Sujay Ideologies identification FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL
Sujay Rao Mandavilli2025, SSRN
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We aptly and appropriately begin this paper by providing and furnishing comprehensive definitions of the commonly used, understood, and misunderstood term “ideology” as laid out by other eminent scholars and thinkers of repute, whom we also name in this paper. We also categorize and classify ideologies into several prominent types, most notable among them being political ideologies, social ideologies, cultural ideologies, economic ideologies, scientific ideologies, and religious ideologies. Ideologies may also be classified and categorized into open, subtle and covert ideologies on the basis of their ability to be detected easily. We also then suitably provide a distinction between an ideology and a cult, and provide several meaningful examples of assorted ideologies of different types such as racism, anarchism, Eurocentrism, Indocentrism, Afrocentrism, Sinocentrism, dogmatic, right-wing capitalism, Marxism, communism, Hindutva, and Dravidian nationalism. The meat of this paper of course, resides within the section that deals with, and enumerates tool and techniques to identify and isolate ideologies – needless to say, we accord this section pride of place in this paper. We believe and expect this paper would play a major role in our globalization of science movement, and lead us to what we have always called “Scientific progress at the speed of light”, at least indirectly, if not directly. The results would be palpable, and exist for everyone to see and feel.
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ELK Asia Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, 2015
Introduction: A brief history of Indology The Aryan issue, the identity of the Harappans, and the nature of interrelationships between the languages of Europe and the Indian Gangetic plains as observed from the times of William Jones over two hundred years ago have been subjects of intensive academic discourse for decades and have seen much rabble-rousing and mud-slinging, particularly in the recent past. In our previous papers, we had dealt with the Aryan problem, the identity of the Harappans, the origin of Brahmi and the Indus script, besides other related topics. We had also observed that the autochthonous Aryan theory and the Vedic Indus theories were untenable, and that the conventional theory that immigrants speaking the PIE, or one of the constituents of the PIE, now to be known as Base Indo-European, migrated to India from Central Asia would still hold good. We had proposed that the Dravidian and the Paramunda Indus theories would be untenable, and that the Harappans were intensely multilingual , speaking languages that were remote ancestors of the Prakrits of the Gangetic plains. We had shown how linguistic transformations had taken place: this issue was studied as an interplay between two language groups: an ancestor of Vedic Sanskrit spread in a part of India, died out as a spoken language, and became a liturgical language, and a lingua franca of the elite. The speakers of IE languages then took on the languages of the descendants of the Indus for everyday use due to the transfer of populations to the Ganga-Yamuna doab. Sanskrit then re-influenced the languages of the region, even after it disappeared as a spoken language. We had also discussed the origin of the term 'Aryan' which had a cultural connotation in the Rig Veda. We had also proposed that the migrations into India perhaps took place in around 2750 BC, long before the Rig Veda was compiled. In this paper, we discuss the importance of modernizing Indology for various fields of science and the need to replace the now effectively dead Mid-Nineteenth Century school of Indology and Marxist historiography with modern paradigms. We also explain why inaction could be fraught with disastrous consequences. This paper may therefore be construed as a clarion call to scholars from all over the world to take up research on Ancient India, and to raise awareness among scholars of related fields of study. The scientific and the intellectual rewards associated with such an endeavour would be enormous. We also attempt to lay out the contours and identify the key drivers for Twenty-first century Indology.
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IJISRT
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Social Responsibility over Academic Freedom: Emphasizing Ethics and Codes of Conduct Geared for a Scholar's Duties towards Science, Society and the Education System in Twenty-First Century Science
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This paper explores the twin issues of Academic Freedom and Social Responsibility among researchers and scholars, and gaps in theory and praxis as well. It also discusses the current application of ethics and objectivity in science, and discusses the need for change so as to highlight a scholar's duties towards science, society and the education system. It also takes vital clues from various fields of social sciences such as Sociology and Anthropology besides other sciences and investigates their relevance to the tenets of this paper. It summarizes key issues in the debate between Academic Freedom and Social Responsibility and emphasizes the need for Social Responsibility while underlining the dangers of unbridled Academic freedom to society and the education system.We link this paper to our earlier publications including Historiography by Objectives, Principles of Twenty-first Century Historiography, and Anthropological Historiography, besides the sociology of science and Anthropological pedagogy, and see how this can have a bearing on Ethics and Codes of Conduct in science in general. Such ethics and codes of conduct are currently patchy at best, and must be consolidated and reinforced, and must emphasize a scholar's duty towards science, society and the education system. Thus, academic freedom cannot override social responsibility, or be contrary to it. Such approaches are likely to raise eyebrows and face stiff resistance from vested interests and cabals around the world but these need to be encountered and surmounted in the interest of scholarship and science.This also becomes necessary because most academicians hold paid positions, and definitions of social responsibilities must be preferably driven by university mandates. Needless to say, movements emphasizing social duties must be extended to all fields of the social sciences, besides the physical sciences, and must become one of the important movements of the Twenty-first century.
Historiography by Objectives: A New Approach for the Study of History Within the Framework of the Proposed Twenty-First Century School of Historiography
ELK Asia Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, 2014
is concerned with all those human beings, sayings, thoughts, deeds and sufferings which have occurred in the past and have left present deposits and it deals with them from the point of view of constant change. " According to Belgian Historian Henri Pirenne, "History is the story of men living in societies and their deeds." Like Hegel and others, who insisted on the role of great men in history, Thomas Carlyle argued that history was the biography of a few central individuals, heroes, arguing "The history of the world is nothing but the biography of great men." According to John J. Anderson, "History is a narration of the events which have happened among mankind, including an account of the rise and fall of nations, as well as of other great changes which have affected the political and social condition of the human race." 2 3 4 5 6 Approaches to historiography We will now briefly describe various schools of historiography since ancient 2 (originally: Geschichte ist ... ein Dialog Zwischen Gegenwart und Vergangenheit.)-Edward Hallet Carr. 1961. What Is History? New York: Vintage Books.
Sujay Academic freedom versus social responsibility for researchers FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL FINAL
ijisrt, 2022
This paper explores the twin issues of Academic Freedom and Social Responsibility among researchers and scholars, and gaps in theory and praxis as well. It also discusses the current application of ethics and objectivity in science, and discusses the need for change so as to highlight a scholar’s duties towards science, society and the education system. It also takes vital clues from variousfields of social sciences such as Sociology and Anthropology besides other sciences and investigates their relevance to the tenets of this paper. It summarizes key issues in the debate between Academic Freedom and Social Responsibility and emphasizes the need for Social Responsibility while underlining the dangers of unbridled Academic freedom to society and the education system. We link this paper to our earlier publications including Historiography by Objectives, Principles of Twenty-first Century Historiography, and Anthropological Historiography, besides the sociology of science and Anthropological pedagogy, and see how this can have a bearing on Ethics and Codes of Conduct in science in general. Such ethics and codes of conduct are currently patchy at best, and must be consolidated and reinforced, and must emphasize a scholar’s duty towards science, society and the education system. Thus, academic freedom cannot override social responsibility, or be contrary to it. Such approaches are likely to raise eyebrows and face stiff resistance from vested interests and cabals around the world but these need to be encountered and surmounted in the interest of scholarship and science. This also becomes necessary because most academicians hold paid positions, and definitions of social responsibilities must be preferably driven by university mandates. Needless to say, movements emphasizing social duties must be extended to all fields of the social sciences, besides the physical sciences, and must become one of the important movements of the Twenty-first century.
Formulating 'Extended identity theory' for twenty-first century social sciences research: Modeling extended identity in relation to real-world observations and data
IJISRT, 2023
The basis of this paper is our paper on generic identity theory which we had published several years ago. This aforementioned paper which was tied to the concept of the psychic unity of mankind, explored among other things, the basic concepts pertaining to human identity and identity formation. Another pillar of this paper is the concept of symbiotic approach to socio-cultural change which discussed sociocultural change in globalized scenarios, and enunciated several concepts such as mind-orientation, cultural orientation, thought worlds, world views, and mind space which were used by us in several subsequent papers as well. In our paper on generic identity, we explored the origin of the term identity, explored several pre-existing terms pertaining to identity theory and also developed our own new concepts pertaining to the idea of identity. We also discussed several components of identity such as biological identity, religious identity, linguistic identity, national or territorial identity, cultural identity, social identity, economic identity, acquired identities, and other residual components of identity as per the cultural taxonomy. In this paper, we take forward the concepts we had put forth in our earlier papers, to an altogether new level and propose several real-world applications of identity theory as well. This paper also shows that observations studied from the point of view of a monolithic western culture are wrong, and multi-cultural perspectives are always necessary; this paper is therefore a part of our globalization of science movement.
Developing methods, tools and techniques to identify
and isolate ideologies: Why this is an essential prerequisite of twenty-first century science and nonscience
Sujay Rao Mandavilli
Published in SSRN, 2025
Abstract
We aptly and appropriately begin this paper by providing and furnishing comprehensive definitions of
the commonly used, understood, and misunderstood term “ideology” as laid out by other eminent
scholars and thinkers of repute, whom we also name in this paper. We also categorize and classify
ideologies into several prominent types, most notable among them being political ideologies, social
ideologies, cultural ideologies, economic ideologies, scientific ideologies, and religious ideologies.
Ideologies may also be classified and categorized into open, subtle and covert ideologies on the basis of
their ability to be detected easily. We also then suitably provide a distinction between an ideology and a
cult, and provide several meaningful examples of assorted ideologies of different types such as racism,
anarchism, Eurocentrism, Indocentrism, Afrocentrism, Sinocentrism, dogmatic, right-wing capitalism,
Marxism, communism, Hindutva, and Dravidian nationalism. The meat of this paper of course, resides
within the section that deals with, and enumerates tool and techniques to identify and isolate ideologies
– needless to say, we accord this section pride of place in this paper. We believe and expect this paper
would play a major role in our globalization of science movement, and lead us to what we have always
called “Scientific progress at the speed of light”, at least indirectly, if not directly. The results would be
palpable, and exist for everyone to see and feel.
1
Introduction
Ideologies separate us. Dreams and anguish bring us together - Eugene Ionesco
All ideologies are idiotic, whether religious or political, for it is conceptual thinking, the conceptual word,
which has so unfortunately divided man - Jiddu Krishnamurti
"We do not need…to believe in an ideology. All that is necessary is for each of us to develop our good
human qualities. The need for a sense of universal responsibility affects every aspect of modern life." —
Dalai
Lama
We aptly and appropriately begin this paper by providing and furnishing comprehensive definitions of
the commonly used, understood, and misunderstood term “ideology” as laid out by other eminent
scholars and thinkers of repute, whom we also name in this paper. The term mostly has had a somewhat
negative connotation, though not always. We also categorize and classify ideologies into several
prominent types, most notable among them being political ideologies, social ideologies, cultural
ideologies, economic ideologies, scientific ideologies, and religious ideologies. Ideologies may also be
classified and categorized into open, subtle and covert ideologies on the basis of their ability to be
detected easily. We also then suitably provide a distinction between an ideology and a cult, and provide
several meaningful examples of assorted ideologies of different types such as racism, anarchism,
Eurocentrism, Indocentrism, Afrocentrism, Sinocentrism, dogmatic, right-wing capitalism, Marxism,
communism, Hindutva, and Dravidian nationalism. The meat of this paper of course, resides within the
section that deals with, and enumerates tool and techniques to identify and isolate ideologies –
needless to say, we accord this section pride of place in this paper. As usual, and as always, practical,
down to earth, pragmatic, and non nonsense approaches are adopted, keeping in consonance with our
overall, and broader philosophy; this is also a reflection of the future direction we expect science and
scholarship to take. Ideologies may come and go but we must work towards the gradual elimination and
submission of all ideologies by detecting them to begin with. This may take time to manifest itself, but
will ultimately happen through the medium and mechanism of better education. Hence, the authorship
of this paper. As Victor Hugo once famously said, “Nothing can stop an idea whose time has come”. We
believe and expect this paper would play a major role in our globalization of science movement, and
lead us to what we have always called “Scientific progress at the speed of light”, at least indirectly, if not
directly. The results would be palpable, and exist for everyone to see and feel, with a commensurate,
and a quantum increase in scientific output. 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
Chetty, Kavish (26 September 2011). "Marx Apologist Administers Antidote to Neo-Liberal Values". Cape Argus. p. 11
2
Lakoff, George (2000). Where Mathematics Comes From: How the Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics Into Being. Basic Books
3
Jost, John T.; Federico, Christopher M.; Napier, Jaime L. (January 2009). "Political Ideology: Its Structure, Functions, and Elective Affinities". Annual
Review of Psychology. 60 (1): 307–337
4
Jost, John T., Alison Ledgerwood, and Curtis D. Hardin. 2008. "Shared reality, system justification, and the relational basis of ideological beliefs." pp.
