IFLA Journal. June 2013

I F LA Volume 39 Number 2 June 2013 IFLA Contents Editorial All Change: From Helsinki to Singapore 101 Stephen Parker Articles Singapore libraries: From bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere 103 Julie S. Sabaratnam and Esther Ong Commonwealth of uncertainty: How British and American professional models of library practice have shaped LIS Education in selected former British Colonies and Dominions 121 Mary Carroll, Paulette Kerr, Abdullahi I. Musa and Waseem Afzal Leadership in libraries in times of change 134 Petra Düren Welcoming, flexible, and state-of-the-art: Approaches to continuous facilities improvement 140 Charles Forrest and Sharon L. Bostick UNIMARC – Understanding the past to envision the future 151 Rosa Maria Galvão and Maria Inês Cordeiro Techniques to understand the changing needs of library users 162 Susan Gibbons Measuring the public library’s societal value: A methodological research program 168 Frank Huysmans and Marjolein Oomes News 178 Abstracts 185 IFLA Journal Official Journal of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions ISSN 0340-0352 [print] 1745-2651 [online] Published 4 times a year in March, June, October and December Editor: Stephen Parker, Apt. 1C, Edifício Rosa dos Ventos, Rua Rosa Parracho 27, Cascais 2750-778, Portugal. Email: zest@sapo.pt Editorial Committee Christine Wellems (Chair), Buergerschaftskanzlei, Parlamentarische Informationsdienste, Hamburg, Germany. Email: christine.wellems@bk.hamburg.de Sanjay Kumar Bihani, High Commission of India, India House, Aldwych, London WC2B 4NA, UK. Email: sanjaykbihani@gmail.com Ben Gu, National Library of China, Beijing, People's Republic of China. Email: bgu@nlc.gov.cn Jerry W. Mansfield, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. Email: JMANSFIELD@crs.loc.gov Filiberto Felipe Martinez-Arellano, University Center for Library Science Research, National Autonomous University of Mexico. Email: felipe@cuib.unam.mx Ellen Ndeshi Namhila, University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia. Email: enamhila@unam.na Omnia M. Sadek, Menufia University, Cairo, Egypt. Email: sadekomnia@gmail.com Réjean Savard, École de bibliothéconomie et des sciences de l’information, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada. Email: Rejean.Sa vard@umontreal.ca Ludmila Tikhonova, Russian State Library, Moscow, Russian Federation. Email: ltikh@r sl.ru Christobal Pasadas Ureña, Biblioteca Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain. Email: cpasadas@ugr .es Anna Maria Tammaro (Governing Board Liaison) Università di Parma, Parma, Italy. Email: annamaria.tammaro@unipr.it Stephen Parker (Portugal) (Editor, ex officio) Email: zest@sapo.pt Publisher SAGE, Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore and Washington DC. Copyright © 2013 International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. UK: Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, and only as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Acts 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the Publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency (www.cla.co.uk/). US: Authorization to photocopy journal material may be obtained directly from SAGE Publications or through a licence from the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. 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Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham, UK. I F LA Editorial All Change: From Helsinki to Singapore International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions 39(2) 101–102 ª The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0340035213487481 ifla.sagepub.com Stephen Parker As IFLA members and others prepare for the 2013 World Library and Information Congress in Singapore, we present in this issue a further selection of papers from the Helsinki conference of 2012, together with the usual key paper on libraries in this year’s host country. A common theme to all the papers in this issue is that of change. In ‘Singapore libraries: from bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere’, editors Julie S Sabaratnam and Esther Ong, with contributions from many colleagues in that country, present a comprehensive look into the evolving landscape of libraries in Singapore. Since the first major libraries were founded in Singapore some 190 years ago, the country has seen a proliferation of libraries of all kinds that have become increasingly important in the lives of Singaporeans. They achieve this by adapting to technological developments as well as changes in user demands and behaviours with innovative digital products and services that include library management systems, e-resources, digital devices as well as the utilisation of social media to engage users. The programme of library visits during the Singapore conference promises to be an eye-opener for colleagues from other parts of the world. International influences are the subject of the next paper, ‘Commonwealth of uncertainty: How British and American professional models of library practice have shaped LIS Education in selected former British Colonies and Dominions’, by Mary Carroll, Paulette Kerr, Abdullahi I. Musa and Waseem Afzal. This paper from the Helsinki conference examines how the convergence of the British and American influences on LIS education have left a complex legacy which has shaped the aspirations of the LIS profession and influenced the delivery and the educational model of librarianship in a number of Commonwealth countries. How to cope with changes in the library environment is an issue which increasingly exercises members of the profession at all levels, and the next paper, ‘Leadership in libraries in times of change’, by Petra Düren, aims to provide an overview of the leadership competences needed to succeed with deliberate largescale changes in libraries. Most of these competences can be imparted during undergraduate studies, and the paper describes recent studies concerning leadership in academic and public libraries, emphasizing the importance of a number of success factors, especially the communication competence of leaders in times of change. Another aspect of the question of change is discussed in the next paper, ‘Welcoming, flexible, and state-of-the-art: Approaches to continuous facilities improvement’, by Charles Forrest and Sharon L. Bostick. As a generation of students enters university having embraced online, mobile, anytime, anywhere access to information, the 21st century academic library must continually recreate itself as a place that fosters curiosity, engagement, collaboration, and lifelong learning. This paper discusses efforts at two major academic institutions in the United States to develop innovative ways to evaluate library spaces, functions, services, operations and maintenance with the aim of continually refreshing and renewing library spaces that enhance learning, inspire scholarship, and foster community. Major changes that are envisaged for the bibliographic standards environment provide the context for the next paper, ‘UNIMARC – Understanding the past to envision the future’, by Rosa Maria Galvão and Maria Inês Cordeiro. With the aim of reflecting on the nature and specification of MARC and its adequacy for the integration of bibliographic discovery systems into the larger world of networked information and systems, this paper provides an overview of the evolution of UNIMARC and the practices of its maintenance, collecting knowledge that may be useful as a first contribution to inform future steps in redesigning bibliographic data standards. 