Utilitarian Sciences of Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore

De¿-24 (pegueeF&-efomecyej, 2023) DeecveeefÙekeâerISSN No. 2277-4270, DeeF&.Sme.Sme.Sve.-2277-4270 Vol.-24 (July-December, 2023), Peer Reviewed ᾹMNᾹYIKῙ, UGC Care Listed Journal Utilitarian Sciences of Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore Ayush Jaiwal, Jaiveer S. Dhankhar 1 Abstract This paper delves into the remarkable life and multifaceted contributions of Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore, a pivotal figure during the Age of Enlightenment. Serfoji's pursuit of knowledge through reason, evidence, and logic aligns with the Enlightenment ideals. As a patron of natural history and a proponent of Western medicine, he transformed Tanjore into a hub for knowledge exchange, attracting scientists and practitioners from diverse traditions. His collection of medical texts, surgical instruments, and anatomical models, along with his study of human anatomy, reflects his dedication to advancing medical knowledge. Tanjore became a center of enlightenment, drawing European surgeons and physicians to contribute to exchanging medical knowledge. Raja Serfoji II's introduction of vaccination and sanitation measures marked an early instance of public health intervention in India. His belief in the interconnectedness of medicine, natural history, and spirituality led to a focus on medicinal plants, veterinary medicine, and animal management. As a patron of natural history, Serfoji maintained a diverse collection of animals, employed skilled veterinary practitioners, and his descriptions of animals incorporated cultural symbolism and cosmic correspondences. Focusing on experimental philosophy, he conducted recreational experiments and ran a highly regarded printing press. This paper showcases the extraordinary contributions of Raja Serfoji II, leaving a lasting legacy on the intellectual landscape of his time. Keywords: Raja Serfoji II, Tanjore, Enlightenment, Utilitarianism, Natural History, Knowledge Exchange. Introduction Utilitarianism is a moral and political theory that suggests that the best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or well-being2. According to utilitarianism, social decisions should be made to maximize the total utility enjoyed by society. In the early 19th century, science as a field of inquiry was influenced by the broader intellectual and philosophical trends of the time, which included utilitarianism and its emphasis on utility and empiricism. The early 19th century was a period of significant scientific and philosophical developments, and utilitarian philosophy impacted how science was perceived and practiced during that era. This was the period of greater emphasis on the practical and applied aspects of science in solving humanity's problems. Raja Serfoji II (r. 1798–1832) developed Tanjore as a hub for the creation and exchange of knowledge. He was unlike any other native prince in nineteenth-century India, and his linkages and networks facilitated the ongoing and developing cultural encounters. This attracted scientists, surgeons, physicians, etc., to Tanjore, where the nature of knowledge production was not limited to imitating the European sciences but instead focused on achieving a convergence of both indigenous knowledge and the  Department of History & Archaeology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak 124001 Email.: ayush.stu.history@mdurohtak.ac.in 464 Utilitarian Sciences of Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore Western sciences. To this end, Raja Serfoji II himself was a savant king and had a great interest in the valuable sciences of medicine, chemistry, and natural history. He also collected articles for demonstrating and understanding the natural philosophical studies of Physics, Astronomy, etc. through experiments. The study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of Raja Serfoji II's contributions to knowledge exchange, medical science, natural history, and his impact on the scientific landscape of his time. Methodology A comprehensive interdisciplinary approach was employed, drawing from historical research, archival analysis, and comparative analysis of primary and secondary sources. Primary sources, including Serfoji's collection at Saraswati Mahal Library, Modi documents, Tanjore District Records (TDR), 1790–1832, and the Tamil Nadu State Archives, Egmore, Chennai (TNSA) were referred for this study. Additionally, the Madras Courier and the Government Gazette, Madras, were consulted. Secondary sources, such as scholarly works on the Enlightenment, medical history, and Indian intellectual history, were used to contextualize and analyze Raja Serfoji II's endeavors within the broader historical and intellectual framework. Additionally, a comparative analysis to highlight the uniqueness of his contributions and their implications was conducted. The study employed a qualitative research method, emphasizing a systematic review and synthesis of historical data