171–186 in Social and Personality Psychology Compass 2
5 Debord, Guy. 1967 The Society of the Spectacle. Bureau of Public Secrets 2014 (Annotated Edition)
6 Gries, Peter Hays. 2014. The Politics of American Foreign Policy: How Ideology Divides Liberals and Conservatives over Foreign Affairs. Stanford: Stanford
University Press.
2
Let us now proceed to provide a definition of an ideology in scientific terms. The word and the term
“Ideology” as we understand and know it in contemporary times, owes its existence to the French word
“ideologie” (with an acute accent over the first “e”) which was coined at the time of the French
Revolution, which lasted between 1789 and 1799. The term was commonly believed to have been
introduced by a philosopher, A.-L.-C. Destutt de Tracy, (He was a French Enlightenment aristocrat and
philosopher, and based many of his core ideas on the works of John Locke, Immanuel Kant, Voltaire,
Condorcet, and de Condillac) as a short name for what he called his “science of ideas”. It can however,
be traced to earlier Greek and Latin roots. In Ancient Greek, for example, the term is believed to have
meant notion or pattern. Crudely, explained, it may be referred to a collection of beliefs that are usually
not fully or adequately tested or lack common, and universal applicability or application. According to
Selinger, “An ideology is a set of ideas by which men posit, explain and justify the ends and means of
organized social action, irrespective of whether such action aims to preserve, amend, uproot or rebuild a
given social order (Seliger, 1976). Tracy emphasized the following two aspects particularly (1) the
sensations that people experience as they interact with the material world; and (2) the ideas that form
in their minds due to those sensations. The nineteenth century French writer and critic Hippolyte Taine,
French historian Augustin Cochin and several others also contributed to early interpretations of the term
“ideology”, though some of his thoughts and ideas have now been written over.
The study of ideology or ideologies also reflected the process of “ideologisation” – attributed by German
historian Reinhard Koselleck to the period between 1750 and 1850. The “Society of Ideologues” was
formed in 1795 to celebrate the principles and achievements of the French revolution – it was however,
largely based on rational principles and guidelines. Ideologies may also be context-based, i.e., they may
be applicable only to a particular context; however, in many other cases, they may be universally
applicable, and possess universal validity. We have had doctrines such as utilitarianism which are either
not applicable to other contexts such as the Indian context, or remain undefined and unspecified there.
On the other hand feminism is universally applicable albeit with variations, and whether realized,
materialized, fructified, or not. We have had noted feminists such as Susan Anthony, Sojourner Truth
and Emma Goldman, over the years. We now need to study the process of what we may now call
“deideologization”, at least as and when it eventually and finally unfolds. This can, and will only happen
after ideologies are consciously and systematically identified, isolated, weeded out or eliminated. This is
highly imperative and necessary, but may only happen after a new generation of scholars and
intellectuals takes over. David W. Minar – a noted and an eminent political science professor at North
Western University, Illinois, USA- describes six different ways in which the word "ideology" has been
used in different periods in time, these being the following: 7 8
1. As a collection of ideas with rigid content, usually normative, prescriptive and non-changing; In order
words, rigid and dogmatic ideas with no scope or no room more modification or alteration.
7 Ideas and Politics: The American experience, 1964, by David W. Minar
8 Ideology: An Introduction Terry Eagleton London: Verso, 1991, pp. xv, 242, Willard A. Mullins
3
2. As the form or internal logical structure that ideas have within a set and may not be compatible with
external principles; Therefore, they lack external validity and compatibility. Please refer our papers on
epistemic coherentism and institutional coherentism as well, along with all our other papers on scientific
method and the philosophy of science as well.
3. By the role in which ideas play in human-social interaction;
4. By the role that ideas play in the structure of an organization without currency outside the
organization; This means that ideas are highly limited by their very intrinsic nature, and therefore lack
universal applicability and validity.
5. As meaning, whose purpose is persuasion; Therefore, persuasion is primarily and excessively used as a
tool and as a mechanism to get things done, and
6. As the locus of social interaction. – A locus is a particular position or place where something occurs or
is situated
According to Willard A. Mullins of the Carleton university, an ideology is one of the most widely used
and applied terms today, with a great deal of ubiquity and relevance to many fields such as politics and
administration. According to him, an ideology is composed of four basic characteristics:
1. It must have power over cognition and cognitive abilities, and must seek to control or influence
individuals
2. It must be capable of guiding and altering one's evaluations and patterns of thinking
3. It must provide guidance towards action or goad people towards committing actions; and
4. It must be comprised of logically coherent beliefs that hold within an entity.
Terry Eagleton, who was a noted English philosopher, literary theorist, critic, and public intellectual,
provides some further definitions of ideology as follows: - some of them are highly abstract, but we
nonetheless repeat them here;
1. A body of ideas characteristic of a particular social group or class; - lacks universal applicability
2. Ideas which help to legitimate a dominant political power; - promotion of vested interests
3. False ideas which help to legitimate a dominant political power;
4. Systematically distorted communication;
5. That which offers a position for a subject;
6. Forms of thought motivated by social interests;
7. Identity thinking;
4
8. Socially necessary illusion;
9. The conjuncture of discourse and power;
10. The medium in which conscious social actors make sense of their world;
11. Action-oriented sets of beliefs;
12. The confusion of linguistic and phenomenal reality; - pertains to linguistic meaning and limitations of
language
13. Semiotic closure; - related to signs and symbols
14. The indispensable medium in which individuals live out their relations to a social structure;
15. The process whereby social life is converted to a natural reality.
As abstract as these may sound, readers may bear them and keep them in mind, because they will lend
credence to some other the other concepts espoused in this paper, and provide meat and substance to
them as well in the due course of events. Jost, Ledgerwood, and Hardin (Jost, Ledgerwood, and Hardin
2008) argue that ideologies primarily spread due to an innate desire to interpret the world and make
sense of it besides and inherent desire to forge and sustain relationships. This may even cause
ideologies to spread and transmit in a standard, prepackaged form even drowning out all other voices in
the long term. Bob Hodge and Michael Freeden have adopted semiotic and semantic approaches to the
study of ideologies respectively, arguing that ideologies must be equated with, and understood against
the rich tapestry of human life, and it symbolic meaning.
Types of ideologies
There are indeed many different types of ideologies; however, these may be categorized into a couple
of primary types. Ideologies must be identified and isolated given the fact that they give rise to other
cultural artifacts such as propaganda films, and sway and mold society as well in unsavoury or non-ideal
directions. Let us now examine and list out the different types of ideologies in brief below, so that this
categorization serves as a heuristic guide for other researchers:
Political ideologies
A political ideology, for the most part, refers to a set of ideas, thought patterns. values, beliefs, and
opinions that can be further used to explain, challenge, justify, contest, alter, or modify the social and
political characteristics of a given community. Political ideologies may deal with different aspects of
society, and these may commonly include aspects or facets pertaining to economy, government,
education, besides several others. Some common examples of political ideologies interfacing with
economic ones include communism, capitalism, liberalism, conservatism, progressivism, libertarianism,
socialism, and Marxism. Anarchism, totalitarianism, fascism, autocracy or dictatorship are also other
commonly cited political ideologies. Political ideologies may seek to maintain or perpetuate political
hegemony or power, often by brutally suppressing dissent. Feminism and other forms of identity politics
5
are also often construed as belonging to this category, as are ideologies with nationalistic or territorial
strands, and those that seek to maintain or enhance status quo. All these may not be necessary or
wholesome; for example the noted and noteworthy English writer Samuel Johnson in 1775, even went
on to the extent of stating, "Patriotism is the last refuge of the scoundrel", in reference to the use of the
term "patriotism" by William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. As American philosopher Sally Haslanger states,
"The function of ideology is to stabilize and perpetuate dominance through masking or illusion." This,
more often than not, may refer to political dominance in this context. In many fields of the political
sciences, a political ideology may also be used to refer to a certain set of core ethical principles, ideals,
doctrines, myths or dogmas of a social awakening or movement, institution, social class or group that
prescribes how society should work and offers suggestions for amelioration and improvement as well.
Nationalism for example, may include a belief in distinct nations, territorial expansion, emphasis on
national identity over other forms of identity, promotion of national culture, or a subset of national
cultures, cultural hegemony and cultural imposition, attempts to defend or promote compatriots
unduly, hero worship and commemoration of national heroes, revival of past national traditions, civic
nationalism, ultranationalism with fascism and xenophobia, authoritarianism, monarchism, despotism,
tyranny, irredentism or territorial reclamation, attempts or efforts towards the establishment of
monolithic non-diverse cultures, etc. 9
Social ideologies
Social ideologies commonly refer to ideologies or belief systems that help certain classes or groups of
people understand and interpret the world, in relation or reference to their social class. Social ideologies
may also impact administration and political governance, dictate or determine how societies are
organized, and how power is distributed. Some common examples of social ideologies include
conservatism, which is a social, cultural, and political philosophy that seeks to preserve traditional
values, mores, norms, beliefs, customs, and institutions, anarchism, a political ideology that promotes
the abolition or severe curtailment and restriction of the state, which is viewed as being superfluous,
unnecessary, redundant or even wholly harmful or undesirable. Hindutva and Dalit nationalism are also
ideologies in a sense of the term, and so is environmentalism, a political and non-political movement
that seeks to protect the environment from human encroachment and interference, and improve the
quality of the biotic and abiotic environment as well, in due course. 10
Cultural ideologies
Cultural ideologies refer to ideologies that cherish and promote the values, norms, and standards
associated with a culture or a group of people forming a part of, or associated with a culture. Cultural
ideologies may or may not have a positive connotation or implication. They may or may not seek to
encroach or trample upon other related or non-related cultures that occupy the same geographical
space. We can cite several examples of cultural ideologies, the more prominent among them being
multiculturalism which refers to the idea that different cultural groups should coexist in society, and
9
Munck, Gerardo L., and Richard Snyder (eds.). Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007
10
Almond, Gabriel A. 1996. "Political Science: The History of the Discipline", pp. 50–96, in Robert E. Goodin and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (eds.), The
New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press
6
minority rights respected. Contrarily, we may also have cultural hegemony, which promotes or
advocates a particular culture, mostly at the expense of others. Other cultural ideologies may impinge
upon how multicultural teams must engage and collaborate with one another; this does not of course,
purport to be a complete or a comprehensive list; there could indeed be many, many more. 11 12 13
Economic ideologies
An economic ideology refers to a prescriptive approach, doctrine, or a set of views that describe how
various economic affairs should be conducted. The difference between an economic ideology and
an economic theory is that it is highly normative, prescriptive, and recommendatory in its
approach, while on the other hand, the overall objective of economic theory is to create stochastic
models to describe how economies function or operate. Economic ideologies often take a specific
standpoint that is arrived at in an adhoc fashion, much more so than even economic philosophies,
without deliberation or due consideration or without the application of method, or sufficient analysis of
data. They may or may not be based on moral positions and moral values. This differentiates them from
carefully thought out economic policies or methods. To put or to word it differently, economic ideology
influences economic policy, though not necessarily always positively. We have not yet reached an era or
a phase where economic policy has broken away from the shackles of ideology entirely, and has become
ideology-free. We may be able to neutralize the effect somewhat perhaps and probably, though not
entirely. Economic ideologies include socialism, communism, Marxism, capitalism, economic profligacy,
economic or fiscal conservatism, liberalism, neoliberalism, and fiscal prudence. We had discussed all
these previously.
