deepen the connection and heighten
intimacy.
Take things slow: Tantric sex is meditative and about exploring sensations in the
moment. This process should be a slow and enjoyable journey for both partners.
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CHAPTER IVX
Aghori
The Aghori (Sanskrit aghora) are a small group of ascetic Shaiva sadhus based in Uttar
Pradesh, India. They engage in post-mortem rituals. They often dwell in charnel grounds,
smear cremation ashes on their bodies, and use bones from human corpses for
crafting kapalas (skull cups which Shiva and other Hindu deities are often iconically depicted
holding or using) and jewellery.
Their practices are sometimes considered contradictory to orthodox Hinduism.[2] Many
Aghori gurus command great reverence from rural populations, as they are supposed to possess
healing
powers
gained
through
their
intensely eremitic rites
and
practices
of renunciation and tápasya.
Beliefs & Traditions: Aghoris are devotees of Shiva manifested as Bhairava,[3] and monists who
seek moksha from the cycle of reincarnation or saṃsāra. This freedom is a realization of the
self's identity with the absolute. Because of this monistic doctrine, the Aghoris maintain that all
opposites are ultimately illusory. The purpose of embracing pollution and degradation through
various customs is the realization of non-duality (advaita) through transcending social taboos,
attaining what is essentially an altered state of consciousness and perceiving the illusory nature
of all conventional categories.
Aghori rituals, which are preformed precisely to oppose notions of purity commonplace in
orthodox Hinduism, are typically macabre in nature.[4] Such acts include living in cemeteries,
smearing cremation ashes on their bodies, using human skulls for decoration and
bowls, coprophagy, necrophagy, smoking marijuana, drinking alcohol, and meditating on top of
corpses. Although contrary to mainstream Hinduism, these practices exemplify the Aghori
philosophy of criticizing commonplace social relations and fears through the use of culturally
offensive acts. Furthermore, they demonstrate the Aghoris’ acceptance of death as a necessary
and natural part of the human experience. Despite the thought behind such actions, outsiders
(particularly tourists) have typically viewed the sect with suspicion and horror, with their
lifestyles being described as morally damaging to the Indian youth, akin to living like animals,
uncivilized compared to modern Hindu society, or outright dangerous, due to belief that the
Aghori are willing to kill live humans for their rituals. This particular claim, as of the present,
has yet to be substantiated with hard evidence.
Aghoris are not to be confused with Shivnetras, who are also ardent devotees of Shiva but do not
indulge in extreme, tamasic ritual practices. Although the Aghoris enjoy close ties with the
Shivnetras, the two groups are quite distinct, Shivnetras engaging in sattvic worship.
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Aghoris base their beliefs on two principles common to broader Shaiva beliefs: that Shiva is
perfect (having omniscience, omnipresence and omnipotence) and that Shiva is responsible for
everything that occurs: all conditions, causes and effects. Consequently, everything that exists
must be perfect and to deny the perfection of anything would be to deny the sacredness of all life
in its full manifestation, as well as to deny the Supreme Being.
Aghoris believe that every person's soul is Shiva but is covered by aṣṭamahāpāśa "eight great
nooses or bonds", including sensual pleasure, anger, greed, obsession, fear and hatred. The
practices of the Aghoris are centered around the removal of these bonds. Sādhanā in cremation
grounds is used in an attempt to destroy fear; sexual practices with certain riders and controls
attempt to release one from sexual desire; being naked is used in an attempt to destroy shame. On
release from all the eight bonds the soul becomes sadāśiva and obtains moksha.
Although akin to the Kapalika ascetics of medieval Kashmir, as well as the Kalamukhas, with
whom there may be a historical connection, the Aghoris trace their origin to Baba Keenaram, an
ascetic who is said to have lived 150 years, dying during the second half of the 18th
century.[9] Dattatreya the avadhuta, to whom has been attributed the esteemed nondual medieval
song, the Avadhuta Gita, was a founding adi guru of the Aghor tradition according to Barrett
(2008: p. 33):
Lord Dattatreya, an antinomian form of Shiva closely associated with the cremation ground, who
appeared to Baba Keenaram atop Girnar Mountain in Gujarat. Considered to be the adi
guru (ancient spiritual teacher) and founding deity of Aghor, Lord Dattatreya offered his own
flesh to the young ascetic as prasād (a kind of blessing), conferring upon him the power of
clairvoyance and establishing a guru-disciple relationship between them.
Aghoris also hold sacred the Hindu deity Dattatreya as a predecessor to the
Aghori Tantric tradition. Dattatreya was believed to be an incarnation of Brahma, Vishnu,
and Shiva united in the same singular physical body. Dattatreya is revered in all schools of
Tantra, which is the philosophy followed by the Aghora tradition, and he is often depicted in
Hindu artwork and its holy scriptures of folk narratives, the Puranas, indulging in Aghori "lefthand" Tantric worship as his prime practice.
An aghori believes in getting into total darkness by all means, and then getting into light or self
realizing. Though this is a different approach from other Hindu sects, they believe it to be
effective. They are infamously known for their rituals that include such as shava samskara
or shava sadhana (ritual worship incorporating the use of a corpse as the altar) to invoke the
mother goddess in her form as Smashan Tara (Tara of the Cremation Grounds).