102 Change is again the theme of the next paper, ‘Techniques to understand the changing needs of library users’, by Susan Gibbons. The paper demonstrates a set of techniques developed at the University of Rochester (USA) aimed at a greater understanding of the academic work practices of a university or college community can reveal unintentional misalignments between a library’s services and user needs, as well as overlooked opportunities for a library to provide new services. This has been achieved through the adoption and adaptation of methods from anthropological and ethnography, which are then applied to the study of segments of a university community. While the findings of these studies are unique to the academic community of the University of Rochester, the methods of study can and have been applied successfully to the study of library users on other campuses. IFLA Journal 39(2) The final paper in this issue again focuses on the theme of change. In ‘Measuring the public library’s societal value: a methodological research program’, Frank Huysmans and Marjolein Oomes note that public libraries in the Netherlands face growing scepticism about their value to communities and society at large. There is thus a growing need for public libraries to show their worth – not only in an economic, but also in a more sociological sense. This paper describes a research project undertaken by the Netherlands Institute of Public Libraries to develop a measurement instrument geared at validly and reliably demonstrating the societal value of public libraries. The findings help to identify and five domains of possible impact: cognitive, social, cultural, affective and economic, which will guide the development of a measuring instrument. I F LA Article Singapore libraries: From bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions 39(2) 103–120 ª The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0340035213488710 ifla.sagepub.com Edited by Julie S Sabaratnam Singapore University of Technology and Design Esther Ong Temasek Polytechnic Library Abstract This article presents a comprehensive look into the evolving landscape of libraries in Singapore. Some 190 years ago, two institutions – the National Library of Singapore and the National University of Singapore Library – were instrumental in laying the foundation for libraries in this Southeast Asian island state. Since then, Singapore has seen a proliferation of libraries that include public, academic and special libraries. Supported by government policies and strategies, libraries have remained important in the lives of Singaporeans. In order to adapt to technological developments as well as changes in user demands and behaviours, the nation’s libraries have had to come up with new ways to manage their collections as well as serve the needs of their users. This paper examines the history of libraries in Singapore before throwing the spotlight on library innovations, paying particular attention to digital products and services that include library management systems, e-resources, digital devices as well as the utilization of social media to engage users. Keywords libraries, Singapore Introduction The little red dot, Singapore, is an island city state with no natural resources. Our survival depends on our people, our only precious and critical resource. Thus, it is important for our people to stay relevant, competent and highly skilled. To minimize social disparity and to nurture a talent pool that will contribute to economic viability, our government has placed emphasis on investing in education, training and lifelong learning to create a highly skilled workforce for work in a knowledge intensive industry. In addition, the city state also places emphasis on research and development. The Singapore government announced an investment of SG$16.1 billion or 3.5 percent over the next 5 years starting from 20111. The government has also invested heavily in lifelong learning and skills upgrading. It is against this backdrop that the libraries in Singapore were developed to support the national goals to help our people stay abreast and attain a competitive advantage. The libraries thus provided access to reading and research materials and embarked on training each of their target communities to become information literate. Collectively, the libraries journeyed to reach users of all walks of life from cradle to grave. The authors and contributors will illustrate the evolution of libraries in Singapore as they persevered through the years from providing bread and butter core services and ‘business as usual’ to leapfrogging to play a more responsive, value-added proactive role supporting the societal, academic, research and business needs of our communities in today’s digital era. The advent of Corresponding author: Julie S Sabaratnam, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 20 Dover Drive Singapore 138682. Tel: þ65-63036691. Email: juliesabaratnam@sutd.edu.sg 104 technology has also given libraries the opportunity to offer a myriad of possibilities to support learning, discovery and research in this knowledge intensive society. First seeds that spurred growth Sir Stamford Raffles founded Singapore in 1819. We gained independence in 1965. An analysis of the history of libraries in Singapore revealed twin pillars that sprouted from the first seeds planted more than a century ago. The seed was planted in 1823 when Raffles, our founding father, mooted the idea of setting up a library to support Singapore’s first educational institution, which was named the Singapore Institution. However, in 1844, a decision was made to expand the library at the Singapore Institution and it was transformed into a subscription-based library service for members. This library evolved into the Singapore Library and its role expanded to include even that of acting as the Curator to the Museum Committee. Several changes took place and progressed into the modern National Library in 1957. It was a long and uphill journey due to priorities in nation building and limited resources. The second seed was laid in 1905 when the Straits and Federated Malay States Government Medical School set up a small library. This first single library in a medical school marked the beginning of the evolution of academic libraries in Singapore. It has evolved over the years into Singapore’s largest university library system comprising seven libraries at the National University of Singapore. Hence, the twin pillars: the National Library of Singapore (NLS) with a 190 year history played an important role in developing a public library system to serve the masses, while the National University of Singapore Library (NUSL) with a 108 year history strived as the main academic library for many years until new academic institutions were set up. The twin pillars played an important role in the early development of libraries and librarianship in Singapore. These two stalwarts were joined by each major academic, special and public library that sprouted throughout the years. Through their passion, perseverance and commitment, the pioneer librarians contributed to the development of our libraries, the library profession and the Library Association, and introduced change. A major turning point In the early years, the public library system in Singapore was managed by the then National Library (NL). The NL would initiate setting up a public library when a constituency reached a population of 250,000. When the government establishes a new IFLA Journal 39(2) academic institution, by default an academic library will be set up to serve the institution’s needs. However, in the 1990s, as we entered the Internet era, Brigadier-General George Yeo, then Minister of Information and the Arts, queried the legacy practices and guidelines for public library development. He challenged the norms and commissioned the landmark Library 2000 study to review library developments in Singapore in the light of technological developments and birth of the World Wide Web in 1992. The Library 2000 Review Committee involved top executives from the public and private sectors as well as academia, communities and librarians. The 2-year study resulted in major recommendations that set the pace for library transformation in Singapore. Its report, Library 2000: Investing in a Learning Nation2 was accepted by the government. One of the first recommendations adopted was the establishment of a new statutory board, the National Library Board (NLB), in 1995 to spearhead the transformation of libraries in Singapore and turn the Library 2000 vision to reality. This had a catalytic impact in transforming the public library landscape. A new organizational structure When established in 1995, the NLB was chartered to implement the key strategies proposed by the Library 2000 committee. These included: an adaptive public library system comprising the national and public libraries working in cohort with the academic and special libraries, a national collection strategy and knowledge arbitrage. The NLB would also establish symbiotic linkages with business and community groups and offer quality services through market orientation. To bring libraries forward and to be plugged into the social and economic fabric, it was envisioned that exploiting technology and development of a pool of information professionals were critical as enablers. The NLB today manages the National Library and the public libraries