Religious ideologies
Religious ideologies are ideologies that are partially or entirely based on, or influenced by religious
beliefs and practices of different types, hues and colours. In sum, and to put it in brief, religious
ideologies provide a comprehensive framework for understanding and making sense about the world,
and even speculating about different matters such as the very purpose of human existence. Different
religions have their own respective ideologies that seek to serve their followers and proponents, and
guide the religious beliefs, values, and norms of their respective followers. They often provide the
foundations for ethics, morals, and principles as well. Religious ideologies may also additionally provide
frameworks for understanding social systems, predict human behavior, and guide human actions to
boot. Religious ideologies are shaped by the social, historical, and political contexts that create them,
and no two religious ideologies may be exactly the same.
Linguistic ideologies
11
Adcock, Robert, Mark Bevir, and Shannon Stimson (eds.). 2007. Modern Political Science: Anglo-American Exchanges Since 1870. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press
12
13
Barzilai, Gad (2007). Law and Religion; The International Library of Essays in Law and Society; Ashgate
Marx, Karl (1844). "Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right", Deutsch-Französische
Jahrbücher
7
A language ideology is also known as linguistic ideology and is, a distinct subfield
within anthropology (linguistic anthropology, that its), sociolinguistics, social or cultural linguistics,
and cross-cultural studies. This kind of an ideology refers to any set of beliefs about languages as they
are used in their own social and cultural (i.e. linguistic) worlds. Language ideologies also canonically
refer to conceptualizations about languages, speakers, and discursive practices. They may also refer to
how speakers of a particular language – even a dialect, including an acrolect, basilect, or a mesolect –
see themselves in relation to their social and cultural worlds, and perceive speakers of other languages
along with their cultural and social worlds. Language or linguistic ideologies also therefore, naturally
determine or dictate perceptions of speakers of a language regarding other languages, and shape
relations with them. They may also throw further light on the speakers social and cultural world, and
shed light on origins of languages as well. We have also defined and spoken about different concepts
such as linguicultures and ethnolangue. Please refer our earlier papers for more information where they
are presented with clarity and precision.
Scientific ideologies
The term scientific ideology refers to an idea where a non-precise or a non-logical ideology shapes
scientific thought, and moulds and directs scientific activity, leading to an altered quantum or quality of
scientific output. the concept of scientific ideology was first developed by Georges Canguilhem, a French
philosopher historian, and then extended by several others . Scientific ideology may include making
loose and careless statements, typically what has not yet been proven, and what cannot be proven by
scientific research, resorting to conspiracy theories, arguing that the history of science contains large
and gross errors of commission and judgment, and non-scientific theories – as done by Hindutva
proponents. Scientific ideology can create epistemological obstacles or hurdles and can stymie further
progress, create new pseudoscientific disciplines, produce error ridden science, etc. Of course, there
could be many more unanticipated and unsavoury after effects of scientific ideologies such as
introducing non-scientific agendas and debates into the mix. Other types of ideologies also include
epistemological ideologies and ethical ideologies. Epistemological ideologies overlap with scientific
method while ethical ideologies deal with moral and ethical values. James J. Gibson and George Lakoff
have written briefly about such ideologies.
Other classificatory mechanisms
We also discuss below, some other classificatory mechanisms of ideologies as most people see them.
This approach would impart more meaning into the overall ideals of this paper as well, and lead to a
scenario where ideologies are more easily detected:
Open ideologies
Open ideologies may make no bones about their agenda. They may use or take recourse to dubious,
devious, nefarious means. Their intention, mechanism and modus operandi can easily be found out or
determined by the common man or by the lay person. In a majority of cases, the ideology itself may be
disclosed or laid bare upfront. Examples of such ideologies include Marxism which was founded by its
prophetic leader Karl Marx, (author of works such as “Das Kapital” and the “Communist manifesto”, and
8
the closely related twin ideology of communism both of which state their intentions clearly and
expressly upfront.
Subtle ideologies
Subtle ideologies are usually so delicate or precise as to be difficult to analyze or describe in vivid detail.
They may even be delicately complex and understated, and may not be detected or detectable easily.
They may often be nuanced or characterized by subtle shades of meaning or expression in a manner
that makes them multilayered with one shade of meaning or expression superimposed upon another.
They may often be intricate, or very complicated or detailed. The opposite of subtle in common parlance
is coarse or gross. Examples of subtle propaganda include Hindutva approaches to misrepresent history,
propaganda films such as the Kerala story, the Sabarmati report, the Kashmir files, Accident or
Conspiracy: Godhra, Gandhi versus Godse, etc. For example, we once had the Hindu Rate of growth
theory to describe growth in the pre-liberalization period of 1991. It was coined by Indian economist Raj
Krishna in 1978, and indirectly appeared to imply that Hinduism or even the caste system were
responsible for lower economic growth. However, since 1991, economic growth has catapulted to much
higher levels easily falsifying such claims. The term BIMARU states is another disparaging term used to
connote and denote Hindi speaking states which have lagged behind in economic growth. The term as
an acronym or a handy catch phase, was coined by the demographer Ashish Bose in the 1980s, and was
formed from the first letters of names of states falling under such a bracket, namely Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. BIMARU in Hindi, denotes "sick" and this obviously refers to the
poor economic performance of such states. We would like the term “BIMARU” states be removed, and
replaced by the term “Catch up states”, instead. 14 15
Covert ideologies
Covert ideologies refer to clandestine and surreptitious ideologies, and those which operate or function
under a shroud or cloak of utter secrecy. The Ku Klux Klan sometimes abbreviated to the KKK or
the Klan, is the name of an American Christian fundamentalist, extremist, white supremacist, farright hate-mongering group that has typically mostly targeted blacks and some other minorities such as
Jews through violent acts such as murder. The movement emerged in the 1860’s in its first incarnation,
then again in the 1920’s. It has now more or less faded into obscurity. Subtle and covert ideologies are
naturally much more notoriously difficult to detect than open ones, and we need a comprehensive and
well-rounded set of tools and techniques to identify, detect, and eliminate ideologies as far as possible.
The concept is also related to cults. We have discussed cults previously. Examples of cults include the
Sokagakai cult of Japan and the Rajneesh cult of India and the USA. A more recent iteration emerged
under the general umbrella of the MAGA or the Make America great again movement when a section of
it opposed immigration entirely, and even criticized the H1B program drawing ire from both Elon Musk
and Vivek Ramaswamy who benefited from this programme immensely. The latter is however, by no
means a covert ideology, it is a semi-open one.
14
Heehs, P (2002). Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience. New York: New York University Press
15
Makkar, SPS (1993). Law, Social Change and Communal Harmony. ABS Publications
9
List of ideologies
We will attempt to provide a short and a non-comprehensive list of ideologies of a few distinct and
major types. There are many different ideologies of many different types, hues, colours, and origins,
which may even extend the boundaries of the term “ideology” somewhat, and it is utterly impossible
and impractical to provide or furnish a complete list here. Readers are strongly urged and encouraged to
refer the internet for more information as it suits their respective interests, whims or fantasies, as much
of it would constitute readily available information.
Racism
Loosely defined and worded, racism refers to any form of discrimination and prejudice against people
based on their race or ethnicity, either direct or indirect. Racism may be present inherently, and form a
part and parcel of different kinds of social actions, social and cultural practices, or political systems (for
e.g. apartheid) that support the expression of prejudice or contempt towards a group of people. Racism
first arose with the age of discovery and colonialism, Racism first arose with voyages by Christopher
Columbus, Magellan, and Vasco da Gama some five hundred years ago, but has been amplified ever
since. Racism is similar to ethnic discrimination – ethnic discrimination arises from the belief that one
ethnic group is superior to another. Racism has led to apartheid, white supremacy, nativism,
xenophobia, the promulgation of Jim Crow Laws, segregated south in the USA, and even the caste
system in India indirectly. 16 17
Colonialism
Colonialism is said to occur when a foreign power controls and exploits another group of people, their
land, and resources and their fortunes, usually for an inordinately long period of time without sanction
or permission and approval from the other party in question. It can include political, social, economic,
and cultural domination and suppression. Historically speaking, major colonial powers were the UK,
France, Netherlands, and Portugal. Colonialism had effectively ended by the middle of the twentieth
century as most formerly colonized nations began to win their political independence. Many fields of the
sciences, of course, have not shed their colonial baggage entirely as yet, particularly those in the social
sciences. 18
Eurocentrism
Eurocentrism refers to the belief that Europe is the epicentre of the world, whether politically, culturally
or otherwise, and that European culture and values are the most important and prominent in the
world. It is also represented by the general idea that Europe is the driving force behind world history,
and that European values alone represent progress and development. It may also be used to justify
colonialism, and exploitation of other peoples around the world. Eurocentrism may also be linked to
16
Metraux, A. (1950). "United nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race". American
Anthropologist. 53 (1): 142–145
17
Gossett, Thomas F. Race: The History of an Idea in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
18
Alessio, Dominic; Renfro, Wesley (2022-08-01). "Building empires litorally in the South China Sea: artificial islands and contesting definitions of
imperialism". International Politics. 59 (4): 687–706.
10
scientific racism (or biological racism) which arise from the writings of Charles Darwin and others. This
approach categorizes humans into distinct taxa, and is used as a further basis for cultural hegemony and
exploitation. For example, we have had colonial Indology which we had previously securitized at a fairly
granular level of dept. we had studied the possible motives of British Indologists with major and notable
exceptions. Some of them may have even been handmaidens of colonialists in spite of the fact that most
of them maintained some degree of intellectual and scholarly independence. German Indologists may
have had different motives as pointed out by Douglas T. Mc Getchin, and others. Some German
Indologists may have also wanted to maintain an inherent and a structured, permanent differentiation
between “Aryans” and the “natives” in order to boost their own ideologies, and lend weight to their
perceptions. 19 20
Radical right wing capitalism
Radical capitalism is a political and an economic position which advocated that the government should
not be involved in running of the economy to any degree. This doctrine - which may sometimes even
border on dogma, is generally espoused by the far right which advocates privatisation, liberalization,
deregulation, lower taxes for business and the rich in order to boost growth and create more job
opportunities, more incentives and benefits for employers, business owners and capitalists, less power
for workers, hire and fire policies or employment at will, etc. Such policies also invariably and inevitably
call for smaller and restricted governments, and are based on the general belief of trickledown
economics. For example, in 2025, Donald Trump, the new president elect of the United States, plans to
introduce a DOGE or the department of government efficiency to slash government spending. A similar
program is being tried out in Argentina where President Javier Milei's government achieved Argentina's
first fiscal surplus in over one hundred years by cutting government spending severely. Conservative
American capitalists, fiscal conservatives and libertarians favor capitalism, individualism, limited
government, free markets, deregulation, low taxes, lower dept and laissez-faire economics. Some even
believe that state intervention in the economy is undesirable or even dangerous. Such policies were also
advocated by Herbert Hoover during the Great Depression. Anarchists also call for a total absence of
government control in all affairs of a state. This contrasts markedly with left-leaning advocates who
argue for greater government spending and higher taxes. 21 22
Marxism and communism
Marxism is a prominent and a dominant economic, political, and social philosophy that analyzes and
dissects various aspects of social life including, but not limited to social conflict, class relations, and
social transformation. It's named after Karl Marx, a nineteenth century German philosopher and
economist who played a major role in shaping events and the direction of economic thought during the
course of the twentieth century. Some of the principles of Marxism include historical materialism, class
struggle between the toiling masses, the elitist bourgeoisie and the proletariat, common or communal
19
Pagden, Anthony (2003). Peoples and Empires. New York: Modern Library. p. 45
20
Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (1974)
21
Wolf, Harald (2004). "Capitalism". In Ritzer, George (ed.). Encyclopedia of Social Theory. Sage Publications. pp. 76–80
22
Ricardo, David. Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. 1821. John Murray Publisher, 3rd edition.