In Hindu iconography, Tara, like Kali, is one of the ten Mahavidyas (wisdom goddesses) and
once invoked can bless the Aghori with supernatural powers. The most popular of the ten
Mahavidyas who are worshiped by Aghoris are Dhumavati, Bagalamukhi, and Bhairavi. The
male Hindu deities primarily worshiped by Aghoris for supernatural powers are manifestations
of Shiva, including Mahākāla, Bhairava, Virabhadra, Avadhuti, and others.
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Barrett (2008: p. 161) discusses the "charnel ground sādhanā" of the Aghora in both its left and
right-handed proclivities and identifies it as principally cutting through attachments and aversion
and foregrounding primordiality; a view uncultured, undomesticated:
The gurus and disciples of Aghor believe their state to be primordial and universal. They believe
that all human beings are natural-born Aghori. Hari Baba has said on several occasions that
human babies of all societies are without discrimination, that they will play as much in their own
filth as with the toys around them. Children become progressively discriminating as they grow
older and learn the culturally specific attachments and aversions of their parents. Children
become increasingly aware of their mortality as they bump their heads and fall to the ground.
They come to fear their mortality and then palliate this fear by finding ways to deny it altogether.
In this sense, the Aghora sādhanā is a process of unlearning deeply internalized cultural models.
When this sādhanā takes the form of charnel ground sādhanā, the Aghori faces death as a very
young child, simultaneously meditating on the totality of life at its two extremes. This ideal
example serves as a prototype for other Aghor practices, both left and right, in ritual and in daily
life.”.
173
Though Aghoris are prevalent in cremation grounds across India, Nepal, and even sparsely
across cremation grounds in South East Asia, the secrecy of this religious sect leaves no desire
for practitioners to aspire for social recognition and notoriety.
Hinglaj Mata is the Kuladevata (patron goddess) of the Aghori. The main Aghori pilgrimage
centre is Kina Ram's hermitage or ashram in Ravindrapuri, Varanasi. The full name of this place
is Baba Keenaram Sthal, Krim-Kund. Here, Kina Ram is buried in a tomb or samadhi which is a
centre of pilgrimage for Aghoris and Aghori devotees. Present head (Abbot), since 1978, of Baba
Keenaram Sthal is Baba Siddharth Gautam Ram.
According to Devotees, Baba Siddharth Gautam Ram is reincarnation of Baba Keenaram
himself. Apart from this, any cremation ground would be a holy place for an Aghori ascetic. The
cremation grounds near the yoni pithas, 51 holy centres for worship of the Hindu Mother
Goddess scattered across South Asia and the Himalayan terrain, are key locations preferred for
performing sadhana by the Aghoris. They are also known to meditate and perform sadhana in
haunted houses.
MedicineAghori practice healing through purification as a pillar of their ritual. Their patients
believe the Aghoris are able to transfer health to, and pollution away from patients as a form of
"transformative healing", due to the believed superior state of body and mind of the Aghori.
Aghor Yoga (also referred to as Aghor) is a spiritual tradition that originated in Northern India
around the 11th Century C.E. The word Aghor literally means "that which is not difficult or
terrible"; according to its adherents, Aghor is a simple and natural state of consciousness, in
which there is no experience of fear, hatred, disgust or discrimination.[1] Accordingly, believers
contend that any time that humans experience a state of discrimination, we limit our wholeness
and fall prey to disruptive emotions such as anger, fear, jealousy, greed, and lust.[2] The practices
of Aghor Yoga today reflect reforms made in the 1960s, shifting the focus of Aghor to seeking a
balanced life of selfless service and personal practice. Baba Bhagwan Ramji encouraged the
practitioners of Aghor to follow the "left hand path" by embracing socially stigmatized and
neglected people, such as street children and people with leprosy and other "untouchable"
diseases. Today, the followers of Aghoreshwar Bhagwan Ramji have established a large network
of schools, orphanages, medical clinics, or other social service projects.
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Teachings: The modern teachings and practices of Aghor are known as Aghor Yoga. Aghor
Yoga can be practiced by anyone without regard to religious or ethnic background and
irrespective of whether s/he adopts traditional Aghori dietary practices. The essence of Aghor
Yoga is that fundamentally humans are each an individual whole, at one with divine
consciousness. Aghor Yoga believes that by learning to identify with one's wholeness, one
becomes free from a limited way of being. As a result, the energy that was previously invested in
limitation becomes accessible for being directed towards the greater good.
The teachings and practices of Aghor defy easy categorization. Some adherents classify Aghor as
a non-dualistic (advaita) Hindu philosophy. Classic nondualism explains that only the one eternal
Self – alternately referred to as God, Brahman, or Atman – is real. Accordingly, Aghor believes
that all of humanity is a part of this higher Self. Beyond this, everything else in the universe is
mere illusion (maya).
The teachings of Aghor are meant to be universal, transcending all particularities of Hinduism or
Indian culture. The contemporary Aghor lineage of Baba Kinaram includes people from many
religious faiths and countries of origin, including the United States and Europe. The lineage also
recognizes great spiritual beings of all religions (such as Moses, Buddha, Jesus, and Mohammed)
as abiding in the realized state of Aghor – that is existing in wholeness and at one with the
Divine.
Aghor focuses on the idea of jivanmukta, or reaching liberation from material issues in this
lifetime. Thus, one does not have to die before reaching a state of Aghor.
Any disciplined effort that one makes to connect with one's wholeness is
called sadhana (spiritual practice). A consistent effort that is in tune with human nature, simple
to comprehend, and easy to practice bears fruit. Such a spiritual practice is thought to connect
one with fullness, and when one is full, that fullness overflows into the outward action of seva.