and also operates most of the special libraries in various government agencies. The NLB engages the communities in designing various public libraries. Instead of standalone libraries, libraries are located in shopping malls and housing estates, among others. The academic libraries report to their parent institutions and come under the purview of the Ministry of Education, while the special libraries are managed by the organizations they belong to. The changing landscape Typically, the library’s role is to acquire, organize, preserve and provide access to information. To add Sabaratnam and Ong: Singapore libraries: From bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere 105 Figure 1. Map of libraries in Singapore and their locations to date. value, libraries began to play the role of coach/mentor/guide/facilitator where they helped nurture reading, inculcate search skills, and assist in research and so on. These are functions that any library can perform and the scope and content varies depending on the type of library and who its stakeholders and clientele are. The National Library, as the custodian of the nation’s literary heritage, has from time immemorial collected, organized and provided access to this unique and precious heritage. The National Archives of Singapore (NAS), meanwhile, is the official custodian of the corporate memory of the government – it manages public records and provides advice to government agencies on records management. In November 2012, the NLB Act was amended to facilitate the transfer of the NAS from the National Heritage Board to the NLB3. Likewise, academic libraries have taken on the additional critical role in preserving the academic institution’s heritage and scholarly output while acquiring, organizing and making accessible a rich knowledge base. The grouping of libraries by type, size and roles is no longer practical in this digital era. The greying of boundaries reinforces the need for greater collaboration amongst libraries on all fronts. To a large extent, we can envision two major pillars that influence growth and change: the public library system being transformed and repositioned to serve the demands of a more affluent population, and the growth in the number of academic libraries as new institutions of education are being set up. The third pillar, comprising special libraries, is seen to be undergoing consolidation due to rising costs, the financial and economic challenges of the global economy as well as the ready access to free information. Many organizations have scaled down on corporate library services and adopted alternative approaches such as outsourcing, relying on their main office or buying services on an ondemand basis. The library landscape remains vibrant as libraries are constantly adapting and innovating to cater to the needs of the Gen Y users. Emphasis is placed on redefining the roles and positioning librarians as an integral part of the organization, where many play expanded roles. Prototype Library of the Future To demonstrate the infinite possibilities of the Library of the Future, the Library 2000 Review Committee sought additional resources from the government to set up a prototype library. The community played an 106 IFLA Journal 39(2) Figure 2. The Courtyard at the National Library at Stamford Road. The library eventually closed in 2004. active role in the design and development of the first regional library at Tampines, that was officially opened in 1994, even before the final recommendations of the Committee were presented to the government. Named the Tampines Regional Library (TRL)4, new facilities such as automated check-ins and check-out kiosks, video-on demand terminals, satellite television, access to electronic databases, and a commercially-run bookshop and an IT gallery were introduced. The community was amazed by the new look and suite of services. Following the success of the TRL, the National Library at Stamford Road was given a much needed facelift5. The renovation transformed the almost 30 year-old library into a modern and spacious National Reference Library and a Central Community Library. New expanded services and facilities such as a Multimedia Centre and Student Reference Centre provided students with the opportunity to use computers and multimedia resources. NLB also launched Reference Point, a call service to handle public enquiries, and set up a Business Information Service. Several thematic collections in the area of Arts, Business, Singapore and Multicultural works were enhanced. Post Library 2000 developments Just as the retail and hospitality sector aligns to meet the changing needs and demands of its clientele and ensure it retains market share, libraries in Singapore have also undergone a facelift and adopted consumer-centric approaches in redesigning the spaces, services, and programmes. Following the vision of the future library as shared through the TRL, the major academic libraries also introduced changes by refreshing their spaces and exploiting technology to offer enhanced services and access. Lifestyle spaces were being created to cater to the Gen Y users. Typically, these lifestyle spaces are designed as creative corners with games, lifestyle collections and cafes. Cafés at the library have become a norm, but it was Dr Tan Chin Nam, Chairman of the Library 2000 Review Committee and founding Chairman of NLB, who first mooted the idea in 1994 of a café at the prototype Tampines Regional Library (TRL). Library 2010 Report (2005 to 2010) The Library 2010 (L2010) Report mapped out NLB’s strategic framework to help Singaporeans meet new information and knowledge demands arising from an economy that was becoming more technologically and knowledge driven. In fact, during the 10-year period from 1994 to 2004, the share of professional, managerial and technical jobs created in the labour market had increased from 32 percent to 43 percent, while the share of job holders with at least a postsecondary qualification had grown from 15 percent to 31 percent (National Library Board 2005b). This indicated that the Singapore workforce was not only becoming better qualified, but also employed in higher skilled jobs. To help libraries stay relevant in this changing economic landscape, L2010 was to guide NLB to build a round-the-clock library system that provided seamless access to its physical and digital content so that the knowledge embedded could be disseminated easily to library users (National Library Sabaratnam and Ong: Singapore libraries: From bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere Board 2005b). The three guiding principles of the L2010 Report were: 1. Create and change existing libraries into Libraries for Life so that NLB’s network of libraries can provide Singaporeans with multiple avenues to develop their personal knowledge and learning skills. 2. Refine and deepen existing library services so that NLB’s network of libraries can reach out further to the whole community. 3. Support the growth of Singapore’s knowledgebased economy by positioning NLB as a coordinator to collect, preserve and disseminate Singapore’s knowledge asset, as well as a creator of content and services to support learning. One of the first and most definitive initiatives launched under L2010 was NLB’s Digital Library. Set up in 2005, the digital library offered users extensive online access to information and resources, including digitized materials and subject databases, e-books and e-magazines. The content was geared towards aligning NLB to become a leading institution in information provision and knowledge development (National Library Board 2006). The digital library provided one seamless interface with access to a wide selection of library services, database services and general information on NLB. Library members could access over 100 online databases with a wide variety of subject content. In addition, they could also perform online library transactions such as applying for renewal of membership, payment of fines and fees, signing up for due date reminder service, and item renewal. All in all, the digital library was to be an encompassing effort by NLB to offer an efficient and convenient service to its users around the clock, whilst expanding its reach to new and untapped communities. To broaden NLB’s digital reach and to deepen the content of the digital library, NLB created a number of information portals. These included Infopedia in 2008, NewspaperSG in 2009 and MusicSG in 2010. These portals were significant additions to NLB’s digital content. For instance, Infopedia is an online encyclopedia that allows users to search for authoritative articles on Singapore. As these articles cover a wide range of topics such as historical events, arts, culture, economy, government and key personalities, it is a useful reference portal for students and researchers. As for NewspaperSG, it is an online platform that allows users to search, browse and retrieve full text news content from digitized issues of Singapore newspapers dating from 1845 such as The Straits Times and The Singapore Free Press. 