to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of Raja Serfoji II's multifaceted role as a patron of natural history and a promoter of Enlightenment ideals in the context of 19th-century Tanjore. Scientific Practices of Raja Serfoji II 1. Medicine Raja Serfoji II was highly interested in Western medicine. He was first introduced to it through the company’s Physician General in Madras, Dr. James Anderson, during his stay in Madras from 1793-1796. We learn from the correspondence with Dr. Anderson about Raja Serfoji II’s fascination with European medicine and “man’s ability to preserve a human body, a divine creation, through an application of Science”3. For Raja Serfoji II, studying the human body had spiritual and scientific goals. Raja Serfoji II started taking lessons under Tanjore Residency’s surgeon, William Somervel Mitchell. Resident Blackburn, while sanctioning this activity, reported to the Governor of Madras that “Raja had become increasingly aware of the defects of the native system of medicine”4 and “Raja’s exposure to European medicine would help remove prejudices against the introduction of vaccine inoculation in Tanjore”5. Within a week of starting his lessons, Mitchell was transferred to a military unit as an assistant surgeon. This, however, did not deter Raja Serfoji from going ahead with his study of anatomy and European medicine. He started “acquiring medical texts, surgical instruments, colored plates, bones and skeletons”6 through his network in Tanjore and Madras. Raja Serfoji II, as part of his education in anatomy, studied prepared human bodies to understand the workings of blood vessels and arteries decades before the 465 De¿-24 (pegueeF&-efomecyej, 2023) DeecveeefÙekeâer DeeF&.Sme.Sme.Sve.-2277-4270 famous incident of dissection of the human body by an Indian student at Calcutta Medical College. Considering the derogatory views of Indian society and Hindu religion in these matters, both incidents represent watershed moments in the history of Science in India. Unfortunately, the Calcutta event was celebrated as the victory of Western Civilization, while the Tanjore episode was forgotten in history. Within a few years, Raja Serfoji II had read the major contemporary texts of medicine and surgery in Europe. This included William Cullen’s First Lines of the Practice of Psychic, John Bell’s Engravings of the Bones, Muscles and Joints and The Principles of Surgery, Charles Bell’s Surgical Observations, A System of Operative Surgery, System of Dissection and A Treatise of Diseases. Anderson and Mitchell continued to suggest and send Raja Serfoji II books and models of the human body (artificial eye made of ivory, scaled model of Human chest, etc.). Anderson believed that “by acquiring useful knowledge through his pursuit of anatomical sciences, Serfoji would not only become a role model but also an enlightened patron of science”7. During his study in the field, Raja Serfoji II was convinced by Anderson of the superiority of Western medicine over the Indian system due to the lack of illustrations and descriptions in native medicine. Raja Serfoji II was greatly impressed by the color plates in Charles Bell’s Anatomy of Human Body and wanted to spread this knowledge by translating them into Indian languages for the use of native doctors. “Making knowledge accessible to one and all was yet another important Enlightenment ideal” 8. Anderson replied enthusiastically by commenting that “it was worthy of a prince to desire that knowledge and to publish the same in the local language”9. We also learn that in 1805, Raja Serfoji II commissioned former Tanjore Resident and now his private agent in London, Torin to get a human skeleton made in ivory. It was later decided to instead use wood; this project proved to be both an artistic and technological challenge and was finally completed by 1808 to Raja Serfoji II’s satisfaction. By establishing Tanjore as a ‘center’ of enlightenment, Raja Serfoji II attracted several men of science and arts to Tanjore, including surgeons and physicians. European surgeons like Simon, Whitelaw Ainslie, Thomas Sutton, Bennatyne Macleod, John Mack, Thomas Sevestre, Robert Hunter, Claude Currie, and James Bell were part of the assemblage of experts at Tanjore and interacted closely with the Raja. The palace Argyoshala, which was later renamed as Dhanavantari Mahal, was created as a research institution that produced medicines for humans and animals. It functioned both as a dispensary and a pharmacy. At this institution, physicians of modern medicine, Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha performed research on drugs and in the process learned from each other as well. They produced huge volumes, numbering eighteen in total, of research material. It is believed that under Raja Serfoji II’s directions, “the Tanjore physicians worked together to produce a comparative table of diseases and their mode of treatment as per different systems”10. This text was translated into Tamil verses and put into poetic form, named ‘Sarabhendra Vaidya Muraigal’. Sources