Seva is the selfless service one contributes to the community and world. Sadhana and seva form
the two foundational aspects of the Aghor Yoga Path.
Guru
A disciple of Aghor Yoga often relies on a Guru – a capable spiritual teacher – to provide
guidance when forming their practice of sadhana and seva. The Aghor definition of the word
Guru is "remover of doubt." The Guru is meant to function both as a bridge between outward
action and spiritual wisdom, as well as an example of realization of the Aghor path. One
distinguishing feature of the Aghor Yoga path is that the Guru is very accessible to the students.
A bridge does not just provide a means of passage between two realms of thought; it is also a
lookout point from which one can see the blessings floating on a sustenance-giving river.
The Guru is also believed to reside within all beings in the form of a higher Self. In order to form
a conscious connection to one's own Self, a Guru is chosen for guidance. Eventually, it is hoped
that an understanding of Gurupeeth (literally, the seat of the Guru) in oneself is formed.
There is no restriction of any kind in accepting a Guru. A Guru is a person in whose company
one feels inspired and reminded of one's divinity and wholeness. In Aghor Yoga, a Guru is
commonly a person who has walked the path and is willing and available to guide the
practitioner in their own practice.
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A Guru suggests a formal practice to the seeker. It is the responsibility of the seeker to cultivate
their practice by aligning with the teachings. Though one is not required to follow the Guru's
exact prescriptions, it is commonly accepted that one will pay careful attention to their Guru's
teachings regarding spiritual practice and not try to modify or dilute them.
In Aghor Yoga the Guru instructs the seeker in the basics of sadhana (cultivation of a daily
personal practice) and seva (their selfless service in the world). By incorporating the practices of
sadhana and seva into everyday life, the student seeks to achieve a sense of peace and fulfillment
through becoming better equipped to meet the challenges of modern life with calmness, grace
and skill.[1]
The Guru starts the practitioner on the path of Aghor Yoga through formal initiation by giving a
personal mantra (a sound, syllable, or group of words that, with repetition, become spiritually
transformative). In Aghor Yoga, one's mantra is regarded as a personal friend with its own
personality, presence and characteristic. A mantra is also a thread that connects the practitioner
with the spiritual powerhouse of all the enlightened beings from the Aghor lineage, thus the
practitioner gains a sense of belonging to the family of enlightened beings. It is said, "You are
never alone after receiving a mantra." Developing a friendship with one's mantra becomes the
preoccupation of the practitioner.
Conceptrs: Students of the Aghor Yoga tradition seek to attain Aghor, a state of consciousness
in which one does not experience fear, hatred, disgust, discrimination, or hunger.[1] One who
achieves Aghor does not view the world in dualistic terms such as "dead" and "alive" or "edible"
and "inedible", and so does not cast judgment upon themselves or others. A person who
conscientiously practices these virtues is called an Aughar.[9]
With constant practice, when one is established unwaveringly in the state of Aghor
consciousness, a person becomes an Avadhut – a spiritually realized human being. Anyone from
any religious, spiritual or ethnic background who has come to abide in the state of Aghor
consciousness, regardless of the path that led to this state, is an Avadhut.
History: The term "Aghor" has ancient origins which likely precede written history. One of the
five faces of Shiva was known as Aghor. In the Shiva Purana, one of India's oldest legends, there
is a hymn to the glory of Shiva by Pushpadanta, head of the Gandharva clan, called the Shiva
Mahimnah Stotram. One of its Sanskrit verses reads:
Aghoranna paro mantro
Nasti tatvam Guro param.
The translation is: The very name of Aghor (Shiva, or the one who has attained the state of
Aghor) is a mantra that is above all other mantras. There is nothing higher to be known than the
real nature of the Guru (spiritual teacher).[1] Thus, the hagiographic roots of the Aghor tradition
are traced to Lord Dattatreya, an avatar of Shiva.
Aghor tradition believes that Jagadguru Dattatreya propounded the tradition of Aghor later
followed in the sixteenth century by the great saint Baba Kinaram.[11] The life story of Baba
Kinaram tells of his wandering for years until he attained complete knowledge upon
encountering Bhagwan Dattatreya, who appeared to him in the Girnar Mountains, a holy place
in Gujarat state in northwest India.
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Later in his life, Baba Kinaram settled in the holy city of Varanasi and wrote a book
called Viveksar, recognized now as the most authentic treatise on the principles of Aghor. He
claimed that the contents of Viveksar were revealed to him by Lord Dattatreya. Through this
revelation, he saw that the whole world, the whole universe, is situated in each human body, a
vast world perfect in all respects. Baba Kinaram later established an ashram in Varanasi, called
Krim Kund. He initiated many social reforms during the tumultuous times of the Moghul
invasion when the Indian people were being persecuted. The early devotees of Aghor comprised
a diffuse network of wandering ascetics who passed down their beliefs and practices through oral
teaching in many different lineages.
In the 1960s, the then-guru of the Baba Kina Ram lineage, Baba Bhagwan Ramji (1937-1992),
instituted reforms of the Aghor tradition, banning taboo substances such as alcohol, marijuana,
and ashes. Baba Bhagwan Ramji "challenged his devotees to embrace polluted people instead of
polluted substances."[ Aghor instead became focused on social reform, maintaining a left-hand
path of spirituality by helping people who have been shunned from mainstream society, such as
lepers and orphans.
When Baba Bhagwan Ramji attained Aghor in this lineage, he was compared to Baba
Kinaram because he had a strong sense of social responsibility, identifying himself with
suffering humanity. Numerous accounts describe how he helped struggling people to battle
social injustices.