107 While implementing the digital infrastructure as envisioned by L2010, NLB continued to widen its physical reach by opening more community libraries, which by then were renamed Public Libraries. The Public Libraries continued to organize a myriad of information literacy programmes, and reading campaigns and activities to reach out to different segments of the community (National Library Board 2008). Some of the programmes included ‘READ! Singapore’ for those 15 years old and above, ‘10,000 Fathers Reading!’ for father figures and their children, the national ‘kidsREAD’ programme for children from lower-income families, ‘Read and Reap’ for primaryto college-level students, and the ‘Share-A-Story’ Storytelling Club for seniors, adults and teenagers. NLB also incorporated new technology and harnessed the connectivity power of social media to enhance the services of public libraries and improve their engagement with the public. For instance, in 2009, NLB introduced the Library in Your Pocket mobile application to provide users easy and convenient access to popular library services on their mobile phones (National Library Board 2010). This was in addition to the myLibrary application on Facebook. The Facebook application enables users to access and share library services and resources through their Facebook page. Besides online initiatives, NLB also introduced a new search facility other than the existing OPAC system. Known as NLB SearchPlus, it allows users to explore both NLB’s physical and digital resources as well as to personalize and save their search results. The National Library shifted from Stamford Road to a new location at Victoria Street. At the time of its opening in 2006, the new National Library had a start-up collection size of over 634,000 items across a floor area of more than 58,000 square metres, which is five times larger than its previous facility. It comprises the Lee Kong Chian Reference Library, and the Central Public Library. Taking advantage of its new central location, the National Library began holding a series of largescale exhibitions to highlight the National Library’s collections. In 2010, NLB embarked on its next phase of strategic planning for the future of its libraries. NLB’s 2020 ‘Libraries for Life’ vision is to foster ‘Readers for Life, Learning Communities, and a Knowledgeable Nation’. The new strategic plan acknowledges NLB’s enduring role of providing not only information resources but also equipping the nation’s citizens with skills to harness information, and encouraging knowledge sharing. It has four strategic objectives: 1. Reading, Learning and Information Literacy: to entrench the reading habit and strengthen 108 IFLA Journal 39(2) Figure 3, 4 and 5. Singapore Polytechnic’s Library designed its spaces according to different zones to suit the various needs of its users. These include zones such as the multimedia and discussion zones. Students are also able to enjoy nature in the indoor Garden in the library. the information literacy skills of Singapore’s citizens. 2. Next-Generation Libraries: to strengthen the role of libraries as well-loved community spaces, where there is equal access to knowledge for all, knowledge sharing, and community engagement. 3. Excellence in Singapore and Regional Content: where the National Library will ensure an authoritative collection of Singapore content, and engage Singaporeans in discovering, using, and appreciating their Singapore published heritage. 4. Digital Library: to make a diverse range of digital content and services easily accessible on users’ preferred devices and spaces. a view and a garden in the library concept. SP Library has since also renovated its spaces and adopted a zoning approach – Quiet Zones for quiet study, Project Rooms and Discussion Zones, PC Zone on an entire floor, a Media Viewing Zone and Colours Zone that introduced materials for personal development and lifestyle based education as part of the Polytechnic’s new General Elective Module (GEMs) curriculum. Others such as the Nanyang Technological University (NTU Library) and Nanyang Polytechnic (NYP Library) have also introduced learning hubs where students have access to interactive whiteboards, screens and multimedia facilities to enhance discussion and learning. New libraries, new approaches Transformation at academic libraries The Lien Ying Chow Library at Ngee Ann Polytechnic (NP Library) was the first academic library to introduce a lifestyle library in 2000. The hip and cool design and décor were aimed at attracting the Gen Y users. It integrates an Internet Café with iPad Services; Interactive Cube with multitouch gaming experience; Board Games Room to develop creativity, sharpen minds and improve vocabulary skills; Music Area; Video Zone; Cablevision programmes and Smart TV and 3D TV experience. The Lifestyle Library was designed to spur and inculcate reading and to inspire students to explore, discover, read and enjoy. Other libraries followed suit. Temasek Polytechnic (TP Library) had, in 2003, transformed the library’s image from an academic resource provider to an enabler of lifelong learning. One of its floors was renovated with a lifestyle concept to meet users’ expectation for a cosy, welcoming social space. A podium with raised flooring provided the ideal platform to support local arts groups such as a cappella and beat boxing. The Singapore Polytechnic (SP Library) introduced a creative close-to-nature Hilltop Library with Whilst the established libraries had the challenge of convincing stakeholders of the need to refresh and reposition their services, the newer libraries were able to jumpstart and offer new technologically-grounded services. For instance, Singapore’s fourth University, the Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD), adopted an innovative approach by involving pioneer students to create a learning and discovery space, one that is ‘designed to inspire’ and users will walk away inspired to design. The SUTD Library adopted new technologies such as surface computing, writable tables and interactive tools to promote collaborative research and learning where groups can share the same surface to discuss, search, save and go. It paid attention to creatively entice the users to DISCOVER, LEARN, SHARE and CONNECT in the physical and virtual space. Hence, SUTD Library’s key spaces were organized as The RANGE, offering access to a wide range of resources that provides a sensory experience of reading, viewing, touch and feel. The unique touch and feel experience is made possible by a materials hub where users get to see, touch and feel what sustainable materials are instead of imagining. The CANVAS Sabaratnam and Ong: Singapore libraries: From bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere 109 Figure 6. SUTD’s pioneering students were involved in the design of their library, resulting in a library space that was designed to inspire. Figure 7 and 8. Singapore Polytechnic’s library has created spaces that aim to inspire and encourage innovation and learning among its users. SP’s Da Vinci level is equipped with architecture and design resources and exhibition space. offers the opportunity for teams to scribble notes as they discuss and save the whole discussion for review and sharing. The SPARK with its surface computer technology helps ignite research and discover amongst teams and the GREEN is a cool amphitheatre with synthetic grass that allows students to relax, dabble in board games, create with Lego and other pieces as well as enjoy a talk or programme. iPads, housed in specially designed settings, replaced the traditional OPAC terminals. Likewise, SP Library has created interesting learning spaces where users are inspired to ‘‘learn, discover and co-create’’. For instance at the Da Vinci Level, it has created a space for architecture and design with funky furniture, pods with projectors, writable tables and walls, Lego sets etc. and this was designed in collaboration