tell us about various physician-poets specializing in different forms of treatments. This includes: “Ramaswamy Iyer and Velayudha Karaiyar, treatment of 466 Utilitarian Sciences of Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore poisons; Appu Sastri, treatment of eye diseases; Thiruvengadam Pillai, diseases of women and children; Kottiyur Sivakozhunthu Desikar, rheumatic and arthritic ailments; Subbarayer Kavirayer, treatment of fevers; Damodaram Pillai, treatment of urinary disorders; etc.”11 “Prasanna Krishna Vaidyar, Swami Vaidya and Devaji Govinda Rao” 12 are credited with creating some medical recipes. Other scholars like “Venkatachalam Pillai, Rangayya Naicker, Ayyakannu Pillai, and Panchanadam”13 also produced medical treatises. Apart from Ayurveda practitioners, we find many Unani Hakims working at Dhanavantari Mahal, prominent among them include “Kader Khan, Rahim Khan, Amir Khan, Haji Ahmed, Mamoo Sahib, Adducauder Mohammed Lavady (a Persian physician) and Heera Khan”14. These medical formulations were vigorously tested at the institution before being prescribed as medicine, there were stringent parameters in place. Some physicians like “Babu Vaidyar, Jaganaud, and Tatva Pillay”15 who were attached to the Dhanavantari Mahal, were trained in both Indian and European systems of medicine. Many people in 19th century Tanjore preferred the services of Indian physicians over European doctors. Having been trained in both medical knowledge systems, practitioners like Tatva Pillay enjoyed a greater sense of trust and confidence from the local populace than their European counterparts. Most of our knowledge of medical practice and research in Tanjore comes from scattered Modi records, which are still unexplored and untranslated. Apart from these, we find brilliantly written case narratives recorded by Thomas Sevestre, Assistant Surgeon at Tanjore Residency, during Raja Serfoji II’s pilgrimage to Kasi. These started off as a way to communicate to the Raja the happenings and the well-being of his family and his court. Sevestre put in a lot of effort to prepare these medical reports patient-wise, describing diseases, the course of treatment, and the patient's response during treatment. “Patient histories were not only used by the physician as a practical aid, but they allowed him to ‘see’ himself at work”16. These patient records represented a cultural history of medicine by blending “a social history of ideas and an intellectual history of experience”17. These records are autobiographical in nature because they are essentially first-person accounts of the treatment process, but they also contain descriptions of the patient’s body, background etc., and thus these records are also biographical in nature. “Case-histories also reflect the physician’s own doubts and questions, concerning his authority and claims to legitimacy”.18 From a historical point of view, these case narratives tell us about the social background of the patients, their attitudes towards various treatment methods, different types of ailments prevalent in 19 th century Tanjore, and the types of treatments under the indigenous systems, etc. Methodical ophthalmic procedures were carried out by Raja Serfoji II, and thorough records were kept. Fifty handwritten case histories in the form of charts and papers witness his extraordinary contributions to medicine. These contained minute data, such as patient information, diagnostics, treatment protocols, and—most strikingly— drawings of the eyes before and after the procedure. They were primarily written in English. 467 De¿-24 (pegueeF&-efomecyej, 2023) DeecveeefÙekeâer DeeF&.Sme.Sme.Sve.-2277-4270 In the mainstream narratives, it is shown that Western medicine didn’t extend outside the European enclaves till the mid-19th century. Tanjore presents a completely different picture. This is evident by the fact that due to Raja Serfoji II’s efforts, the “introduction and widespread dissemination of vaccination in the region was accomplished by 1808”19. This showcases the first instance of Public Health intervention by any native state in India. By the early 19th century, “the climate theory of disease had given way to linking epidemics to man-made problems such urbanization, and its concomitant problems of overcrowding and bad sanitation.”20. Raja Serfoji II introduced plans to regulate sanitation and waste in Tanjore in 1815. After the Cholera epidemic of 1817-1821, Raja Serfoji II constructed the extensive drainage system, the Jalatharai, following the suggestions made by Sevestre to optimize safe water management in Tanjore. It was not until the 1840s that similar systems were adopted in Presidency towns like Madras and Calcutta. This highlights the steadfastness of Raja Serfoji II in the practical uses of science for the benefit of his subjects. 