11
ownership of goods and services, revolution by the proletariat, dialectical materialism, the theory of
surplus value, dictatorship of the proletariat, etc. 23 24
Indocentrism
Indocentrism refers to the general belief that India is the centre of the world, particularly the Gangetic
plains. India is seen as the cradle of civilization, and not Mesopotamia as popularly imagined, this far.
This approach is derived and fuelled largely by mythological and quasi-mythological narratives, some of
which may even border on pseudoscience. Books driving and seeking to popularize and further this
general idea and belief include “In Search of the Cradle of Civilization” by David Frawley, Georg
Feuerstein, and Subhash Kak. Accusations have poured in by Michael Witzel and others of Indocentrism
as he sought to expose NS Rajaram of an attempted pseudo decipherment of the Indus script, and as he
sought to modulate edits and revisions in the California textbooks controversy in 2006. Likewise,
Sinocentrism refers to a China-centric view of world affairs. 25
Afrocentrism
The term "Afrocentrism" dates way back to the year 1962. The term was probably first Coined by W. E.
B. Du Bois, though this is contested. We have Clyde Winters and others who popularized and promoted
this approach. This itself is a form of pseudo science because in our view, anti-racism is racism, just as
Marxist bias as and when it crosses a certain threshold becomes its own form of communalism. We
need balance and harmony always. 26
Hindutva
Hindutva is a political ideology that also provides a basis for Hindu nationalism and the desire to
establish Hindu hegemony within India. It is often associated with Hinduness, and the state or the
quality of being a Hindu with an interplay between cultural, religious, and national identities. This
ideology traces its roots to the ideals of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1922 in reaction to the pan-Islamic
Khilafat movement, and due to fears that Hindu culture and Hindu values were being trampled upon by
colonialists. It was however used much earlier, in the 1890’s by Chandranath Basu, and others. It has
also been used extensively for political and non-political purposes by the Rashtriya Swayamsevak
Sangh (RSS), the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and other similar or
affiliated organizations, which are collectively referred to as the Sangh Parivar. The RSS had been
founded by Keshav Baliram Hedgewar in 1925 who also operationalized most of its activities at a
grassroots level. For Savarkar, in his work “Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu?”, Hindutva is an inclusive term of
everything Indic. The three essentials of Hindutva in Savarkar's definition were the common nation
(rashtra), common race (jati), and common culture or civilization (sanskriti). Savarkar had also made a
23
Malott, Curry; Ford, Derek (2015). Marx, capital, and education: towards a critical pedagogy of becoming. Peter Lang
24
Hartley, John (2003). "Culture from Arnold to Schwarzenegger: Imperial Literacy to Pop Culture (destination democracy?)". A Short History of
Cultural Studies. London, Sage publications
25
South Asian agricultural vocabulary. In: T. Osada (ed.). Proceedings of the Pre-Symposium of RHIN and 7th ESCA Harvard-Kyoto Round Table.
Published by the Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RHIN), Kyoto, Japan 2006: 96-120
26 African Empires in Ancient America, Book by Clyde A. Winters
12
clear distinction between Hinduism and Hindutva, that they are not same things as Hindutva does not
concern religion or rituals but the basis of India's national character. Savarkar himself was not overly
religious, and his ideas bordered on atheism.
Hindutva proponents also seek to uphold Hindu values, and Hindu dharma. Some Hindutva proponents
even go to the extent of claiming that only adherents of Indian religions are true nationals, and
Christians and Muslims can be called Indians only if they accept Indian culture in toto. There are varying
levels of intensity within Hindutva, though it is indeed true that extreme versions border on fascism.
Many Hindutva proponents have however mellowed down, and many have even begun to adopt a much
softer stance towards Muslims and other minorities. Critics of the Hindutva ideology however allege
that the movement bears some resemblance to European fascist movements that were common in the
early part of the twentieth century. It is therefore a form of right-wing ethno nationalism, in tune with
similar movements in other parts of the world, they allege. Some critics also allege that the term Hindu
as it describes a religion is a relatively more recently constructed term in reference to a geography, and
is partially foreign in origin. It is also a nebulous and a hazy concept, and is difficult to define with any
degree of precision. 27
According to Arvind Sharma, a noted scholar of Hinduism, Hindutva has not been a "static and
monolithic concept", rather its meaning and context has gradually changed over time. Its early
formulation incorporated the racism and nationalism concepts prevalent in Europe during the first half
of the twentieth century, and culture was in part designed on the basis of the concept of "shared blood
and race". Savarkar and his Hindutva colleagues also eventually adopted the social Darwinism theories
that were common in the 1930s. After India’s independence, according to Arvind Sharma, the concept
has begun to suffer from a high degree of ambiguity and its understanding has been aligned on "two
different axes" – one of religion versus culture, another of nation versus state. In general, the Hindutva
thought among many Indians has "tried to align itself with the culture and nation" axes. Therefore, there
are extreme variations in the concept of the term today, right from the innocuous to the radical, and
even Hindutva proponents are sometimes not clear of the boundaries and the precise connotations and
implications of the term. Some Hindutva proponents are harmful and fascist. Some others are mere
mischief makers. Some are of course, utterly innocuous, and may only be swimming with the tide.
Dravidian nationalism
Dravidian nationalism, also known as Dravidianism, originated in Tamil speaking regions of South India.
Early versions emerged during the 1930s to 1950s as proponents of this ideology claimed that
“Dravidians” formed as distinct group of people as opposed to “Aryans” who were North Indians, and
that there were significant cultural, linguistic, genetic, and religious differences between the two groups.
Some Dravidian ideology proponents also believe in the old and now completely defunct Aryan Invasion
theory, though this may now no longer be the case. This ideology is sometimes associated with antiBrahminism and Tamil domination, and did not become widely popular with upper caste Hindus and
other subethnicities in South India, particularly the Kannadigas, Telugus, and Keralites. This distinction is
27
Noorani, A.G. (2006). "The Supreme Court on Hindutva1". The Supreme Court on Hindutva. Oxford University Press. pp. 76–83
13
however obsolete now. Some Dravidian nationalists such as E. V. Ramasami Periyar also called for a
separate Dravidian political homeland, though demands for it have whittled down completely. Dravidian
ideology is also based somewhat on obsolete historical models. Some Dravidian nationalists also believe
in Lemuria and Kumarikandam, both of which are seen as pseudo-scientific. Dravidian nationalists may
also subscribe to the Dravidian Indus hypothesis, and believe that Tamil is the world's oldest language.
However, pseudo-scientific doctrines may create a false sense of superiority, and induce a series of
chain reactions, as we have seen previously. 28 29
Marxist historiography
Marxist historiography (now generally seen to be in gradual decline) is a method and a technique of
studying and interpreting history through the lens and prism of Marxist theory and Marxist
ideology. Karl Marx, an eminent nineteenth century German philosopher, economist, is considered to be
the father of Marxist historiography. Marxist historiography focuses extensively, if not almost
exclusively, on the interrelationship between historical events, historical developments, and political
structures on one hand, and social classes and class struggles on the other, primarily between the elitist
bourgeoisie and the proliteriat. It also seeks to derive generalized and universal laws in this respect, and
make predictions for the future in some instances. Marxist historiography also greatly emphasizes and
stresses upon economic and political factors in the determination of historical outcomes. Therefore,
according to Marx, the oppressed proletariat is eventually bound to revolt and build a new society and
economy. Some important Marxist historians include Zigmas Angarietis, Rodney Hilton, Omar Acha,
Yoshihiko Amino, and D.D. Kosambi, a foremost Marxist historian, particularly on early Indian history.
Later eminent Indian historians who followed the Marxist method included the likes of Romila Thapar,
DN Jha, RS Sharma, and KN Panikkar, besides a couple more. We had discussed the weaknesses of
Marxist historiography in five separate papers. We had also proposed the twenty-first century school of
historiography in five different papers, including core twenty-first century historiography, the core
principles of twenty-first century historiography, anthropological twenty-first century historiography,
qualified historiography, and Investigative historiography. 30 31
Dalit nationalism
Dalit nationalism is a movement that seeks to question and counter the religious, political, economic,
social and cultural dominance of the upper castes in India, and what they perceive to be the hegemony
and strangulation by the Brahmins. Dalit nationalism includes a variety of actions and ideas, such as
resistence to upper class icons, seeking out alternative religious and sociopolitical traditions, reforming
the social order, promoting conversions out of Hinduism to Buddhism, Islam and Christianity, and even
promoting the English language in some cases. Gandhi famously fought for the rights of the Harijans
2828
Sharma, Arvind (2002). "On Hindu, Hindustan, Hinduism and Hindutva". Numen. 49 (1): 20–24, 26–29. Ronojoy Sen (2007). Legalizing Religion:
The Indian Supreme Court and Secularism. East-West Center, Washington. pp. 29–31.
29
Thapar, Romila (1996). "The Theory of Aryan Race and India: History and Politics". Social Scientist. 24 (1/3): 3–29
30
Palanithurai, G. (1989), Changing Contours of Ethnic Movement: A Case Study of the Dravidian Movement, Annamalai University Dept. of Political
Science Monograph series, No. 2, Annamalainagar: Annamalai University
31
Moorti, S. (2004), "Fashioning a Cosmopolitan Tamil Identity: Game Shows, Commodities and Cultural Identity", Media, Culture &
Society, 26 (4): 549–567
14
later on in his career. Ambedkar famously joined Buddhism in 1956 in Nagpur, and this led others to do
so. In Bankra in North India, Angrezi Devi is a new Goddess of the English language, a new deity and
symbol of power, hope, and emancipation for Dalits, formerly known as Untouchables and forming or
constituting the lowest rank in India's Hindu caste system. There have been noteworthy Dalit groups
such as the Dalit panthers, a social organisation that seeks to combat caste discrimination. It was
founded and led by eminent Mahar writers and poets, including Namdeo Dhasal, Raja Dhale, and J. V.
Pawar. It was particularly active In the 1970’s and the 1980’s, after which it entered a general phase of
slow decline. Aravindan Neelakandan and Rajiv Malhotra accuse Dailt groups in fostering the breakup of
India in the book “Breaking India” published in 2011. 32
Tools, techniques and methodologies to identify and isolate ideologies need to be developed. However,
a robust scientific methodology can help, along with dialectical approaches, emic approaches, etic
approaches, etmic approaches, and fact checking. Please read all our previous papers on social sciences,
and scientific method in particular for further clarity. We will also provide in brief, the characteristics of
ideology below. These can be used to discern and identify ideologies as well, as and when they occur or
arise. This list is fairly comprehensive; however, it does not purport to be a complete list. Readers and
other scholars may add their own observations to the below list. 33 34
How to identify ideologies
Absence of practicalism, pragmatism and dynamism
The English term “practical” is widely used in daily life, and has many practical connotations. The term
“practical” means the state of being concerned with the actual performance or execution of a thought
or idea to the benefit of certain groups of people or society in general, rather than being limited to
abstract or nonfigurative theories and ideas. In cases where practicality is thoroughly and rigorously
pursued, theories and ideas are seamlessly and flawlessly linked to practical real-world application. A
practical idea is entirely feasible, and is like to succeed or be effective in real-world circumstances. The
term “practicalism” which we propose to define and use here, means a dedication and devotion to
practical matters. However, we propose to use it in a slightly different connotation here. Another closely
related, though somewhat less commonly used term, is the term practicality which means a concern for
what is practical, or what works in the real-world. All these words taken together, are also related to the
school of pragmatism in the philosophy of science; this school of thought is somewhat similar to our
own, but possesses and carries with it is own set of fundamental weaknesses. Therefore, the following
and the important, critical and imperative characteristics of the term “practical”, though there may
indeed be several others:
32
Hankins, Joseph D (2014). Working Skin: Making Leather, Making a Multicultural Japan. University of California Press. p. 113
33
Elucidating the Certainty uncertainty principle for the Social Sciences: Guidelines for hypothesis formulation in the Social Sciences for
enhanced objectivity and intellectual multi-polarity Sujay Rao Mandavilli IJISRT, March 2023
34 Unveiling the Sociological Ninety-ten rules for Social Sciences research: Towards better hypothesis formulation in the Social Sciences in the
interests of higher quality research and intellectual multi-polarity Sujay Rao Mandavilli Published in IJISRT, February 2023
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1. Alignment with real-world problems rather than indulging or dabbling in arcane, senseless or
meaningless pursuits; 2. Prioritization and time allocation according to the nature and importance of
real-world problems, in such a way that more pressing and urgent problems concerning a society or
culture, are given higher priority, and less crucial concerns are given less priority; 3. Practical and
workable solutions to real world problems are conceptualized and adopted, rather that solutions that
are not really feasible or workable in the short-term and long-term; 4. Alignment with cultural needs is
extremely important. At the same time, alignment with crosscultural needs and cross-cultural dialogue
and collaboration is also equally important, since there are diverse cultures with diverse needs; 5.