with the School of Architecture and the Built Environment. A pilot space, RoBoPod, has been created to inspire engineering students in robotics. It includes Lego Minstorms NXT sets for a hands-on experience. E-I Pod is the space for biomedical research and students are taught research using case-based learning. Libraries such as the NUS and NYP Libraries have created digital 3D library maps using visualization and interactive tools with built-in intelligent path guidance’ features to help users locate spaces and resources at the library. TP Library has an Interactive Corner which houses a digital panel that features rich media applications developed in collaboration with TP staff and students. One of its most popular applications is the Photo Booth, commonly known as ‘newprint booth’. A photo contest to garner the most ‘likes’ on the library’s Facebook page was a big hit with students. Also in the Interactive Corner, are an iPad and an Android tablet, installed to showcase the iOS and Android library mobile apps developed by TP students. NTU Library’s facilities include learning pods with smart boards, multiscreen work desks, a recording room, digital newspaper stands and open viewing area. The success led to the development of the second learning commons at the Business Library, which has additional facilities including a mini-cinema, language learning rooms and a career resource corner. One of the key ideas is to provide useful equipment and facilities that students do not normally have at home or elsewhere. The new National Library The much awaited National Library of Singapore opened its doors in 2006 at a new location, Victoria Street. The library’s startup collection of 635,000 items was spread over a floor area of 58,000 square 110 IFLA Journal 39(2) Figure 9. Singapore Polytechnic students tinkering with their robots in the RoBoPod, a space created to inspire engineering students in robotics. meters. It was five times larger than the grand old lady, the National Library at Stamford Road, which had to give way to urban redevelopment despite an outcry to preserve the building. The new National Library building was designed as a haven for Knowledge, Imagination and Possibility and houses the Lee Kong Chian Reference Library and the Central Public Library under one roof. Due to its central location, it has attracted many community groups and organizations to work with the NLB to host thematic exhibitions, talks and public events. Exploiting technology Singapore libraries have been fortunate to be in the forefront of prototyping new library-based technology applications with industry partners and academia. The libraries served as test beds for innovative library applications. In the 1980s, when Singapore embarked on a government-wide computerization programme, libraries, too, started to introduce library management systems, access to online catalogues and content from automated microfiche readers to standalone computer terminals to networked systems. We also evolved from access at libraries and local area networks to seamless anywhere-anytime access. NP and SP Libraries were amongst the first to introduce a computerized library system in the early 1980s. By 1999, TP Library had implemented Insphere, a seamless, one-stop gateway to electronic information sources such as networked, multimedia CD-ROMs, Internet, and online research databases as well as digitized past examination papers. Students can also ask for online technical assistance, send a reference enquiry and book a personal computer through the system. Users are spoiled for choice and have at their hands a plethora of technologies to experience and learn – be it touch screens, multiple screens, tablets, eReaders or mobile devices. Amongst the libraries that have introduced these technologies are: the NTU Business Library’s use of double and triple screens to allow users to search, view and manipulate data, NIE Library’s touch screen OPAC terminals and SUTD Library’s iPads as OPAC and onsite computer. It was also in the 1980s that the government worked with the then National Library to establish the Singapore Integrated Library Automation Service (SILAS) which hosts the national union catalogue. SILAS today conducts training on cataloguing, metadata, RDA and has sharing sessions. It also acts as a gateway to OCLC. In 2005, NLB relaunched its digital library services which provided the public with access to a wide range of digital information at their fingertips. As Steve Jobs once said, ‘‘Stay Hungry, Stay Foolish’’6, so have our libraries. The librarians have stayed abreast of developments, identified and adapted new and emerging technologies to enhance service delivery and improve on business operations. From tagging books to barcodes and security tags, libraries now exploit RFID technology with enhanced features and use QR codes to facilitate access, promote and track use. Loan systems have evolved to RFID enable self-check machines and automated book drops and sorting systems. The NUS Library won a patent in 2010 for designing a bookdrop that had two new features: it sends an Sabaratnam and Ong: Singapore libraries: From bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere 111 Figure 10. Temasek Polytechnic Library’s interactive corner features a digital panel that showcases applications developed in tandem by teaching staff and students. SMS to the staff member of Loans and Membership and locks the system when the bin is full. Recently, to ease the load of transporting books from the Closed Stacks to the Loans Desk and vice versa, the library fabricated a motorized transporter. It greatly helped our aging workers and resulted in releasing librarians to focus on library users in a value-added and timely manner. Reaching out: from mobile libraries on wheels to virtual space On 6 September 1960, a cream coloured army bus chugged its way to Nee Soon Naval Base School and surprised students with its busload of reading materials. At the end of that one short visit, 300 loans were recorded. By end September 1960, the bus had visited 37 schools with 2,000 loans. The success spurred the National Library to set up 12 mobile library service points at various parts of tiny Singapore. The services were phased out in the 1980s as permanent physical library buildings were set up to reach out to residents in various housing estates. However, in 2009, Molly, a cosy wireless mobile service on wheels, was introduced to reach out to the physically challenged, elderly and very young who could not visit libraries. Molly’s visitors enjoyed the activities such as storytelling, puppetry shows, and surfed on iPads or borrowed books using RFID enabled self-check machines. Fast forwarding to the 21st century, we now see a different kind of mobile media (i.e. social media) that has taken the world by storm. Libraries in Singapore have also jumped on to the bandwagon and began to exploit Facebook, Twitter, Blogs, and mobile applications to reach out to their users and to stay plugged in. Hence, instead of updates through newsletters, bulletins, accessions lists and bibliographies, which may still exist, a myriad of technological options are exploited to provide information to on-the-go users in bite sizes. TP Library is tapping on the visual appeal of Pinterest to promote its print collections and to foster the reading habit among its young readers. Its Pinterest board introduces books from various genres so that staff and students can visit the site regularly for recommended good reads. The NUS Libraries, for instance, is extensively exploiting the social media to offer an array of 112 IFLA Journal 39(2) Figure 11. Figures 11-1 to 11-4. Clockwise from top left-Learning pods in Lee Wee Nam Library (NTU), Early Textbook Collection at Wang Gung Wu Library, Srt Media and Design Library and part of Learning Commons in Business Library. services and more effectively connect with users. Twitter is used to broadcast news of interests with 1000þ followers and this is complemented via Memes that announce news. In April 2012, the NUS Libraries launched a meme contest that encouraged users to send in libraryrelated news. It was a huge success, drawing over 100 entries and thousands of likes. At its peak, there was a 30,000 weekly reach during the period. As noted by some students, the meme contest became a feedback channel for users to express. It has introduced an online chat service to work in tandem with the FAQs system. Questions received during the chat sessions helped enhance the FAQs. The