Aghor Lineage
The direct lineage of the twelve Aghoreshwars that began with Bhagwan Dattatreya extends
from the sixteenth century until the present day.
1. Baba Kalu Ram (Bhagwan Dattatreya)
2. Aghoraacharya Baba Kinaram (16th century)
3. Baba Bija Ram
4. Baba Dhouta Ram
5. Baba Gaibi Ram
6. Baba Bhavani Ram
7. Baba Jainarayan Ram
8. Baba Mathura Ram
9. Baba Saryu Ram
10. Baba Dal Singar Ram
11. Baba Rajeshwar Ram
12. Baba Bhagwan Ramji
13. Baba Siddharth Gautam Ram
The Aghor tradition, which originated as confined and reclusive, has transformed since Baba
Bhagwan Ramji's reforms to Aghor Yoga practices. By changing practices that have
traditionally been shunned by conventional norms, Aghor Yoga now has entered mainstream
society. Today, Aghor Yoga focuses upon forming a balanced personal practice, placing
importance on both sadhana (one's own spiritual practice) as well as seva (selfless service).
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Baba Bhagwan Ramji
Recognizing the need for change within his society, Baba Bhagwan Ramji renewed the
socially conscious spirit of Baba Kinaram when he established a new ashram named
Awadhut Bhagwan Ram Kusht Sewa Ashram (The Awadhut Bhagwan Ram Leprosy Service
Ashram) at Parao, Varanasi.[18] Baba Bhagwan Ramji dedicated Parao Ashram to helping the
poor and the afflicted, and included a leprosy hospital within the ashram grounds. By shifting
Aghor Yoga's focus to helping those who are suffering within society, Baba Bhagwan Ramji
modernized the ancient Aghor tradition.
In order to maintain the continuum of the Aghor tradition, Baba Bhagwan Ramji initiated
one of his disciples, Baba Siddharth Gautam Ram, to be the head of Krim Kund and of the
Aghor lineage. The Krim Kund and Parao ashrams are situated on the opposite sides of
the Ganges River in Varanasi, India.
Baba Bhagwan Ramji also established Sri Sarveshwari Samooh Ashram, a secular social
service organization that has worked throughout northern India. The Aghor lineage now
includes many Ashrams in various locations in India and a number of centers and Ashrams
in other countries.
During his life, Aghoreshwar Bhagwan Ramji also guided the reform of ancient Kina
Ram Aghori practices.
Ashrams
All of the ashrams started by Baba Bhagwan Ramji and his disciples around the world are
continually dedicated to service. Contemporary Aghor practices focus especially on
providing help and services to those who are downtrodden.
Sri Sarveshwari Samooh Ashram remains invested in social issues, notably working to
eliminate the dowry system, offering free leprosy treatment, and providing free schooling for
impoverished children.
The Sonoma Ashram in Sonoma, California, founded in 1990, is the current seat of Aghor
Yoga in the United States. The mission of Sonoma Ashram is to foster spiritual growth in
individuals.
The Sonoma Ashram's sister ashram, Aghor Foundation, was established in 2001 on the bank
of the Ganges River in the Varanasi, India and offers a safe home for orphaned and
abandoned children. The Aghor Foundation also operates other social service projects,
including the Anjali School, a tuition-free school for neighborhood children living in poverty
and Vision Varanasi, a free eye clinic.[23] Notably, The Aghor Foundation also runs Project
Shakti, which offers vocational training for underprivileged women in Varanasi. The Aghor
Foundation recently began to construct the Amrit Sagar Environmental Center, "a working
model of the best environmental practices and a teaching center demonstrating… sustainable
practices.
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Aghor form of Shiva | Tantra Darshan Shastra | Bagulamukhi Devi
krishnakutumbapp
When Shiva was enlightening Andhak, Kali left the field and started the destruction. Shiva tried
to stop Kali but this time it went useless. Some Tantrik kept Kali in anger through their tantra
mantra. Shiva had no other option left and he did what he never wanted to do. He took the Aghor
form. From the power of his tantra, He calmed Kali down. She converted back into Parvati.
PARVATI TURNED INTO BAGULAMUKHI DEVI
The terrible thing was that Tantriks and Aghoris got the knowledge of controlling Kali
when Shiva used it in Aghor form. The science of tantra got leaked.
Aghoris started killing people as sacrifice for Kali and started offering blood. Parvati was in the
state that a little anger could push her into Kali form and Aghoris would use her powers.Aghoris
used their tantra to provoke Parvati. Two demons tried to capture Her and this gave birth to a
new form which is related to Tantra –
Tu-vashikarini, Shatrubuddhinashini, Tu-pitambaradevi, Tu-brahmastrarupani, Bagulamukhi
devi.
Bagulamukhi devi cut the tongue of the demon.
With the help of Tantra vidhya, this Bagulamukhi devi is used to destroy enemies. Even evils use
this art against good. The terrible of which Shiva was worried, happened and spread throughout
the world.
MALLA AND MANI – TWIN AGHORI BROTHERS
Malla and Mani, two Aghori brothers, used tantra darshan shastra and with the help
of Shiva mantras, provoked Parvati and turned her into Kali.