Eschewing abstract and non-productive ideas, or relegating them to the background, and taking them up
only when time or resources permit; 6. Eschewing intellectual nerdism or intellectual nerdiness and
aloofness, and a general lack of purposefulness; 7. An outside in approach is carried out at all times, or
as far as practically possible, as opposed to an inside out approach, so that real-world problems and
real-world problems alone are a springboard for further action; 8. Measuring real-world applicability or
connectedness and utility of proposed and executed solutions as far as possible, through meaningful,
workable, and efficient metrics; 9. An overall desire to do service to society must be at the heart of
scientific activity, and constitute its fundamental driving force; social responsibility of scientists is
prioritized over academic freedom. While there can be some careerism, it must as far as possible, be
subservient to the doctrine and principle of service to society. 10. Consequently, there must also as far
as possible, very little to no hanky-panky and mischief in peer-reviews and evaluation of third party
ideas. Better science may also result if all the concepts proposed by us all along, are scrupulously
adhered to, and all parties are committed to the welfare and well-being of society, and to high-quality
science. We therefore, also mesh this concept with “welfarism” and “contextualism”, the meanings of
which should be quite self-explanatory.35 36
Absence of vitality and dynamism
Vitality refers to, or represents the quality of being characterized by vigorous activity and progress. It is
also Vitality is also the state of being strong and active, and full of energy. Vitality also means physical or
mental vigour, energy, etc, and the power or ability to continue in existence, live, thrive, flourish, or
grow despite adverse or less than ideal circumstances. Dynamism which is associated with vigour,
motion, and change, is another commonly called for skill that involves being able to adapt and adjust to
different situations, as well as effectively communicate and engage with others meaningfully and
progressively. The word is said or thought to have origination with its connection with the term
“motion” in physics, and in the physical sciences. A dynamic person is seen as charismatic, confident,
and able to handle a wide range of adverse or difficult situations. Ideologies typically lack vitality and
dynamism usually because they are rigid, normative, and non-changing.
Presence of vested interests – promotion of self-interest
Embedding “practicalism” as an intrinsic constituent of the philosophy of science: Positioning “practicalism” as an essential prerequisite for
rapid scientific progress Sujay Rao Mandavilli IJISRT, June 2024
36 Abstraction, conceptualization, disambiguation, ideation, innovation, objectivization, quantification, and theorization in the social sciences:
New pillars for contemporary social sciences research Sujay Rao Mandavilli IJISRT, July 2024
35
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The term "vested interest" has been first reliably attested to in the period 1810–20, and the word
"vested" originally meant "secured" or "established". The connotation of the term has changed
somewhat ever since, and the breadth and diversity of the use of the term has also greatly enlarged.
Most, if not all individuals often have their own vested interests or agenda to push, some of it natural
and even desirable, while much of it is unwholesome and undesirable. This is because almost everyone
has their own selfish self-interests at various times, and either explicitly or clandestinely pursues those
interests in many different ways, often in collusion with other like-minded individuals, or those in
positions of authority. They may also seek to bend the law or legislation to suit their own convenience or
selfish motives and considerations. Some amount of self-interest is wholly permissible, and even
necessary in the interests of scientific, social or cultural progress. It is also the springboard to innovative
and creative thought. It is also an innate and an intrinsic part of an open, democratic society. For
example, homeowners may seek to secure or bolster the resale value of a property, and consumers may
seek to protect product quality and diversity of use of their products, as well as its serviceability and
reparability.
In many cases however, (these are not extremely uncommon) the term "vested interests" may acquire
highly negative overtones pertaining to nefarious, unfair or even antisocial behaviour – In other words,
an individual’s pursuit, of vested interests compromises the needs and expectations of other individuals
to pursue a healthy and a robust lifestyle, and interferes with social and cultural goals as well. Simply
defined and simply put, a vested interest is a individual, natural person, group, association, or firm that
has a special concern or stake in maintaining or influencing a particular action, arrangement, or
maintaining a status quo or a condition. It also is associated and equated with unfairly exploiting insider
positions, and using their power to influence, persuade and manipulate other individuals in devious
ways. Vested interests may typically be either lawful, valid, and logical or rational, (sometimes even
otherwise) but they have the potential to create conflicts of interest, or be created by them. Vested
interests may also arise naturally from an individual's own personal stake in a project or an investment,
especially where there are financial implications. Examples of vested interests include lobbies,
syndicates, cartels and cabals. These also possess a natural ability to create mutual conflicts of interest.
The term is scantly or scarcely used in sociology or the social sciences in general. As a matter of fact, it
should be used much more widely or deeply, in various fields in the social sciences, and an assessment
thereof be categorically performed.
As a matter of fact, theorization and hypothesis building around the term vested interest, and even
conflict of interest for that matter, is yet woefully inadequate; this is why we expect this paper and
several other papers by other scholars and researchers to contribute. Vested interests, when studied
analytically and analyzed critically tell us a world about how individuals and groups operate. They can
also potentially reveal a wealth of information about the human psyche in general. Vested interests are
not only present in the private and the personal sphere, they also run rampant in the governmental and
the public sphere; they are also deeply entrenched on all forms of public affairs and policy making,
including governmental programs and the structural arrangements than enshroud them. All individuals
and institutions generate them to varying degrees either to perpetuate pelf, or to maintain and defend
the status quo. A status quo may either encompass a widely prevalent one, or one that has been
17
acquitted over a protracted span or period in time. Individuals also, more often than not, get
accustomed to them, or even take them for granted. 37 38
Individuals may also then willy nilly, factor them into their own personal plans and agendas over a
period in time. Vested interests also run through as a common thread in health care, manufacturing,
agriculture, defense, transportation, foreign policy, international trade and exports in virtually even
nation on the earth and under the sun. Vested interests exist because certain individuals, people and
groups invariably and inevitably reap rich rewards and benefits (often in myriad different ways, and
personally or collectively) from transactional dealings and paradigms in addition to the services they
may provide to the general public in the process, or the investments and jobs they may facilitate.
Individuals may therefore wish to sway policy making in their own favour often by eliminating other
vested interests. In additional to getting the job done, additional dividends are often seen as a
transactional bonus, and not always as a purely unhealthy one. Therefore, the idea and the concept of
vested interest, along with conflicts of interest needs to be factored into institutional theory too,
foundationally and fundamentally, and through the use of case study methods and techniques, and
inductive and nomothetic approaches too. These are principles we will swear by, and abide by at all
times, and these shall by our shining light and beacon light at all times. 39 40
Promoting the interests of a small, restricted or a closed group
Another common and a notable characteristic of an ideology is that it promotes the interests, or
alternatively serves the requirements of only a small, restricted or a closed group of people, and
individuals. Alternatively, it may represent the values and the cherished goals and ideals of only of a
small, restricted or a closed group. Dravidian nationalism, and Hindutva ideologies fall under this
caregory, as do Hindi chauvinism and parochialism. An ideology (often a monistic one) may even,
eventually, and in due course become the official ideology is a state or a nation. This is known
commonly as an ideocracy. An ideocracy is a "governance of a state according to the principles of a
particular (political) ideology; a state or country governed in this way". Sidney and Beatrice Webb coined
the term ideocracy way back in 1936, and Nicholas Berdyaev, Crane Brinton, J. William Fulbright, and
others added more meat and substance to it in the following decade.
Dogma and rigidity of thought – intransigence of thought
Dogma, in its broadest and most commonly or most widely used sense, is any belief that is held
definitively and incontrovertibly to be true, and without the possibility of alteration, modification,
change in status quo, or reform. Dogma is associated with a doctrine known as dogmatism. Dogmas are
inherent in most principles or tenets of a religion, which forms a system of beliefs that is not fully tested,
or lacks complete epistemic coherence or validity. Examples of religions include religions such
as Judaism, Hinduism, Christian Catholicism, Buddhism, Protestantism, Jainism or Islam. Dogma also
37
H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976
38
Neusner, Jacob (1962). "6". A Life of Rabban Yohanan Ben Zakkai: Ca. I–80 C.E. E.J. Brill.
Towards a formal analysis of “vested interests” as an intrinsic part of social science research techniques: Another crucial component of social
and cultural progress Sujay Rao Mandavilli IJISRT, September 2024
39
40
Lasswell, Harold D. (1963) [1958]. Politics: who gets what, when how. : With postscript. World.
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usually resides to some degree in political systems such as fascism, liberalism, anarchism,
socialism, progressivism, Marxism, dictatorship, and conservatism as proponents of such belief systems
may not be willing to change with the times, or as new evidence presents itself in the normal course of
events. Dogmatists also shun an open discussion of their beliefs, and may not be willing to discuss them
rationally. 41
Excessively normative and prescriptive
A prescriptive or normative declaration is one that evaluates different classes of words, utterances,
decisions, or actions as being either correct or incorrect, (Compartmentalization and blanket
categorization are often pursued, though not necessarily and rigidly), and one that sets out guidelines
for what a person "should" do, or ought to do. Such statements also generally and typically provide
benchmarks for what is right and what is wrong (or what is good and what is bad, and alternatively and
in some cases, what is ideal and what is not ideal), though not based on comprehensive, or completely
thought through standards. On the other hand, a prescriptive statement is one which relates to
the imposition or enforcement of a particular rule or method. The benchmark or standard against which
a performance is adjudged is referred to as a norm. Such terms may take on specialized meanings in law,
medicine and in the social sciences. We also refer to the general meaning here, as understood from
common or everyday parlance.
Association with big personality and charisma
An ideology is often associated with big personality or charisma. A big personality is a personality that
that may possess characteristics that are noteworthy and praiseworthy and worth emulating. However,
in the case of an ideology, this may not be necessarily so. Big personalities in such cases may be wholly
or partly associated with negative traits that are not worth imbibing or assimilating. Such ideologies
may, in other words only be associated with charisma. Extreme versions of this are referred to as
narcissism which is an overblown and exaggerated self-depiction. Charisma in sum, is a personal quality
of magnetic charm or appeal that an individual possesses (or consciously inculcates) that seek to draw
others towards him or her.
Unnatural and unnecessary cult following
A cult may be defined as a religious group, whose members may sometimes even live or stay together,
and whose beliefs are considered unusual, extreme or strange by most mainstream individuals. Cults are
almost always seen in a pejorative or in a negative light, and this is is a part of the intrinsic definition of
the term. Individuals forming a part of a cult may often take recourse to weird or
obscure religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals. Extreme or a high level of devotion or
dedication to a particular individual – usually the cult leader, or another object, or goal through
brainwashing is another characteristic often ascribed to cults. For example we had the Rajneesh cult in
India named after the mystic Rajneesh or Osho. This was initially centered around Pune, but later
relocated to Oregon in the USA. More recently, cults have begun to become the object of intensive
41
Leftwich, Adrian (2004). What is politics? : the activity and its study. Polity
19
study and attention by mainstream sociologists and other social science experts, though this has yet to
pick up speed or momentum.