new FAQ system also has the ability to track what users are searching for and what they are clicking on or not. This allows the library to calculate the hit ratio (success rate) of students searching the FAQ. The NUS Library had also embraced instant messaging systems and evolved to web-based live chats with librarians assisting users on research queries. It will become the first library to add chat points into the university’s learning portal, Integrated Virtual Learning Environment (IVLE) and expects this mode of communication to rival, if not exceed, email transactions. Most libraries have, like the NUS Library, experimented with the latest technologies like QR (Quick Response) Codes to bridge real world marketing to virtual content and Foursquare, a location-based service that allows users to check-in and share their location and tips with friends. At the NTU Business Library, we also witness an immersive library experience. The idea was to create a hybrid of physical-cum-virtual environment by exposing users to a range of new media access points to facilitate learning and discovery of library resources while they are in the physical library environment. For example, QR codes were placed in a variety of information posters on book shelves and walls to entice users to use their mobile devices to discover the rich variety of online resources and information on a particular topic. One example was when, in 2012, the hot topic was on business management gurus, 30 large sized panels Sabaratnam and Ong: Singapore libraries: From bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere 113 Figure 12. The National Library of Singapore at Victoria Street. National Library of Singapore. with QR codes and caricatures featuring contemporary business management thinkers were erected throughout the library and users could scan the QR codes using their smart phones or tablets which provide streamed audio biographies and bibliographies of resources available in the library. Anytime anywhere access Mobile devices have become the main way in which users connect, communicate and discover. Hence our libraries have capitalized on this technology to connect with users. TP Library’s mobile application includes a timesaving feature such as ISBN barcode scanner to check for item availability and a fun game called ‘Spin Me’, which recommends good reads when a user shakes his/her mobile device. NYP’s Library On-the-Go is a ‘one portal that runs everywhere’ and NIE’s LibGO! mobile services allow users to check out resources, manage their loans, renewals and e-resources or stay updated on new arrivals or updates while on the move. It’s timely, it’s bite sized, and helps user stay afloat rather than drown in a deluge of information. The NIE Library has launched an online streaming video service. The right information at the right time In accordance with Ranganathan’s age old tenet of ensuring ‘‘the right information at the right time in the right form’’, libraries are venturing into offering a suite of tools and services that will empower the user to extract the relevant information on a timely basis and in a form they prefer. For example, many have introduced powerful search and discovery tools to facilitate one single federated search across a plethora of sources and have these delivered to the user in device-agnostic formats. Power search tools have become the norm and each institute has coined interesting names . . . LibSearch, PowerSearch, LibDiscover, Pyxis, and so forth. In 2002, TP Library launched its Digital Library Portal, Spark which aimed to transform the library into a borderless, state-of-the-art digital library with the implementation of a federated search across a range of diverse resources, link resolver, and a digital media repository for local digitized content. In April 2013, it was replaced with LIBsearch, a search and discovery system. Through a single search box, users can search across the full breadth of content from the library catalogue, local repository, subscribed and open access databases. Raising Info fluency Keeping up with the times, most libraries have adopted a multipronged approach to inculcating information literacy and skills in users. Innovative and creative active learning approaches are adopted to engage the public, students, professionals and management to master the effective research techniques and knowledge of resources or learn to use new tools and devices to stay informed. The training programmes often cover four main areas – awareness of resources, research skills, subject information resources and tools for learning and research. 114 Figure 13. To ease the load of transporting books, the NUS Library fabricated a motorized transporter. NLB’s READ programme goes back in time and has taken a multitude of approaches to inculcate good reading habits. Reading campaigns and activities including storytelling, ASEAN Children’s Festival and a variety of promotional materials were released to educate the masses on the importance of reading. Popular READ initiatives include ‘10,000 Fathers Reading!’, for father figures and their children, ‘READ! Singapore’ for those above 15 years, national ‘KidsREAD’ for children from lower income families, ‘READ and Reap’ for students and ‘Mobile READ’ which allows readers to read on mobile devices like the iPhone. ‘Share-A-Story Club’ for seniors, adults and teenagers was launched and many readers found the ‘Share-A-Story’ interesting and enlightening as it was akin to discovering part of our history from each other. The Bookcross programme, which encouraged readers to pick a book and share a book was placed at libraries, cafés, and public spaces. NLB has also started a National Information Literacy Programme, which aims to raise awareness and public recognition of the importance of information literacy skills, and to provide the resources necessary for Singaporeans to become discerning consumers of information. In 2012, NLB started generating publicity about info-literacy: over 6,000 parents, children and teachers were trained at 29 workshops and eight outreach drives across schools and shopping malls. IFLA Journal 39(2) Most of the academic libraries conduct training during the new cohort orientation period and/or structure more serious classroom training to promote the value of the content and how to exploit the best resources. The librarians also work in partnership with faculty to offer customized training to support specific research and teaching needs. One such example is the ‘Academic Writing: Imparting Critical Thinking Skills’ that SMU Library conducts with faculty involvement. Innovative instructional approaches include e-learning tools, quizzes, learning through games and discovery. For instance, SMU Library has introduced a scavenger hunt, while the Singapore Institute of Management (SIM Library) had an amazing race, to entice students to discover nuggets of information and through that understand the importance of finding and using information in a fun way. In addition, a novel approach that SMU Library has taken is to offer a Legal Internship Prep Course (LIPC), which is customized with emphasis on real queries and research methodology. LIPC is conducted at the Supreme Court as part of a compulsory 10-week internship that law students are required to complete. It is designed with the intention of exposing law students to real work situations where one may be faced with limited resources and services compared to an academic research library setting with a dearth of resources and on-demand services. NP Library has a Wealth Creation InfoCentre to develop students’ financial literacy and investment skills. It houses a wide range of titles on topics related to wealth creation such as personal finance, portfolio management, and guides to investing Students can also practice on Bloomberg Financial Services and simulated investment programs. Its information skills training course is available via an ePlatform and provides scenario-based learning to stimulate students’ higher thinking skills, online games to engage students’ interests, integration of video on-demand to meet the students’ just-in-time learning and an online assessment to test learning outcomes. Academic libraries also place emphasis on educating the users on the importance of the copyright laws and limitations, anti-plagiarism and citations. They are also involved in campus-wide initiatives on academic integrity education. For example, NTU Library held an anti-plagiarism exhibition comprising student