They controlled and captured her in the instrument in their cave. They got the powers of Kali and
she gave them boon of protection. Malla and Mani wanted to convert the world into a large
179
crematorium. They started gathering Aghoris and misleading them.Shiva immediately took
Aghor form and enlightened all with the true meaning of being an Aghori. An Aghori is someone
who is free from the fear of life and death. Who has no desires for respect and no care for
disrespect. A true Aghori is someone who sacrifice arrogance & materialism and not some living
being. Shiva then invented an instrument to hold the power of Kali so that no one in the world
could use those powers ever in future for evil acts. He placed the instrument in galaxy and whole
world gets the power of Shakti now. Parvati took new birth as Mahalsa.
Tantra Mantra Aghori ! Comic series ‘Aghori’ and a few pages for the precious
issue.The
scripting
was
done
by
Ram
Venkatesan.
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181
182
https://harshomohan.wordpress.com/2015/07/21/tantra-mantra-aghori/
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CHAPTER XV
The Tantra of Buddhism
The Buddhist Tantras are a varied group of Indian and Tibetan texts which outline
unique views and practices of the Buddhist tantra religious systems.
Buddhist Tantric texts began appearing in the Gupta Empire period [1] though there are
texts with elements associated with Tantra that can be seen as early as the third
century.[2] By the eighth century Tantra was a dominant force in North India and the
number of texts increased with numerous Tantric pandits writing commentaries.
The earliest known datable Buddhist Tantra is possibly the Mahavairocana Tantra, which
was mentioned and collected by the Chinese pilgrim Wu-xing (無行) c. 680 CE.
Some of the material is also similar to content in the Yoga Upanishads. Buddhist Tantric
traditions were variously influenced by Śaiva and Pancharatra Hindu traditions, local
god/goddess
cults, Yaksha or nāga rites
as
well
as
drawing
on
preexisting Mahāyāna Buddhist ideas and practices.
Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed “action Tantras” (kriyā tantra), are
mostly collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called
mantrakalpas (mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras.[6] Later Tantric
texts from the eighth century onward (termed variously Yogatantra, Mahayoga,
and Yogini Tantras) advocated union with a deity (deity yoga), sacred sounds (mantras),
techniques for manipulation of the subtle body and other secret methods with which to
achieve swift Buddhahood. Some Tantras contain antinomian and transgressive practices
such as ingesting alcohol and other forbidden substances as well as sexual rituals.[8] Some
of the unique themes and ideas found in the Buddhist Tantras is the revaluation of the
body and its use in attaining great bliss (mahasukha), a revaluation of the role of women
and female deities and a revaluation of negative mental states, which can be used in the
service of liberation as the Hevajra Tantra says "the world is bound by passion, also by
passion it is released".
Buddhist Tantra quickly spread out of India into nearby countries like Tibet and Nepal in
the eighth century, as well as to Southeast Asia. Buddhist Tantra arrived in China during
the Tang Dynasty (where it was known as Tangmi) and was brought to Japan
by Kukai (774–835), where it is known as Shingon. It remains the main Buddhist tradition
in Nepal, Mongolia and Tibet where it is known as Vajrayana.
There are between 1500 and 2000 surviving Indian Buddhist Tantric texts in the original
Sanskrit, and over two thousand more Tantras solely survive in translation (mostly
Tibetan or Chinese).[11] In the Tibetan canons, there are 450 Tantras in
the Kanjur collection and 2400 in the Tengyur.
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Tantric texts were brought to Tibet in two historical periods, the 8th century and the
11th century.[13] The ancient translation school, or Nyingma and the later New translation
schools organize Tantras into different categories.
Ancient Translation School
The Nyingma tantra collection is known as the Nyingma Gyubum and has six tantra
categories:
Three Outer Tantras:
o Kriyayoga
o Charyayoga
o Yogatantra
Three Inner Tantras, which correspond to the Anuttarayogatantra:
o
o
o
Mahayoga
Anuyoga
Atiyoga (Tib. Dzogchen), further divided into three classes:
Mental SemDe
Spatial LongDe
Esoteric Instructional MenNgagDe
New Translation Schools
The Sarma or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism (Gelug, Sakya, and Kagyu)
divide the Tantras into four categories:
Kriyayoga
Charyayoga
Yogatantra
Anuttarayogatantra
o
o
o
Mother tantras, Yogini tantras
Father tantras
Nondual Tantra or Advaya Class
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Buddhist Tantric Texts: Guhyasamaja (left), Raktayamari (right), Folio from a Dharani
(Protective or Empowering Spells)
Many Tantric texts have titles other than 'Tantra', including Dharani, Kalpa,
Rajñi, stotra, doha and sutra. The Major Tantras also accumulated secondary literature,
such
as
'Explanatory
Tantras'
(vyākhyātantra),
commentaries
[14]
and sadhana literature. Major Buddhist Tantric texts include:
Guhyasamāja Tantra, Father Tantra class, (c. 5th - 8th century)
Mahavairocana Tantra, Charya Tantra class, (7th century)
Vajrapãṇyabhiṣeka Tantra
Vajrasekhara Sutra
Tattvasaṃgraha Tantra, Yogatantra class, (7th century)
Hevajra Tantra, Mother class, (8th century)