Brainwashing and mental persuasion
Brainwashing as it is understood both by the layperson, and by social science researchers refers to the
highly controversial belief or notion that the state or the functioning of the human mind can be altered
or controlled usually against that person's will through the use of manipulative psychological
techniques, subtle or gross, thereby compromising or negatively impacting that person’s ability to think
independently and coherently. The term "brainwashing" was first used by Edward Hunter in 1950 to
describe some actions employed by the Chinese government. Brainwashing techniques were also
variously employed in Nazi Germany, the USSR, and in other Soviet bloc countries. Persuasion is a milder
form of brainwashing, and refers to the action or process of persuading someone believe in something
or execute a certain specific act. Manipulation is another world that means to control or influence (a
person or situation) cleverly or unscrupulously. It is also often associated with mind control, mind
manipulation.
Making tall, unsubstantiated and grandiose claims
Making tall, unsubstantiated and grandiose claims is an intrinsic component of an ideology, or at least
most of them. In other words any given ideology may not fulfill all these characteristics; however it may
fulfill some or most of them. That is enough for a doctrine to be considered an ideology. In other words,
an ideology may tend to make claims that are not backed up by any form of evidence, or complete
evidence, at least. In the words of Hannah Arendt, "An ideology differs from a simple opinion in that it
claims to possess either the key to history, or the solution for all the 'riddles of the universe,' or the
intimate knowledge of the hidden universal laws, which are supposed to rule nature and man." This may
seem like an obvious exaggeration to most people, however, it does capture the sum and essence of
most ideologies.
Goading people towards an action or a goal
Actions may also goad people towards an action or a goal, often using devious, dubious, and seminefarious means such as trying to create mass appeal or a mob following, thereby influencing their
followers accordingly. Ideologies may also egg people on towards a goal, often using similar dubious,
devious and nefarious methods. To goad here means to provoke or stimulate people to achieving or
accomplishing something either worthwhile or non-worthwhile.
Dealing only with a limited set of issues
Another characteristic of an ideology is that it typically deals with a limited set of issues. Proponents of
an ideology may either falsely or naively believe they cover everything, while in reality they may not. We
may even need a separate term for this approach, or at least that is what we believe. An example of this
is Marxist historians, or at least an overwhelmingly vast majority of them. In the words of noted Indian
20
historian Ramachandra Guha, “Marxists may be silly, limited, one-sided, flawed, and appearing to lack
elementary commonsense, but allowing Hindutva groups to write history textbooks may even lead to
street fights.” He apparently and supposedly made this statement somewhere in north Karnataka in
2016. Therefore, an incompatibility with external principles and an absence of interdisciplinary research,
transdisciplinary research characterizes such approaches. Such approaches may also ot take into
account or consideration all forms and all branches of knowledge. Depleted intellectual abilities,
illogical, irrational approach, loss of personal respect and dignity, tendency to utter lies and falsehoods
in the name of their ideology may invariably and inevitably result from such approaches in the medium
to the long-term.
Works by cutting off flow of information
Ideologies also typically work by cutting off flow of information, and try to cut off contact with the
outside world using artificial methods. This approach was followed or at least attempted to be followed
in many former communist countries. However, such approaches eventually proved to be unfruitful and
futile. The media in such countries were dominated, if not monopolized by the government, and private
players in this space were non-existent. Freedom of speech was non-existent, as was exposure to
outside media. We must remember that this were the days before social media. This is why
terminologies such as the Iron curtain and the bamboo curtain came to be employed. We must bear in
mind that the same is the case in North Korea even today, and even the internet is highly censored with
only one or two channels allowed. This approach naturally cuts off its citizens from the rest of the
outside world, and allows its government to promote its propaganda.
Conflict with human nature
Human nature in general refers to the fundamental and most basic characteristics, behaviours and
dispositions that humans are naturally endowed with, including the ways they think, feel, and act. The
term is often used to describe the essence of humanity taken as a whole, or even what it means to be
human. Human nature does not necessarily equate with individual personalities, but encompasses
nonetheless, the range of personalities that humans can have. It's more like an umbrella that covers the
characteristics of human nature. Some things to consider about human nature might include the nature
versus nurture debate as it is widely and commonly accepted and understood, the universal debate
regarding the role played by genetics in the mix, how culture influences human behavior, etc. The
theory of the psychic unity of mankind as proposed and developed by Adolf Bastian and others,
is central to sociology and psychology. It refers to the idea that all humans share a similar mental
makeup with similar urges, drives, inclinations, proclivities, and cognitive and linguistic capacities. This
philosophy assumes that human capacities are innately and inherently biological and determine how
humans relate to each other and the world, regardless of culture. However, it does not, and indeed
should not discount or downplay the importance and role played by culture in determining cultural and
non-cultural outcomes, because different cultures have yielded or generated different levels of output.
For example, some countries have done very well culturally or technically, while some others have
stagnated. We believe that while Karl Marx struggled to understand economics, Marxism conflicts with
human nature because Karl Marx proved to be very poor in understanding the human psyche. That is
21
why Marxism may have failed catastrophically and disastrously. We had also written about mindorientation, cultural orientation, though worlds, and worldviews in our previous papers; please read
them for greater clarity and information.
Excessive weightage to opinion
An ideology may also be characterized by the excessive or undue importance that it attaches to opinion.
An opinion in this case, is a view or a judgement formed about something, not necessarily based entirely
on fact or substantiated knowledge. On the other hand, facts refer to empirically proven or empirically
provable facts, and those that are based on empirically verifiable principles as well, and contrast
markedly with opinions. Opinions have no value or validity in science, while facts, and general
statements of facts do. Opinions deal with subjective matters, while facts always deal with objective
matters. For example, the statement, “India achieved its political independence on 15 th August, 1947” is
a fact, while “India is better than Sweden”, isn’t. Opinions aren’t science because epistemology is
justified, true belief. However, constructive criticisms based on opinion can help better science.
Sometimes,f there is a razor thin difference between the two. We may also cite the case of the blind
men and the elephant here. In the words of John Godfrey Saxe, “And so these men of Indostan, disputed
loud and long, each in his own opinion, exceeding stiff and strong, Though each was partly in the right,
and all were in the wrong!”
Lack of epistemic coherentism
The coherence theory of justification, (which is also sometimes known as coherentism), states that a
belief or set of beliefs is justified, only in instances where such a belief coheres or elides perfectly with a
complete set of beliefs, thereby forming a complete and a coherent system of beliefs. Therefore, there
is a mutual support or agreement among propositions and beliefs. Every belief in a system therefore
tallies with, or may be derived from a larger and a more complete set of beliefs. The coherence theory
of justification must be distinguished from the coherence theory of truth which is a somewhat different
concept. The coherence theory of justification represents a theory which states how a belief or a set of
beliefs can be justified. The coherence theory of truth on the other hand, is a theory which defines and
which describes what it means for a belief or proposition to be true. A third concept is the coherence
theory of knowledge. The coherence theory of knowledge is a model of human knowledge according to
which knowledge results from a higher-order evaluation of information. Coherence theory of knowledge
always requires justification, evidence, coherence and information. (Ewing 1934)(Blanshard 1939) The
correspondence theory of truth is another concept and a principle that must also be borne in mind at all
times. According to the correspondence theory of truth the truth or falsity of a statement is determined
solely by how it relates to the world and corresponds with it. . Belief congruence states that we value
beliefs on the basis of how coherent they are with other beliefs and our own belies. This concept is
extremely important in psychology, but it may be used in several other fields as well.
Other variations have been proposed, most notably CI Lewis’s idea of congruence which investigates the
congruence between different elements in a proposition, and also evaluates it probabilistically.
Laurence Bon Jour and others (Bon Jour 1985) have argued for internal consistency, probabilistic
22
consistency, logical consistency, and inferential connections as well. H H Joachim also argues for truth
requiring not only logical consistency, but also complete coherentism. His book, “the nature of truth”
was published in the year 1906, and puts forth his views. Some other researchers such as Bertrand
Russell have objected to the theory of coherence, pointing out its pitfalls. Other approaches have been
proposed by Nicolas Rescher, Keith Lehrer and Paul Thagard. Rescher is known for his book, “A
Coherence Theory of Truth” which was published in the year 1973. Rescher is known to have developed
the concepts of truth candidates, system-theoretic views and truth criterion which have also proven to
be somewhat influential. According to Lehrer, an individual may be justified in accepting a proposition if
that proposition coheres with his cognitive system. This may also be defined as the “acceptance system”
of an individual. We cannot of course, concur with this approach. Paul Thagard’s theory is more
traditional and talks about explanatory relations between beliefs. According to him, truths may either fit
together (coherence) or resist fitting together (incoherence). This may lead to positive constraints or
negative constraints respectively. Other concepts have also been proposed from time to time in this
context. Conditional independence refers to the notion that testimonies are independent of one
another and do not influence each other to any degree. Coherence justification means that internal and
external coherence is necessary to justify a proposition or a truth set. Absence of it may render a
proposition largely invalid. We have written about epistemic coherentism in the paper, “Implementing
“Epistemic coherentism” in twenty-first century science: “Epistemic coherentism” as an essential prerequisite of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research”. Please read the aforesaid paper for more
information. 42
Conflict with human rights
Human rights loosely refer to a set of principles that recognize and respect the right of all people to live
and lead dignified lives, and their right to be free from all forms of fear, prejudice, resentment, hatred,
discrimination, and harassment. Human rights are Enshrined in Universal declaration of human rights
which was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948. The
UDHR, as it is sometimes known in short includes the right to life and liberty, freedom from slavery and
torture, freedom of opinion and expression, the right to work and education, the right to marry and
start a family, the right to due process and a fair trial, the right to medical care, adequate food, and
clean water, besides a couple more.
Conflict with universal human values
According to the Russian British philosopher Isaiah Berlin, "Universal values are values that a great many
human beings in the vast majority of places and situations, at almost all times, do in fact hold in
common, whether consciously and explicitly or as expressed in their behaviour." Others such as the
social psychologist Shalom H. Schwartz have speculated on the existence of human values. Also, we
need to ask this fundamental question: why does technology progress so much, and the social sciences
42
Implementing “Epistemic coherentism” in twenty-first century science: “Epistemic coherentism” as an essential pre-requisite of
interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research, Sujay Rao Mandavilli, IJISRT, November 2024
23
so little? Sam Harris argues that science can set the tempo for human values, but why isn’t it succeeding
and why isn’t religion fading or receding? Finding answers to such questions can probably help us solve
many problems automatically. Ethics and morals must be taught by category; examples could be
honesty, truthfulness, dedication, character building, social responsibility, environmental responsibility,
discipline and sincerity. Students’ own emic perspectives and enculturation patterns must be assessed
(students from varying cultures and socio-cultural backgrounds) before value systems are formulated.
Has this every been done today?
His Holiness the Dalai Lama states, "Science for all the benefits it has brought to the external world, has
not yet provided a scientific grounding for the development of the foundations of personal integrity. the basic inner human values that we appreciate in others, and would do well to promote in ourselves.
Perhaps, then we should seek inner values from religion as people have done for millennia?Certainly,
religion has helped millions of people in the past, helps millions today, and will continue to helpmillions
in the future. But for all its benefits in offering moral guidance and meaning in life, in today's secular
world religion alone is no longer adequate as a basis for ethics. One reason for this is many peoplein the
world today, do not follow any one particular religion. Another reason is that, as people become
moreand more interconnected in the world of globalization, ethics based on any one religion would only
appeal to some of us. It would not be meaningful at all; Therefore, in today's world, any religion-based
answer to the problemof human values must be deemed woefully inadequate. What we need today, is
an approach to ethics which makes no recourse to religion, and will be equally acceptable to those with
faith, and those without: a secular ethics. As a simple example, according to Islam, adopting children is a
bad practice; now, there is a historical basis for this, and an absolutely unconvincing one; but, this
scarcely a universal human value. Islam allows people from all backgrounds and races to lead prayers
and congregations. Very good. But can women lead prayers and congregations in Islam? A lot more work
needs to be done in the realm of universal human values, and it needs to be taught in schools as well, as
a part of, or alongside moral science studies.