videos, guidelines and tips last year and received positive feedback. Outreach programmes Most libraries in Singapore have an aggressive outreach programme. Each organizes various activities, Sabaratnam and Ong: Singapore libraries: From bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere 115 Figure 14. NUS Libraries’ meme competition was a way through which user feedback could be garnered. promotions, book launches, and road shows to share with users and other libraries. NTU Library, for instance, held more than 40 exhibitions in the last academic year and its events such as eFest, Academic Publishing Week and other talks are organized annually. Collection strategy Each library’s collection development policy is geared towards developing a rich knowledge base to support the needs of their user communities, but collectively they serve the needs of the nation. The more established academic libraries have built up a large base of core print resources that are representative of the best titles in each field. The current emphasis is on a ‘go-digital’ strategy and hence, each is placing emphasis on acquiring e-resources to augment and/or substitute the print collections, thereby promoting anytime anywhere access and freeing up space to create more areas for discussion and interactive learning. Purchase models range from annual licences to perpetual access and/or demand/patron driven models. When TP Library introduced its patron-driven acquisitions model, the instantaneous and ease of access 24/7 via mobile devices proved a hit with both students and staff. Hence, Singaporeans should not have the need to thirst for information. The three largest libraries account for the wealth of information resources – the National and Public Library system itself has a reservoir of 9 million books, journals and other materials, and the Singapore public will have access to over 3 million e-books by the end of 2013. The NUS boasts of 1.3 million unique titles of print materials and 400,000 e-resources including e-books as of June 2012, while NTU has 820,000 print titles and almost 500,000 e-resources. These rich reservoirs of information resources at our libraries can be tapped directly or via interlibrary arrangements. Given Singapore’s strategic position and role as a hub for value-added services, libraries have also built up the collection related to its regional ASEAN hinterland extensively. The National Library, National University of Singapore and Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Library (ISEAS Library) can take pride in showcasing their rich Singapore and Southeast Asian Collections as their crown jewels. These are useful to researchers in Singapore and the region. The ISEAS Library’s Private Papers collections include those that belonged to our past leaders such as David Marshall, Lim Kim San and S. Rajaratnam, among others. These libraries have plans to enhance the regional collection in specific thematic areas and exploring possibilities of creating a shared digital repository to promote access. The academic libraries through the years have built up specialized collections to support the teaching and learning needs and are beginning to serve as de facto ‘national collections’. Examples of specialized collections include:     the Medical and Law Libraries at the National University of Singapore the Engineering collection and Business Libraries at Nanyang Technological University the Arts/Design and Hospitality/Tourism collections at Temasek Polytechnic the educational resources that support teachers and educators at the National Institute of Education. These materials span the history, systems and policies of the Singapore education system as well as the region and emphasis is placed on the genre covering teaching methods, pedagogy, and curriculum development. 116 IFLA Journal 39(2) new releases and popular titles, electronic forms to request for services, email and SMS alerts. It is also integrated to the learning management system where library titles are displayed against subjects taught and users can seamlessly access the library catalogue. To broaden its reach, NLB has created a number of information portals such as Infopedia, NewsPapersSG and MusicSG. As part of the Singapore Memory project, a whole national movement has been orchestrated to capture memories of Singapore. A large scale digitization of Singapore’s history is under way. This includes collecting and digitizing postcards, pictures and other artworks that are contributed by members of the public. PictureSG provides access to photographs and artworks and BookSG provides e-access to rare books and historical materials about Singapore. Emerging roles Figure 15. Libraries are utilizing social media, like Foursquare, to engage their users and boost library visibility.  the rich 600,000 Southeast Asian collection with private collections of prominent persons at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Library serve as a research hub supporting researchers from the region and globally. In addition, others are developing specializations in other fields such as the law and business/management collections at the Singapore Management University Library. The Singapore University of Technology and Design Library, which is only 2 years old is developing an interesting touch and feel experience with its materials collection and will provide open access to its design and technology collection. Library portal, window to the world The new façade that attracts the user is not the physical library but the library web page that becomes the window to the wealth of information and portfolio of services. Singapore Polytechnic’s ELISER is an instance of a portal that has been constantly refreshed and maintained to ensure user friendliness with features to attract users. The key features include personalization and participation, an electronic bookshelf displaying With the proliferation of open access resources and peer-to-peer sharing of information, libraries are constantly faced with the challenge of ensuring stakeholders appreciate and realize the value libraries offer in the accumulation, organization and dissemination of information in cost-effective ways. Most libraries are engaging users and repositioning libraries to raise the visibility and proactively contributing in various initiatives. Examples include participation in work improvement teams, as resource persons in committees, observing classes and providing reading lists and/or training in class on sourcing for research materials, organizing book launches for faculty, etc. The SMU librarians have taken on the role of supporting the faculty with their research performance assessment and prepare citation analysis reports which help the university’s Office of Research Administration produce research publications report to the stakeholders. The librarians also prepare citation reports for faculty applying for tenure and promotions. As the National Library of Singapore begins to play the dual role of preserving the literary heritage and oral history of the nation, academic libraries are playing a lead role in preserving the academic and scholarly output of the academic institution. These take the form of institutional repositories that capture, index and archive theses, various academic papers and the history of the institution. NUS Libraries have launched ScholarBank@NUSL. NTU launched DRNTU and successfully obtained approval from the university in 2011 for an Open Access Mandate requiring faculty to submit their publications and students, their research theses for open access. For SMU, INK has been set up. Sabaratnam and Ong: Singapore libraries: From bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere 117 Figure 16. 