Can Emerging Monkeypox Pose a Global Threat Like COVID-19 ?

Zoonoses caused by multiple etiological agents pose a serious threat to humans as well as animals globally. These diseases affect both the sexes, all age groups, in rural and urban settings, and in all seasons. Zoonotic diseases occur in sporadic as well as in epidemic form causing high morbidity and mortality. Most zoonoses involve multiple modes of transmission, such as ingestion, direct contact, inhalation, animal bite and others. Also, more than 60% of recently emerging viruses exhibit zoonotic characteristics, thereby posing a significant menace to global public health. The spread of these diseases is mostly caused by a number of factors, such as global trade, intensive animal husbandry, climate change, variations to immunization protocols, and antibiotic resistance. Effective disease control necessitates the interdisciplinary collaboration advocated by the One Health approach. This study investigates novel diagnostic and vaccination techniques while doing a detailed analysis of newly emerging and reemerging zoonoses and explaining the factors that led to their emergence. Next-generation sequencing and rapid diagnostic testing are examples of technological innovations that have improved disease surveillance and detection. Furthermore, advancements in mRNA vaccines show promising future, albeit their broad applicability is yet uncertain. Putting preventive and control measures into action-such as One Health campaigns, strong surveillance systems, and extensive vaccination drives-is essential to limit the adverse effects of zoonotic diseases on people's health, livestock and the environment.

Zoonotic diseases, both newly emerging and re-emerging, are major causes of morbidity and mortality across all demographic groups. Globally, about one billion people are affected with zoonotic infections annually. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), caused by the MERS coronavirus (MERS-CoV), is a notable emerging zoonotic respiratory disease that was initially reported in Saudi Arabia in 2012. Afterwards, instances were recorded from 27 nations, resulting in 2,609 infections and 939 deaths overall as of February 2024, with the majority of cases coming from Saudi Arabia. As the only known animal reservoir for MERS-CoV, dromedary camels are essential to the survival of the virus and possible spread as they secrete the virus through bodily fluids, especially nasal and rectal discharges. Although there is proof of direct zoonotic transmission from camels to people, further research is necessary to determine whether camel milk and meat play a part in the transmission chain. Human-to-human transmission has a long history and continues to be a concern for public health, particularly in those with comorbid conditions. The affected persons exhibit signs of fever, headache, chills, dyspnea, and nonproductive cough. The laboratory help is imperative to make an unequivocal diagnosis of disease. This review emphasizes the need for integrated ways to combat MERS-CoV and emphasizes the implementation of a One Health-based prevention and control strategy as a means of mitigating this persistent danger.

Emerging and re-emerging viral zoonoses are important cause of morbidity and mortality in the developing and developed nations of the world. The re-emergence of monkeypox has garnered global public health attention. Originally identified in humans in 1970, monkeypox is categorized into two primary clades: Clade I (Congo Basin) and Clade II (West African). The recent global outbreak, mainly involving Clade IIb across 15 African Union Member States, revealed an expanded geographic distribution and shifting transmission patterns. Outbreaks of monkeypox also occurred in non-endemic countries. While monkeypox has traditionally been spread from animals to humans through infected wildlife, recent outbreaks show increased human-to-human transmission, with evidence suggesting reverse zoonosis to pets. This review consolidates current knowledge on the virus's etiology, host range, epidemiological trends and examines the clinical symptoms, diagnostic complications, ongoing efforts in treatment and prevention. Although smallpox vaccines and antiviral treatments like tecovirimat and brincidofovir exist, controlling monkeypox remains challenging due to evolving transmission routes and severity. Strengthening surveillance, vaccination strategies, and public health measures are essential to mitigating the impact of monkeypox and preventing future outbreaks.

Zoonoses which include emerging and re-emerging zoonoses are still remain a leading cause of high morbidity and mortality in many countries of the world .These diseases constitute the major threats to human health; and are caused by a large number of organisms. Zoonoses act as a double edged weapon, one by causing serious and fatal diseases in human beings and other by undermining animal health and productivity and thus producing great financial losses to the animal industries .The knowledge of the zoonoses is the fundamental for the veterinarians ,as they are the first on the line of duty. Re-emerging zoonoses have now appeared in more virulent form or in a new epidemiological setting after a period of decline or disappearance. The new megacities have overcrowding, poverty, poor sanitation and water supply and inadequate infrastructure that amplify the transmission of these zoonoses .The emergence and re-emergence of several zoonotic diseases in the past require a systematic surveillance and evaluation of disease control programme. I am of the strong opinion that the involvement of the Public Health Veterinarian in the process of global health programme is highly imperative. Introduction:

Journal of Tropical Medicine

Zoonotic diseases have devastating impacts on human and animal health, livelihoods, and economies. Addressing the complex web of interrelated factors leading to zoonotic disease emergence and spread requires a transdisciplinary, cross-sectoral approach, One Health. The One Health approach, which considers the linkages between the health of people, animals, and their shared environment, presents opportunities to reduce these impacts through a more holistic coordinated strategy to understanding and mitigating disease risks. Understanding the linkages between animal, human, and environmental health risks and outcomes is critical for developing early detection systems and risk reduction strategies to address known and novel zoonotic disease threats. Nearly 70 countries across the world, including Ghana, have signed on to the Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA), which is facilitating multisectoral approaches to strengthen country capacities in the prevention and early detection of and r...

Emerging viral zoonoses remain a global threat to public health with challenges to develop strategies for their control. Monkeypox, first identified in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1970, has become a growing global health concern, particularly due to its two distinct viral clades: the more severe Central African (Congo Basin) clade and the less virulent West African clade. Recent data from 2022 to July 2024 reports 37,583 cases and 1,451 deaths across 15 African Union Member States, with the majority occurring in the DRC. Nations of the world. Presently, the disease is found in more than 120 nations of the world, including India. Very recently, the World Health Organization declared monkeypox as a public health emergency of international concern. Clinical manifestations include fever, lymphadenopathy, headache, chills, rigor, and rashes on different parts of the body including the face, palm, soles and oral cavity. The disease can occur in sporadic as well as in epidemic form, and is more severe in children, pregnant women, and immunocompromised subjects. Laboratory assistance is required to make an unequivocal diagnosis of monkeypox. Most patients recover within 7 to 14 days. The resurgence of monkeypox, driven by several factors like increased global travel and reduced smallpox vaccination coverage, underscores the need for enhanced surveillance, public education, and preventive strategies, including vaccination and post-exposure prophylaxis, to control future outbreaks. The One Health approach seems imperative in the control of this emerging viral zoonosis that has posed a global public health threat.

Zoonoses Recent Approaches to Contain the Global Zoonotic Burden, 2020

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2022

This situation analysis presents a thorough, evidence-based examination of the relationship between wildlife and zoonosis, wildlife and emerging human pathogens and associated diseases, their origins, drivers, and risk factors. There is considerable divergence of opinion around the subject both within and outside the biodiversity conservation community and given the ontological challenges and highly different perspectives, contradictory narrative is unsurprising. Context is all-important and to clarify this in the analysis, the evidence of human diseases coming from wildlife is compared to diseases emerging from domestic animals and humans themselves, to provide context and proportions of the relative risk. The report highlights key knowledge, and provides perspective on where research, policy, interventions, and capacity building are needed to reduce risks of zoonoses and emergent animal-origin human diseases globally.

Annals of the Romanian Society for Cell Biology, 2021

Zoonotic diseases also called as Zoonoses present challenges not only to veterinarians but also to all professions concerned with public health. Emerging diseases are commonly defined as illnesses that have increased in incidence during the past two decades or are likely to increase in the near future. Emerging and re-emerging diseases are on rising trend and have been threats to humans till date. Most of the emerging and re-emerging diseases noted since past three decades are of zoonotic nature, particularly of viral origin. The effects of these diseases have recently been emphasized by notable outbreaks as of those involving SARS-CoV2 (COVID-19), Nipah, Avian Influenza (H5N1), Swine Influenza (H1N1), West-Nile Fever, Ebola, Zika etc. Emergence of the above diseases whose nature of occurrence is unexpected and re-emergence of unusual outbreaks of diseases like leptospirosis, brucellosis, rabies, plague, antimicrobial resistance etc., pose marked effects on national economies, human and animal health. Eventhough the exact reasons for the emergence of emerging and re-emerging zoonoses are not clear, there are many factors which are thought to be involved for their occurrence. These factors are complex in nature and categorized into factors of infectious origin (virus, bacteria, and prion), human and ecological factors. This article gives an insight about understanding the role of factors and measures for controlling their emergence.

Cureus, 2023

The incessant occurrence of devastating health-related events, either on a large scale, such as pandemics, or in a local community in the form of sporadic outbreaks due to infectious agents, warrants a rapid, targetoriented, well-organized response team to combat the demonic consequences. While the world has been recovering from the clutches of the recent disastrous COVID-19 pandemic, the struggles against novel emerging and re-emerging pathogens such as monkeypox (mpox), newer evolving strains of influenza, Ebola, Zika, and the yellow fever virus continue to date. Therefore, a multisectoral, intercontinental, collaborative, interdisciplinary, and highly dedicated approach should always be implemented to achieve optimal health and avert future threats.