Conflict with scientific method
Ideologies are not based on sound scientific method or principles, and do not follow them for the most
part. Scientific method must be as natural to a scientist as a duck takes to water. Pseudoscience is often
not fully compatible with scientific method; it may comply with it partly or not at all. Pseudoscience may
often make self-contradictorystatements or claims, and exaggerated or unfalsifiable claims. It may be
accompanied by personal bias or prejudice, including what is known as confirmation bias. The term
confirmation bias is a term coined by the English psychologist Peter Wason, and refers to a tendency of
individuals only to favour information that confirms with their worldviews and value systems and
subconsciously ignore or sideline all other information. Pseudoscience is also mostly not open to third
party scrutiny. It may rely on the value systems or belief systems that are common to a small group of
individuals that have universal following or applicability. Pseudo-science also analyses and interprets
evidence selectively. Thus, Hinduvta approaches, Dravidian approaches and Marxist approaches to
historiography may fall under this category for more than one reason. Readers may exercise their
judgment on all matters as always. Pseudo sciences may include all forms of theistic creationism,
astrology, numerology, kirilan photography, alchmeny in many forms and manifestations, etc. it is
24
sometimes difficult to distinguish science from pseudo science, though techniques to this effect have
been proposed by Robert K. Merton and others. Naturally, these must be taught to students as well.
Conflict with truth
The English word truth is derived from Old English triewp, and the Middle English trewþe, and is also
associated with veracity or truthfulness. Truth is the property of something being in accord or
consonance with fact or reality. Truth is generally considered to be the diametric and exact opposite
of falsehoods or lies. The concept of truth is applied in various fields of study, including, but not limited
to philosophy, art, theology, law, and science, where its very nature and purpose has been deeply
discussed and debated. Truth is held to be fairly basic in many fields, and in many walks of life, but it
must correspond with other allied and related propositions and truths as well, along with all related
observations. This is called the correspondence theory of truth. Many other concepts have been built
around the notion of truth. For example, a truth claim is a statement that asserts something to be fully
and wholly true, while in reality, it may not be so. Truth claims may also sometimes conflict with easily
verifiable truth propositions which are primary bearers of truth or falsity. In other words, they may be
based on easily falsifiable claims, or claims that are readily apparent, and do not require deep rooted
investigation.
Not based on balance and harmony
Balance as most people understand or interpret the term, is an even distribution of weight enabling
someone or something to remain upright and steady, and in a a state of equilibrium, harmony or
equipoise. It is also often associated with harmony. Harmony is the sound of things that go together or
gel well; in other words, they exist in total harmony and equilibrium with one another. Harmony and
equilibrium are perfectly necessary for objects and entities to coexist together. As we have often said,
one kind of bias legitimizes every other kind of bias. The Marxist historian DN Jha may have been
rigorous, but he was almost never balanced or objective.
Conflict with international peace and harmony
World peace and harmony refers to an idealistic vision of a world without violence and conflict, where
nations work together in a spirit of mutual camaraderie and bonhomie, and resolve conflicts fairly, and
with absolute understanding. Peace and harmony has the potential bring a peaceful and stable order to
a society, and to mankind in general, and they are both a necessary pre-condition and a pre-requisite for
the survival and the social, cultural and intellectual development of mankind, and its emotional
fecundity. Peace and harmony also lead to sustainable development and allow for humanity to focus on
their long-term goals. A world bereft and devoid of peace and harmony will regress and return
atavistically to the dark and uncouth, barbaric ages of yore. Such a world can never progress or allow
humans to progress and to mature or even reach anywhere close to the limits of their potential. Some
factors that can contribute to world peace include respect and dignity for human rights, equitable
distribution of resources: Ensuring that resources are distributed fairly, acceptance of others'
rights: Respecting the rights of others, good relations across nations and regions, free and seamless flow
of information, low levels of corruption, bureaucracy and red tape, and high levels of education and
25
intellectual development or accomplishment. Peace efforts are generally promoted by international
organizations such as the United Nations, and some other country-based organization, though there
have often been slippages. There have been an escalating and a large number of wars both political, and
interracial in recent years.
Associated only with a culture or a group of people
Ideologies are mostly associated only with a culture or a group of people. As a matter of fact, this could
be the most defining feature or the most defining characteristic of an ideology. We had defined, and
discussed the most defining characteristic feature of a culture at a great level of detail in our previous
papers. We had also provided many different definitions of the term culture by varied anthropologists
and scholars, out of which the most prominent is as follows. In the words of anthropologist E.B. Tylor, it
is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." According to the Cambridge English
Dictionary "Culture represents the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular
group of people at a particular time." Ideologies also often conflict with the rights of minorities with
which they are mostly in conflict. A minority represents an ethnic, religious or linguistic minority which
constitutes less than half – usually much less - of the population of a region comprising an close knit
group of people. In case of an ideology, there is often an excessive we versus them differentiation, and
as a matter of fact, throughout history of war, and civil unrest, there has been an excessive “us” versus
“them” mindset. Many organizations and ideologies that have promoted this approach have included
the Muslim brotherhood, a traditional Egypt-based Sunni Islamist organization, and rabid and radical
Indian nationalists, some of whom may have an anti-Pakistan agenda. McCarthyism also represented an
anti-communist position in the USA. Also known as the Second Red Scare, this shot to prominence in the
1950’s, but then entered a steady phase of decline.
Promotion of political agenda
Ideologies are also often associated with the promotion of political agenda. Political bickering and
suppression of political opponents is often their chief tactic and their forte. The Emergency for example,
was a twenty-one month period in India between 1975 to 1977 when the then Indian Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi ordered a state of emergency across the country citing internal and external
threats to the country. This led to a suspension of civil rights and liberties, censorship of the media, an
imprisonment of several political opponents, and made her extremely unpopular, causing here to lose
the election in 1977. In this election, the opposition was swept into power.
Promotion of linguistic agenda
Some political parties and ideologies may have wanted to impose or promote a linguistic ideology since
time immemorial. For example, suppression of language is sometimes associated with Hindi chauvinism
in India, though there have indeed been many checks and balances. Hindi chauvinism may also be born
from the notion that Hindi is the superior language, or even from the general or the misplaced belief
that one's own group or people are superior to others. This ideology was promoted by Purushottam Das
Tandon, RV Dhulekar, and others, some of who may have has ulterior motifs. Linguistic chauvinism is
26
also drawn and inspired from the general belief that a country should have a single language, and that
linguistic diversity is unnecessary if not outright dangerous. As a matter of fact, the reverse is true.
Most efforts by language or linguistic proponents may however be innocuous, and in most cases, a
usage of the term zealot may suffice.
Promotion of religious agenda
In addition to Hindutva, which we have previously discussed, many political or quasi-political groups
across the world, have sought to promote dangerously divisive religious ideologies or brute force
religious majoritarianism. For example, the Bodu Bala Sena of Sri Lanka sought to impose Buddhism on
Tamil Hindus, besides Christians and Muslims as well. Saddam Hussein Barbhuiya, another Indian
Muslim from Silchar, India, posted anti India posts, and anti-Hindu posts excessively, along with proPakistan ones. As a matter of fact, Ambedkar had this to say about Muslims. In his book ‘Pakistan Or The
Partition Of India’, that was published in 1940, Ambedkar went to the extent of saying, “The brotherhood
of Islam is not the universal brotherhood of man. It is a brotherhood of Muslims for Muslims only. There
is a fraternity, but its benefit is confined to those within that corporation. For those who are outside the
corporation, there is nothing but contempt and enmity”. Ambedkar even believed that Muslims thought
of Hindus as inferior beings and would find it hard to accept the authority of a Hindu majority
government. Ambedkar then wrote, “To the Muslims, a Hindu is a Kaffir. A Kaffir is not worthy of respect.
He is low-born and without status. That is why a country that is ruled by a Kaffir is Dar-ul-Harb to a
Musalman. Given this, no further evidence seems to be necessary to prove that the Muslims will not obey
a Hindu government. The basic feelings of deference and sympathy, which predispose persons to obey the
authority of government, do not simply exist. But if a proof is wanted, there is no dearth of it. In the midst
of the Khilafat agitation, when the Hindus were doing so much to help the Musalmans, the Muslims did
not forget that as compared with them the Hindus were a low and an inferior race.” Likewise, some
Hindutva proponents sometimes seek to demonize Christians and Muslims. According to the RSS,
Christians and Muslims, have their holy places outside India, and cannot be construed as true Indians.
Merits and demerits of this apart, Hindutva, at least in its more extreme versions, will bring Hinduism and
India a bad name eventually. Time will play the catch up game, eventually, and sooner than later. Some
Hindutva proponents also stand accused of not acknowledging the vast diversity within Hinduism itself.
Identification of ideologies based on their downstream implications
Ideologies may also be evaluated and isolated based on their downstream implications, because they
may have extreme and extensive implications for science, and for national and territorial integrity even
in specific cases and instances. They may come with other unsavoury effects as well, and these must be
identified on a case to case basis. We have written about all this extensively, and readers may refer our
previous publications on this issue, particularly those on historiography, i.e., twenty-first century
historiography, where we also analyzed the downstream implications of pseudoscientific efforts, and
those that are not based on sound scientific principles.
Identification of ideologies based on after effects
27
Ideologies may also be understood and isolated based on their aftereffects. For example, we have had
the Khalistan movement or Sikh separatism is India which had brewed into a heady concoction by the
1980’s fanned and fuelled by over centralization of power by the then India Gandhi government. This
movement had actually begun in the 1930’s during the heyday of the British rule. The proposed
boundaries of Khalistan vary, but include large swathes of North India and Pakistan. This movement is
associated notoriously with dreaded movements such as the Babbar Khalsa, Operation Bluestar, the
assassination of Indira Gandhi in October 1984, and the bombing of Air India plane Kanishka on June
23rd, 1985. The movement has however, greatly declined ever since, and is limited to a few radical
outfits in Canada. Such movements Can be eliminated through the use of the right kinds of strategies, all
of which must be based on evidence, adequate proof, and grounds up data. This will naturally negate
and eliminate ideologies. For example, we can cite the fact that Switzerland is multilingual, and Canada
is multilingual. Both have remained united. 43
In British Ceylon, now known as Sri Lanka, Tamils dominated in administration and the government
owing to their proficiency of the English language. After 1948, when Sri Lanka won its independence,
Sinhalas fiercely resented Tamil domination, and sought immediate course-corrections. Tamils were
discriminated against socially, culturally, politically, and religiously. Some Indian Tamils were even
denied citizenship and soon became stateless. Sinhala was made the only official language. Tamils were
discriminated in universities and in higher education; they had to secure higher marks to get admission
into universities. Tamils started demanding equal rights, and there methods were initially peaceful.
They eventually however, became more and more radical. This led to foundation of early Tamil outfits
from 1972 onwards, the rise of the LTTE from the later 1970’s and the early 1980’s onwards which had
its own army, navy, and sea force. It was once the most powerful and ruthless military organization in
the world till its elimination in 2009. There were four Eelam wars from the first to the fourth, and over
one hundred thousand innocent civilians were killed. The government of Sri Lanka later established the
truth and reconciliation government, and all appears to be well now, at least for the time being.
Therefore, a Unity in diversity model must be followed, and at least all major languages and cultures
must be respected. The over centralized USSR style model is extremely dangerous, and this, along with
economic stagnation led to the breakup of the USSR due to domination by Russia. The glasnost and
perestroika programs unveiled by Mikhail Gorbachev proved to be the last and final nail in the coffin.