Cakrasaṃvara Tantra a.k.a. Sri-Heruka-bhidhana, Mother class (8th century)
Guhyagarbha tantra, Mother class
Sarvabuddha Samayoga, Mother class
Vajramrta Tantra, Mother class
Vajrapañjara Tantra, Mother class
Vajrabhairava Tantra or Yamantaka Tantra, Father class, (8th century)
Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa (8th century)
Shurangama Sutra (8th century)
Shurangama Mantra
Susiddhikara Sutra (8th century)
Sarva-tathāgata-tattva-saṅgraha-sūtra (8th century)
Kurukullā Tantra
Mahākāla Tantra
Samvarodaya Tantra
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Vajrapatala Tantra
Sri-Vajriimrta-tantra
Mañjuśrīnāmasamgīti, Nondual class
Mahachinacara Tantra
Mayajala Tantra
The Eighteen Texts of the Mind Series (Semde) (9th century)
o Kulayarāja Tantra - "The All Creating King"
Kalachakra Tantra, Nondual class (mid-11th century)
Seven texts of Space series (11th-14th centuries)
o Mahāvarntaprasaranirajatantranāma - "Samantabhadra’s Royal Tantra of AllInclusive Vastness"
Seventeen Tantras of Menngagde, Dzogchen (11th-14th centuries)
Saṃvara Tantra
Mahamaya Tantra
Vajrayogini Tantra
Sarvarahasya Tantra
Sri-Paramadya-Tantra
Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī or Mahākaruṇā Dhāraṇī, popularly known as the 'Great Compassion
Mantra'
Chandamaharosana Tantra
Prajnopaya-viniscaya Siddhi
Naro Chos-Drug
Nigu Chos-Drug
Mila Gnubum
Sutra of Secret Bliss (Tachikawa-ryu, c.1114)
Kalika Purana
Padma Kathang Sanglingma
Bardo Thödol (1326–1386)
Nyingtig Yabshi
Seven Treasures
Padma Kathang Sheldrakma
Longchen Nyingthig
Yuthok Nyingthig
Rinchen Terzö Chenmo
Authors: As Buddhist Tantra became more widely practiced in the middle of the seventh
century, pandits at mainstream Buddhist scholastic institutions began to adopt the
practices and write sadhanas and commentaries on Vajrayana praxis. Benoytosh
Bhattacharyya notes that there are two main chronological lists of prominent Tantric
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authors, the first from Taranatha's works and the second from Kazi Dawasamdup's
introduction to the Cakrasaṃvara Tantra.
Taranatha's list:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Padmavajra (c.693), author of the Guhyasiddhi
Anangavajra (c.705), author of the Prajñopāyaviniścayasiddhi
Indrabhuti (c.717), author of the Jñānasiddhi
Bhagavati Laksmi (c.729), female author of the Advayasiddhi
Lilavajra (c.741)
Darikapa (c.753)
Sahajayogini (c.765)
Dombi Heruka (c.777)
Kazi Dawasamdup's list:
1. Saraha aka Rahulabhadra (c. 633)
2. Nagarjuna (author of the Pañcakrama c. 645, not to be confused with
the Madhyamika philosopher)
3. Sabaripa (c.657)
4. Luipa (c.669)
5. Vajraghanta (c.681)
6. Kacchapa (c.693)
7. Jalandharipa (c.705)
8. Krsnacarya (c.717)
9. Guhya (c.729)
10. Vijayapa (c.741)
11. Tilopa
12. Naropa
Other Indian tantric authors include:
Buddhaguhya, wrote a commentary on the Mahavairocana Tantra
Vimalamitra, 8th century, wrote commentaries on the Guhyagarbha tantra
Padmasambhava
Śāntarakṣita (725–788), whose authorship of the Tantric work Tattvasiddhi is attributed
by various authors, but this is debated by scholars such as Ernst Steinkellner.[16]
Vilāsavajra, 8-9th century author of the Namamantrarthavalokini, a commentary on
the Mañjuśrīnāmasamgīti.
Buddhajñāna, 8-9th century author of the Śrīherukasādhanavṛtti
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Aryadeva, author of the Lamp that Integrates the Practices (Caryamelapakapradipa),
a commentary on the Guhyasamāja Tantra, not to be confused with the Madhyamaka
philosopher of the same name
Candrakirti, 9th century author of the Pradipoddyotana, not to be confused with the
Madhyamaka philosopher of the same name
Sakyamitra, commentator on the Guhyasamāja Tantra
Nagabodhi, commentator on the Guhyasamāja Tantra
Bhavyakīrti, 10th century author of a commentary on the Cakrasaṃvara Tantra,
the Śrīcakrasamvarapañjikā-śūramanojñā-nāma.[18]
Sraddhakaravarman, commentator on the Guhyasamāja
Bhavabhaṭṭa,
10th
century author
of
the Śrīcakrasaṁvarapañjikā,
a
Cakrasamvāratantra commentary
Jayabhadra, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
Durjayacandra, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
Vajrapani, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
Tathagataraksita, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
Bhavabadra, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
Viravajra, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
Manibhadra, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
Śraddhākaravarma, Guhyasamāja commentator
Prasantajnana, Guhyasamāja commentator
Vimalagupta, Guhyasamāja commentator
Cilupa, Guhyasamāja commentator
Vajrahasa, Guhyasamāja commentator
Santipa
Kāṇha, author of the Yogaratnamālā on the Hevajra Tantra
Bhadrapāda, author of the Śrīhevajravyākhyākhyāvivaraṇa, on the Hevajra Tantra
Vajragarbha, author of the Ṣaṭsāhasrikā-Hevajra-ṭīkā
Ratnakīrti, 11th century
Ratnākaraśānti, wrote the Muktāvalī, a commentary on the Hevajra
Pundarika, a commentator of the Kalachakra tantra
Sucandra, Kalacakra commentary in sixty thousand stanzas
Yogaratnamālā, author of a commentary on the Hevajra Tantra
Abhayakaragupta, 11th-early 12th century CE
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CHAPTER XVI
The Psychology of Buddhist Tantra
These excerpts from The Psychology of Buddhist Tantra—one on retreat and the other on
purification—are entertaining, knowledgeable, and rich with Preece’s hard-earned
wisdom as a longtime Buddhist practitioner and psychotherapist.