2. Natural History Raja Serfoji II believed that medicine, natural history, and God are intimately linked. His approach towards medicine was not purely intellectual but an important practical one that “involved activities like collection of medicinal plants, their propagation in gardens, preparation of a herbarium, and the extraction and preparation of medicines”21. There was a medicinal garden attached to the Dhanavantari Mahal, Serfoji commissioned his artists to draw illustrations of plants for ease of identification. With the advent of the European natural history and its encounter with the traditional cultural base, there was further enrichment in knowledge. The method employed by Serfoji II combined ‘native’ and European knowledge into a singular coherent system. Serfoji was also an avid collector of various animals and birds, which formed part of his palace menagerie and was very much interested in veterinary medicine and animal management. “Through these ‘vectors of assemblage’, he developed a distinct and modern method of describing nature, which combined empiricism with a sympathetic and intuitive understanding of living nature, rooted in Hindu tradition”22. His focus was not just on mere collection and ownership of these elements of assemblage but rather stressed the ‘groundedness’ of the object. His ideas were similar to Enlightenment vitalists although they were not inspired by vitalists and even preceded the vitalists by decades. Rejecting the “mechanistic divide between the observer and the observed, the focus was on the ‘circle of relations’ in living nature”23. Raja Serfoji II was part of the extensive intellectual network comprising the Company’s surgeon-naturalists and the missionary-naturalists of Tranquebar. This network enabled him to systematically collect and exchange useful seeds and plants of various kinds. Residency officials, Surgeon James Anderson, Missionary C.S. John, and Missionary Kohlhoff were part of Serfoji’s natural history circle. In his book Plants of the Coromandel Coast (1819), the botanist Roxburgh mentions a plant, Bignonia suberosa, which was brought to Madras from the garden of Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore. Raja Serfoji II’s collection of European natural history literature included “Georg 468 Utilitarian Sciences of Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore Eberhard Rumf’s Herbarium Amboinense in seven volumes and Roxburgh’s Plants”24. A point to note is that though Raja Serfoji II interacted with colonial botanists, his epistemological understanding of natural sciences differed from theirs. The Palace menagerie consisted of many animals of various kinds, procured either through purchase or as gifts. Horses, dogs, elephants, monkeys, birds of prey, and birds of paradise were part of the menagerie. “Wild animals like tigers, leopards, and bears were captured from the forests of Tanjore”25. Veterinary medicine was an established branch of science, and Serfoji employed some of the best veterinary practitioners of the time. This is evident from the fact that Raja’s European friends asked for help from his staff many times. Serfoji’s scholar-poet, Balakappiya Muni, wrote an illustrated treatise on the science of elephants, the Gajasastram in Marathi. Later, commentaries on Gajasastram like Gajasastra Vilakkam, were prepared during Raja Shivaji II’s reign. Similarly, Salihotra wrote a treatise on the treatment of horses, called Aswasastra, which was compiled in Marathi and was beautifully adorned with illustrations by Serfoji’s artists. Along with his collections of bird and animal drawings, there were detailed descriptions of the creatures. “Serfoji’s descriptions might resemble those by his contemporaries, the Company naturalists, in empirical or quantifiable elements, but not in the intimacy and sympathy his descriptions so naturally convey”26. We will discuss descriptions of three different animals written by Raja Serfoji II to expound on his idea of natural history. Serfoji described ‘Syagash’ (an animal similar to a Caracal or a Lynx) “by locating it within the Islamic cosmology and then comparing it with other animals and birds of that world”27. One of the most detailed and lengthiest descriptions is that of the ‘Royal Tiger’. In this description, Serfoji draws upon the knowledge of the forestdwelling ‘Nadur’ tribe. He compared the behavior of animals in captivity with those in the wild. Further, the description included a medical register and aspects of animal management mixed with empirical details like physical measurements. Lastly, Serfoji’s description of King Cobra is the most interesting, wherein he stresses cultural symbolism and integrates it with natural history. “His descriptive method incorporated symbols, myths, magical and medical elements, a network of cosmic correspondences, and organic interconnections, all interwoven into a grand historical narrative of nature”.28 The description details their eating habits, enemies (both aerial and terrestrial), their life span, and their habitats, thereby constructing an animal economy. While highlighting the intimate link between humans and nature, Serfoji tried constructing an animal economy in each description. 