Pakistan too disintegrated due to over domination by West Pakistan, particularly Punjab. 44
Absence of constructive criticism
Constructive criticism is a type of meaningful and action-oriented feedback or criticism that seeks to
provide specific and actionable advice to help someone improve or move towards a set or a specific
goal. In other words, It is a balanced technique of criticism that acknowledges both positive and
negative aspects of someone's work, and is realistically focused on helping them make productive and
beneficial changes. Constructive criticism is specific, and provides clear and actionable steps that the
recipient can take to make the needful changes. It is offered in an encouraging tone, is always
43
Schmid, Alex Peter; Jongman, A. J. (2005). Political terrorism: a new guide to actors, authors, concepts, data bases, theories, and
literature (Reprint, revised ed.). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers
44
Chevigny, P. (2008). "Police Brutality", In Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict. oxford: Elsevier Science and Technology, 2008.
28
actionable. It is also usually contextual and growth-oriented. The person offering criticism wants to help
an individual in his growth efforts, and not harm him in any way. He also focuses on the action or the
behavior, and not the individual. Ideologically driven proponents on the other hand, almost always offer
no constructive criticism, instead choosing to attack individuals through malicious slander.
Use of personal attacks
Another sign of the excessive use of ideology is the use of ad hominem attacks. This approach can also
be associated with slander and defaming. In many cases, character assassination may also be used. An
ad hominem attack is a type of personal attack that which the person making a statement, argument or
a case instead of the argument itself. The term "ad hominem" is derived from a Latin expression which
means "against the man". The approach renders the target defenseless as he does not possess the
means to defend himself. In other worlds, there is insufficient engagement in the debate or discussion.
Ad hominem attacks are even considered to be a major fallacy in scientific method.
Use of dubious claims
Dubious claim are claims that are not to be relied upon; in other words, they are suspect claims. Often,
use of sophistry may also be resorted to. Sophistry refers to the use of clever and devious but false
arguments, being made with the intention of deceiving others. Convoluted arguments may also often be
made. Solipsistic arguments are those which are very self-centred or selfish and do not take into account
or consideration, issues from the other persons point of view. Tendentious arguments are those which
attempt to promote a particular cause or point of view, especially a dubious or a highly controversial
one. Clandestine and surreptitious approaches , on the other hand, are those which are shrouded in
secrecy.
Conspiracy theories
A conspiracy theory is one that makes claims for the existence of a conspiracy (purported to be
orchestrated by powerful sinister groups, that seek to harm the individual), for an observation,
occurrence, or a phenomenon, when other more mundane explanations are more likely, realistic, or
probable. Ideology and agenda-driven proponents generally take recourse to such explanations often in
order to boost their propaganda campaigns. The term therefore, almost always has a negative
connotation, and is internally inconsistent as well, lacking overall coherence or justifiability, and
evidence-based arguments. They are also designed to make dubious claims, or make use of slander. For
example, Laura Loomer, a far-right MAGA or Make America great again activist from the Republican
party is believed to have taken recourse to conspiracy theories. She has been labeled as a conspiracy
theorist by other groups, and by the media.
Appeals to authority
An appeal to authority is a form of a logical fallacy that is said to take place when someone accepts a
claim as being incontrovertibly or irrefutably true only because an authority figure proclaims it to be
so. The figure of authority may be anyone with a status or prestige that causes people to respect
29
them. This kind of a fallacy distracts from the actual issue at hand, and evades further argument or
discussion.
Use of other forms of pseudo science
The concept of Pseudoscience is central to science and to scientific studies. Loosely explained, it is a
term that is used to describe a claim, proposition, belief, or practice that is presented as being highly
scientific but in fact, is not based on a scientific method to any degree. Pseudoscience consists of
statements or assertions that claim to be both scientific and factual but are in fact utterly incompatible
with the scientific method. Pseudoscience may even take recourse to contradictory, exaggerated
or unfalsifiable claims; reliance may be made on confirmation bias rather than rigorous attempts at
refutation; lack of openness to evaluation by other experts; absence of systematic practices when
developing hypotheses; and continued adherence long after the pseudoscientific hypotheses have been
experimentally discredited. It is not the same as junk science. Common examples of pseudoscience
include astrology and palmistry. Some characteristics of pseudoscience include a lack of scientific rigor,
vagueness and variability, non-falsifiability, non-consideration of contradictory evidence, etc.
Pseudoscience also makes use of many different forms of scientific and logical fallacies such as appeal to
ignorance, false dilemma fallacy, false cause fallacy, etc. We do not wish to present a detailed discussion
of all these different types of fallacy here in the interests of brevity and space. Readers may perform
their own research as required.
Use of behavioural analysis
Pseudoscience can be easily discredited and warped intellectualism along with non-regular behaviour
can easily give people away. This may include warped interpretations of the world as well. This is a very
important aspect and component of study because ideologically-drenched proponents of an ideology
may see or interpret the world differently than others do. An example of this is of course our dear
darling, Marxist historiography which we have chosen to cite on innumerable occasion. Pompous
behavior and minatory posturing can also give such people away. Such individuals may also have a
penchant to act against the interests of science, society and the education system, or even against the
public interest or national interest.
Use of discourse analysis
The term “Discourse analysis” is applied to define various qualitative methods that explore the structure
and configuration of language, and forms of expression of language as understood in its social and
cultural milieu or context. In brief, it means the analysis of discourse, where discourse is language in
active use i.e., “a language in use”, in a social setting. This social setting would also set the norms and
cultural preferences for the usage of the language in question, and an analysis of the social and cultural
attributes of the text generator as well. This is also compounded by formal grammar, orthography, and
semiotics, which is present in virtually every language under the sun. It is also applied along with formal
and structured processes of communication which are dynamic frameworks that describes how
messages – including written messages and formal text - travel between a sender and receiver through
the medium of various communication channels. This approach also analyses disturbances to the free
30
flow of information, which are known as noise. It also collects and gathers feedback in the due course of
events. According to the standard English Oxford dictionary, discourse analysis is defined as: "In
linguistics, it is a method of analyzing the structure of texts or utterances longer than one sentence,
taking into account both their linguistic content and their sociolinguistic context; analysis performed
using this method." This is therefore, a fairly broad field of study with many existing and potential
widespread applications; its core essence cannot therefore be easily summed up, other than in a
specialized treatise on the subject.
An all-comprehensive and an all-encompassing definition of the term may also continue to elude us, and
at least for the time being. It often draws and borrows heavily from several distinct fields of study such
as such as sociology, social and cultural anthropology, core and applied linguistics, pedagogy, philosophy
and psychology. The term ‘discourse analysis’ is first attributed to the American semiticist and structural
linguist, Zellig Harris in his 1952 article published with the same name, i.e. ‘Discourse Analysis’, and
some other related papers, though Leo Spitzer may have also made earlier contributions to the field in
the 1920’s . Michel Foucault interpreted discourse analysis in terms of power and resistance, and also
translated many related works into French. In his words and view, discourse analysis could be defined as
a method for the analysis of oral free-flowing speech (which may be either formal or non-formal) or
logical and self-coherent writing (the latter is simply known as, or referred to a text), in order to magnify
and amplify the scope of descriptive linguistics, and identify patterns of coherence and cohesion in texts.
Dell Hymes – who proposed the term linguistic anthropology- also made many important contributions
to this field by originating what is today known as the speaking model. In 1975, Sinclair and Coulthard
also developed a model for the description of teacher-pupil talk. Other scholars and thinkers such as
John Gumperz, Erving Goffmann, J.L. Austin, Roman Jakobson, John Searle, M.A.K. Halliday also greatly
contributed to this new and emerging field. (Harris 1952) (Brown & Yule1983) (Cook 1989) Linguists
belonging to the Prague linguistic school (or the Prague linguistic circle that was founded in 1926) also
made many important contributions to this field. James A. Lauriault reliably used this technique for the
study of Quechua legends, and the study of Shipibo, a language of Peru. Discourse analysis has had
practical application in a variety of disciplines in the various fields of the humanities and the social
sciences, and these include, for example, linguistics, pedagogy, sociology, anthropology, social work,
psychology, etc. This is only a very short list, and other three applications have of course, been proposed
both in subfields of the above disciplines, and in other related and closely allied disciplines and fields of
study. Discourse analysis can be gainfully and productively employed to discern and weed out
pseudoscientific talk. From the point of view of this paper, it can be used to identify ideologies as well. 45
Other recommendations
We would like to make a couple of other recommendations here. For example, we must wisely and
prudently maintain the principle of equidistance always – that is to maintain equal distance from all
ideologies. We must also adopt the principle of ideological neutrality. Marxist “Solutions” can be
extremely dangerous. For example, we believe Marxism is based on violence – as pointed out by Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India – violence is the very nature of Marxism. Marxism is
Initiating “discourse analysis” as a tool to differentiate between science and pseudoscience: Another valuable tool to advance objectivity and
rigour in science Published IJISRT, June 2024
45
31
also based on some form of discrimination. Marxism is even based on suppression of rights. It is based
on suppression of truth. Marxism is essentially a Eurocentric ideology. May even be associated with
racism, given that Karl Marx had anti-Semitic tendencies; Of course, there may be variation. There
always will be in any form of an analysis given that "Marxist" scholarship is not monolithic. N. Ram of the
Hindu group of publications has spoken about rights of fourth estate – refers to press and news media.
But he himself is alarmingly outdated in many different aspects given and considering his ideological
proclivities; National integration must be based on the unity in diversity concept. We need to find out
the underlying unity in diversity. We have failed badly and miserably here. Likewise, that are many
nuanced, intricate, and delicate solutions we can adopt to solve the now raging “Mother tongue versus
English debate”. We need to jettison binary thinking, and embrace more complex, multilayered thinking.
There are many such other seemingly intractable issues that can be surmounted through deep-rooted
cogitation.
It is for this very reason that we had founded the “Institute for the study of the globalization of science”
(ISGOS), “Scholars and intellectuals for mankind” (SCHIMA) and the “Movement for open, transparent ,
high quality and ideology free science” (MOTHIS). Please refer our previous multiple works on this
subject – ideology-free science can run rings around other outdated and antiquated approaches. This is
the way to go. Unfortunately we still have a long way to go. Much of scientific endeavour is still
drenched, soaked, imbued and saturated with ideology. That is the sad state of affairs today. We alone
can bring about change. We need to avoid kicking the can down the road. We must take action
immediately. This paper must be read in conjunction with our papers on religion also given that religion
is also an ideology, if not among the most prominent ones.
Conclusion
We had begun this paper by furnishing comprehensive definitions of the widely and commonly used,
understood, and misunderstood term “ideology” as proposed by other eminent scholars and thinkers of
repute, whom we had also named in this paper. We then also went on to categorize and classify
ideologies into several prominent types, most notable among them being political ideologies, social
ideologies, cultural ideologies, economic ideologies, scientific ideologies, and religious ideologies to
name a few. We also then proposed that ideologies may be classified and categorized into open, subtle
and covert ideologies as well, on the basis of their ability to be detected easily. We also then suitably
provided a distinction between an ideology and a cult, and provided several meaningful examples of
assorted ideologies of different types such as racism, Indocentrism, Afrocentrism, right-wing capitalism,
Sinocentrism, dogmatic communism Marxism, anarchism, Eurocentrism, Hindutva, and Dravidian
nationalism. The meat of this paper of course, resides within the section that deals with, and
enumerates tool and techniques to identify and isolate ideologies – needless to say, we had accorded
this section of the paper, prominent pride of place.
As usual, and as always, practical, down to earth, pragmatic, and non nonsense approaches were
adopted, keeping in consonance with our overall, and broader philosophy; this is also a reflection of the
future direction we expect science and scholarship to take. Ideologies may come and go but we must
work towards the gradual elimination and submission of all ideologies. Hence, this paper. This may take
32
time to manifest itself, but will ultimately happen through the medium and mechanism of better
education. We believe and expect this paper would play a major role in our globalization of science
movement, and lead us to what we have always called “Scientific progress at the speed of light”, at least
indirectly, if not directly. The results would be palpable, and exist for everyone to see and feel, with a
commensurate, and a quantum increase in scientific output.
33
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