MEDITATION RETREAT
The alchemical vessel of meditation retreat is very powerful. The Tibetan word for
retreat, samlado, means, literally, “to sit or stay within boundaries,” and the retreat
situation is a place where the boundaries within which you live are defined specifically
for the purpose of meditation. These boundaries may demand not speaking, not reading
distracting literature like newspapers, and meeting only specific people. There may be
defined geographical boundaries beyond which you do not go, and specific activities
performed each day. The body, speech, and mind are placed within this context—the
vessel—and whatever arises from the unconscious is what you work with. So long as you
maintain your self-discipline, the energy of whatever arises is held, and transformation
can take its course. This can make retreat uncomfortable, particularly over long periods.
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In one retreat of over six months, I experienced weeks of powerful sexual fantasies
principally resulting from the deity I was practicing, which was intended to evoke and
transform such feelings. For a while I found the intensity of energy almost intolerable,
but by remaining within the clearly defined retreat boundaries, and giving the energy a
vehicle for its transformation in the meditation practice, the intensity eventually began to
subside.
After a time the fantasies ceased, and I noticed a change had gradually taken place
through the process of meditation. The wild, crazy energy that had been evoked was
changing into something much freer and more blissful. The bliss was accompanied by an
openness or spaciousness that enabled it to be experienced without the grasping that
would turn it into sexual desire and frustration. I sensed that for the first time the wild,
uncivilized rawness of my sexual energy was falling within my own control rather than
my being its slave.
In retreat the practitioner enters a process that is an intense example of transformation.
The practitioner is the prima materia, and in one sense the body is also the container in
which the transformation takes place. The body is the vessel that contains the elemental
forces of the unconscious; the emotions, the instincts, and their related psychological
patterns and impulses. The use of deity practices and ritual sadhanas (methods of
transformation) in Tantra give a focus to retreat and act as a catalyst for transformation.
They provide the forces awakening within the body with a symbolic vehicle through
which they can be channeled. When undertaken skillfully and with guidance, retreat can
be a profound experience in which the retreat boundaries exist to support the inner
process.
There are inevitable dangers with retreat, and fanatical extremism leads to trouble. If a
meditator pushes too hard when he or she is not ready, the result can be disastrous. I
recall a man who left the army to come and live in the Buddhist community where I once
lived. He had heard that by gaining samadhi (Tib. shi né, “tranquil abiding,” often called
“single-pointed concentration”) in meditation he could develop superhuman powers. He
became utterly determined to gain this power, which takes long periods of intense, highly
disciplined meditation in retreat. He prepared a room in the basement and was told by his
teacher to meditate on a particular practice. Within a week of fervent pushing and
squeezing, his anger and frustration were at boiling point; he burst out of retreat and
made his way to the nearest pub. When last heard of, he had joined the French Foreign
Legion.
PURIFICATION
We might think that the concept of purification implies a dualism between that which is
impure, and therefore undesired, and that which is pure and desired. This may also seem
to contradict the essential meaning of Buddha nature, which is that all phenomena,
whether pure or impure, are empty of inherent existence. It is our ignorance and dualistic
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thinking that judges and discriminates one from the other. This implies that the primary
obscuration to be purified is dualistic thinking and its consequences.
The ultimate purification is indeed the realization of emptiness experienced moment by
moment. However, because attention in Tantra is focused upon the energy-winds,
purification on this level helps to clear the underlying obstructions that prevent an
experience of nonduality. It is defiled energy-winds that are the underlying or hidden
cause of dualistic ignorance.
While the conventional language of Tantra speaks of purification, we can equally see this
as a process of healing. In Action Tantra, healing and purification are a significant aspect
of the relationship to the deity through visualizations and mantra recitations. Its
effectiveness arises from the intimate relationship between visualization, mantra, and the
energy-winds. Approaching the healing process is relatively simple and extremely
powerful if practiced with strong concentration, clarity, and an appreciation of the quality
of the deity. Even after a brief period of mantra recitation the effect can be dramatic; the
mind feels clearer and the energy in the body smoother and more fluid.
The process of healing visualization begins by generating or invoking the presence of the
deity to be practiced. The deity is usually visualized either in the space in front of the
meditator, or a few centimeters above the crown of the head. The meditator often makes
certain prayers and perhaps offerings as a preliminary practice to establish an open
receptive relationship with the deity.
Although traditionally this is done formally, through the recitation of the sadhana, the
important thing is to make a personal connection. The disadvantage with reciting
traditional prayers in an unfamiliar language can be that they may not generate the feeling
of openness and devotion that needs to be present for the practice to be effective. A
personal style that includes our own particular life issues, problems, emotional distresses,
and sicknesses as part of this process may be important to include in our reflections. We
may wish to clear certain obstacles or limitations, or to cultivate qualities to help us, but
when we do not make this personal link the practice can be dry and without feeling.
Healing and purification visualizations are usually of light and blissful nectar washing
through the body, visualized as the practitioner simultaneously recites the mantra of the
deity. This gradually cleanses, heals, or purifies the energy-winds, freeing them from
blocked, sick, tired, toxic states. It can be helpful to imagine the sickness, emotional
blocks or hindrances leaving the body as black substances. Visualizations of this kind are
increasingly common in the Western healing world, particularly when working with
diseases such as cancer. There are relatively few dangers, and these visualizations are
simple to learn.