3. Experimental Philosophy Carrying on with his bias of useful sciences, Raja Serfoji II also focused on the experimental portions of Natural Philosophy. Rational recreations through experimental philosophy, “designed to improve the mind through entertainment, especially of a visual and sensory kind, were an integral part of the culture in the late 18th century”.29 For performing such recreational experiments at his palace, Raja Serfoji II acquired 469 De¿-24 (pegueeF&-efomecyej, 2023) DeecveeefÙekeâer DeeF&.Sme.Sme.Sve.-2277-4270 electricity machines, an air pump, chemical kits, decanters, electric batteries, brass guns, etc. One of the most important pieces of Raja Serfoji II’s grand assemblage was his famed printing press. He started the printing press in 1805 in Tanjore with Devanagari script, called ‘Nava Vidya Kalasala Varnayantra’ for producing copies of all great works in European languages for wider use and circulation among the public. This was the earliest printing press employing Devanagari script in South India. The types and blocks used in the printing press were made using soft stone and hardwood. The importance and popularity of Raja Serfoji II’s printing press are visible from the fact that Sir Alexander Johnston (Chief Justice of Ceylon), during his visit to Tanjore, asked for any book or entire work that was published in his press and, in response “Raja Serfoji II sent Johnston the Marathi translation of Aesop’s Fables”30. Conclusions We have observed how Raja Serfoji II's reign was instrumental in transforming Tanjore into a vibrant center of enlightenment. His intellectual pursuits and patronage of diverse fields attracted scholars and practitioners from various disciplines, fostering an environment of cross-cultural knowledge exchange and innovation. In addition, our study has illuminated his unwavering commitment to Western medicine and the meticulous study of human anatomy, exemplified by the commissioning of a wooden human skeleton. Furthermore, Raja Serfoji II's pioneering endeavors in public health reflect his resolute dedication to the welfare of his subjects and the broader community. Lastly, our exploration of Raja Serfoji II's keen interest in the dissemination of knowledge and his determination to bridge the gap between Indian knowledge systems and European knowledge systems, coupled with his unwavering commitment to the sharing of knowledge, leaves an enduring legacy. In essence, Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore is a pivotal figure in the annals of the Enlightenment, showcasing his reign as a crucible of ideas, scientific advancement, and intellectual discourse. Acknowledgments Ayush Jaiwal is grateful to the University Grants Commission for the award of the Senior Research Fellowship. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Nair, S. P. 2012. Raja Serfoji II: Science, Medicine and Enlightenment in Tanjore. p. xxii. Hardin, R. 2001. Utilitarianism: Contemporary Applications. In: Smelser N. J., Baltes P. B. (eds). International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Pergamon. p. 1611116113. Nair, S. P. 2012. Raja Serfoji II: Science, Medicine and Enlightenment in Tanjore. p. 28. TNSA: TDR 4354, 4 May 1805. p. 233-235; see TNSA: TDR 3485A 22 May 1805, p. 175. Nair, S. P. 2012. Raja Serfoji II: Science, Medicine and Enlightenment in Tanjore. p. 29. TNSA: TDR 3417, 21 June 1805. p. 194-195. Nair, S. P. 2012. Raja Serfoji II: Science, Medicine and Enlightenment in Tanjore. p. 32. Ibid. TNSA: TDR 3482, 17 June 1805; 19 June 1805. p. 319. 470 Utilitarian Sciences of Raja Serfoji II of Tanjore 10. Rao, G. 1968. Glimpse into our Modi Raja Records: Dhanvantari Mahal. Journal of Tanjore Maharaja Serfoji’s Saraswathi Mahal Library. 21 (2): vii-viii. 11. Ibid. p. 61-67. 12. Ibid. 13. Jayaraman, R. 1981. Sarasvati Mahal, a Short History and Guide, Thanjavur: TSML. 14. TNSA: TDR 4436A, 10 June 1828. p. 328-329. 15. Nair, S. P. 2012. Raja Serfoji II: Science, Medicine and Enlightenment in Tanjore. p. 41. 16. Stowe, S. M. 1966. ‘Seeing Themselves at Work: Physicians and the Case Narrative in the Mid-Nineteenth-Century American South’. The American Review. 101 (1). p. 41-79. 17. Risse, G. B. and Warner, J. H. 1992. “Reconstructing Clinical Activities; Patient Records in Medical History”. Social History of Medicine. 5 (2). p. 185-189. 18. Stowe, S. M. 1966. ‘Seeing Themselves at Work: Physicians and the Case Narrative in the Mid-Nineteenth-Century American South’. The American Review. 101 (1). p. 41-79. 19. Nair, S. P. 2012. Raja Serfoji II: Science, Medicine and Enlightenment in Tanjore. p. 56. 20. Ibid. p. 57. 21. Ibid. p. 73. 22. Ibid. 23. Reill, P. H. (2003). The legacy of the “Scientific Revolution”: Science and the Enlightenment. The Cambridge History of Science. 4. p. 23-43. 24. TNSA: TDR 3494, January 1808. 25. MTD vol. 1 part 8 viii. P. 394. TSML-MB 160C/44. 26. BL, IOL: NHD 7/1029. 27. Nair, S. P. 2012. Raja Serfoji II: Science, Medicine and Enlightenment in Tanjore. p. 81. 28. Ibid. p. 84. 29. Ibid. p. 90. 30. TNSA: TDR 3421. P 146, 148, 155.  471