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Increasingly, our health, both physical and psychological, is affected by the environments
in which we live and work. The intensity of emotional stress from work will invariably
leave a residue within our nervous systems. The energetic quality of city life is often
extremely unhealthy. Pollution pervades our world and feeds into our bodies through the
air, our food, and our water. All these conditions contribute to a toxicity in our subtle
energy that is extremely detrimental. Finding a simple way to clear this toxicity is
important for our general state of health, as a way to prevent more severe illness. The
purification practices of Action Tantra, while not clearing all the gross effects of
pollution in our bodies, will certainly help to clear toxic energy arising from stress.
What Is Tantric Buddhism?
Matt Caron
Tantric Philosophy
You may have heard of Tantric philosophy or tantric practice through the spiritual
grapevine.
Perhaps you heard that it’s a different sect of Buddhism or Hinduism, but you were
certainly bound to hear or read that it that it has some kind of relationship with
sex…but that’s not necessarily true!
In fact, much of the tantra philosophy has absolutely nothing to do with sex.
The confusion comes into play because it’s quite complex and deep, and requires a
little extra thought in order to properly understand.
Origin of Tantric Buddhism
The Sanskrit reference to Tantric Buddhism is Vajrayāna, which means the
“Diamond Way”.
The “Diamond Way” was most likely developed from the Hindu version of tantra
over 2,000 years ago in India; but the way these two are practiced today are very
different from each other.
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It can be hard to define the exact origin of Tantric Buddhism, but we do know
that Vajrayāna Buddhists believe that Buddha himself taught variations of tantric
philosophy to kings that could not leave their worldly affairs.
This philosophy also informed the creation Tibetan Buddhism, since it’s
largely located in Northern India.
A crazy fact: we also know that if it weren’t for tantric philosophy, Buddhism in
India may have perished in the 13th century! That’s because many Indians were
(and still are) very attached to Hinduism.
Philosophy
So what exactly do practicing Tantric Buddhists believe?
Vajrayāna follows the Two-Truths doctrine. This is the belief that there are two
kinds of truth for every person:
Relative- Common sense truth
Universal- Ultimate truth, or that which is devoid of characteristics
The goal of Tantric Buddhism is to become awakened or “enlightened”, thereby
discovering the real universal truth, moving past just simple relative truth.
Of course, this is similar to normal Buddhism, but with a few distinctions:
First, you could almost consider Vajrayāna a form of enlightenment through deityworship. That doesn’t necessarily mean that they believe these deities are
real…more like they are archetypes to be followed and imitated.
Second, there is a practice of viewing pleasurable experiences as tranforming
experiences of enlightenment. In other words, everything becomes spiritual.
From the late Lama Thubten Yeshe, in his book Introduction to Tantra: A Vision of
Totality:
“The same desirous energy that ordinarily propels us from one unsatisfactory
situation is transmuted, through the alchemy of tantra, into a transcendental
experience of bliss and wisdom. The practitioner focuses the penetrating brilliance
of this blissful wisdom so that it cuts like a laser beam through all false projections
of this and that and pierces the very heart of reality.”
194
Conclusion
Vajrayāna, or Tantric Buddhism, is certainly an important part of eastern practices
today.
But one thing it isn’t is completely focused on sex or sexual energy.
Rather, it’s actually a focus of viewing every experience as an opportunity for
enlightenment- sex or otherwise.
A profound philosophy indeed! https://blog.sivanaspirit.com/tantric-buddhism/
TO RECAPITULATE
1. The highest purpose of the mandala is to help one train their mind to become more
enlightened. In this pursuit, mandalas are typically used as a spiritual tool to aid
the monks in meditation. The process is meditative for the monks because of the intense
concentration level that is required.
2. Your mandala is your sacred circle, and it tells your story. Drawing mandalas as a form
of art therapy can reduce anxiety, tension and overall stress. Drawing stimulates
creativity and is a way to release emotional blockages.
3. All mandalas are based on a circle, and then infused with other designs to form a
deeper meaning. Geometric mandalas are said to vary according to various cultural and
religious significance, but there are several designs that have become increasing popular
for their countless meditative benefits.
4. Therefore... It is evident that the 'circle' or the 'completion', promoting peace and
balance. Mandalas allow the creator to capture true self-expression. It is
both therapeutic and symbolic. Art therapy is not about the end result but the process of
achieving it.
5. Used as a spiritual guidance tool, mandalas help establish a sacred space. They act as an
aid to meditation and trance induction. Because of its symmetrical shape, our attention is
immediately directed to the centre. The design of the mandala absorbs the mind in such a
way that chattering thoughts may cease.
How do they heal? As the monks make the mandalas, they chant and meditate to evoke the
positive vibrations residing within the sacred patterns. This energy has healing power that
extends to the entire world -- further realized by releasing the sands into flowing water.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Written, selected and edited by Muhsin Dadarkar
M.A. First class (Arabic and Linguistics), B A first class with
specialisation in Arabic and Islamic Studies
Diploma in Public Relations and Advertising
Fellow of The institute of Marketing and Management
Member of the Australia Arab Chamber of Commerce
Associate editor-Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN
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Mandalas of Tantra
Dr Uday Dokras
MuhsIN DARARKAR
Vol VI in the Mandala Series
Indo Australian Author’s Collective
197