16-1 to 16.4. An immersive library experience at the Nanyang Technological University Business Library. The SMU Library also initiated an oral history project ‘Conceptualising SMU: The People and Ideas behind the SMU Story’ to gather records that encapsulate the thinking behind the establishment of SMU, Singapore’s third university. NP Library has created a gallery which showcases the rags to riches story of its donor, Dr Lien Ying Chow, his legendary business acumen, services to the country, commitment to education and passion for the country. It also includes a rich array of resources on Asian entrepreneurs, pioneers of Singapore, philanthropy and Chinese diaspora. A Digital Media Repository system was developed by the TP Library in 2004 to collect all things TP such as images, audiovisual, and digitized publications. This was subsequently replaced with ADAM, a digital asset management system, in 2010. To underline the role of the library as the institutional repository for the institution, TP Library will be looking into an integrated archival management solution, which will promote access and presentation of its archive collection. SP Library has also created the Singapore Polytechnic Memory Project that is aimed at capturing the school’s history and linking the present community to the past. Similarly, NIE has started to create an image bank to capture its 60-year history and other libraries are also embarking on preserving the history, literary heritage and intellectual capital of their institutions. Knowledge management and collaboration are probably the next big areas that Singapore libraries need to address. Going beyond interlibrary loans coupled with resource constraints and rising costs, it is timely for the libraries to look into perhaps working on a national collection strategy with consortia rates for digital licences, open access to libraries and shared training, knowledge, experience, systems and applications rather than each reinventing the wheel. The libraries under the Council of Chief Librarians have started discussions and hopefully this will come to fruition. Manpower development In line with the proliferation of technology-based services at the libraries and new expanded roles, Figure 17. Many libraries, like Nanyang Polytechnic’s, offer mobile applications that allow users to access library services from their portable devices. librarians are renewing and upgrading themselves to be information-savvy professionals. This is important as we are serving a more demanding and affluent user base. Subject specialization becomes important so that librarians understand the domain knowledge and can effectively connect with the users. In Singapore, librarians have several avenues to upgrade, stay relevant and be equipped with the new skills needed. In addition to the Masters in Information Studies and short courses offered at the Nanyang Technological University, the Library Association of Singapore also organizes continuing education programmes. The Association has set in place a Professional Development Scheme to accredit librarians 118 IFLA Journal 39(2) Figure 18. 18-1 to 18.3. Temasek Polytechnic Library’s Insphere, a gateway to electronic resources introduced in 1999, was replaced with the Digital Library Portal in 2002. who participate in various training programmes and demonstrate mastery. Libraries invest in staff training and development. They organize training with vendors, send staff to conferences and study trips. Some have arranged exchange programmes by twinning with other organizations and partners. E-learning and webinars are becoming a norm as well as peer-to-peer learning through sharing knowledge and interacting via forums and blogs. Library conferences help librarians keep abreast of changes and trends in the industry. Libraries in Singapore are connected to the wider global library community by participating, organizing and hosting various international and local conferences. For instance, the NLB is organizing the second International Summit of the Book in 2013, while the Library Association of Singapore has its annual conferences. NTU Library organized the 2012 Annual International Association of Scientific and Technological University Libraries (IATUL), which attracted 180 participants from 25 countries. This is the first time IATUL has held its conference in Asia. Singapore will be hosting this year’s IFLA in August 2013. Our librarians are also plugged into the local and international professional library community. They attend various regional and international meetings and conferences. Libraries have joined as institutional members of various organizations. Examples include membership with the Library Association of Singapore (LAS), Congress of Southeast Asian Libraries, ASEAN University Network Information and Libraries Online (AUNILO), American Library Association (ALA), International Association of Scientific and Technological University Libraries (IATUL), International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), Pacific Rim Digital Library Alliance (PRDLA), Special Libraries Association (SLA), Libraries of the Australian Technology Network (LATN), and OCLC, among others. These memberships vary from library to library. The NTU Library, for instance, belongs to the Outstanding Academic Papers by Students (OAPS) group of libraries from China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and USA, which aim to promote good scholarly writing by students. NTU has close ties with Wuhan University Library in China, which involves two staff members from each institution spending between 2 weeks to 2 months attachments in the respective libraries annually for the past 4 years. It also provides regular professional staff attachments for regional librarians under their Professional Internship Programme for International Librarians (PIPIL). More than 40 regional librarians have been through the NTU Library since 2006. Conclusion Painting the century-old history on a canvas will highlight the meandering paths, the peaks and downs that the libraries had to take in the light of socio-economic development and priorities as the nation progressed. Singapore libraries, we believe, have been fortunate. Despite various challenges, the libraries in Singapore have weathered hard times and good times to rise and meet the information needs of the populace and target communities through a plethora of information resources supporting leisure, education and research. Sabaratnam and Ong: Singapore libraries: From bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere Looking back, we can proudly say that each librarian has in some small way contributed to the library renaissance in Singapore. This article, we believe, will serve as a window to the world of libraries and librarianship in Singapore. Acknowledgements Contributors to the Article Zaleha Tamby (ISEAS Library), Leo-Lim Bee Ang (Ngee Ann Polytechnic), Chia Wai Ying, Daniel Wee (Nanyang Polytechnic), Choy Fatt Cheong (Nanyang Technological University), Ho Oon Seng Hilary, Wan-Yeoh Seok Kwan (National Institute of Education), Lim Tin Seng (National Library Board), Hashimah Bte Johari (National University of Singapore Libraries), Library staff members (Singapore Institute of Management), Li Ka Shing, Library staff (Singapore Management University), Fang Sin Guek, Jennifer Gan (Singapore Polytechnic), Fong Kok Seng (Singapore University of Technology and Design), Ho Mui Huay (Temasek Polytechnic Library). Notes 1. http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporebusinessnews/view/1039077/1/.html 2. Library 2000 Review Committee. (1994). Library 2000: Investing in a learning nation: Report of the Library 2000 Review Committee. Singapore: SNP Publishers. 3. The National Library Board Act. http://www.nlb.gov.sg/ Corporate.portal?_nfpb¼true&_pageLabel¼Corporate_ portal_page_aboutnlb&node¼corporate%2FAboutþ NLB%2FNLBþAct&corpCareerNLBParam¼NLBþAct 4. Tampines: The branch library of the future. (1993, March 18). The Straits Times, p. 23. 5. Peralta, C. (1997, March 12). National Library’s $2.6m facelift. The Straits Times, News Focus, p. 2. 6. BrainyQuote. 2011. Steve Job Quotes. Retrieved 6 February 2013 from: http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/ authors/s/steve_jobs.html#tVJyMbh2btRKfOEt.99 References/Additional readings Corner EJH (1981) The Marquis: A tale of Syonan-to. Singapore: Heinemann Educational Asia. Hanitsch R (1991) Raffles Library and Museum. In W Makepeace, Brooke GE and Braddell RJ (eds.) One hundred years of Singapore. Singapore: Oxford University Press. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (2012). Library Outlook 2013. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http:// www.iseas.edu.sg/library-outlook-2013.cfm. Library 2000 Review Committee (1994) Library 2000: Investing in a learning nation: Report of the Library 2000 Review Committee. Singapore: SNP Publishers. Lim HT (1970) Libraries in West Malaysia and Singapore, a short history. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press. Liu G (1987) One hundred years of the National Museum Singapore 1887–1987. Singapore: The Museum, Singapore. 119 Makepeace W, Brooke GE and Braddell RJ (eds.) (1991) One hundred years of Singapore. Singapore: Oxford University Press. National Institute of Education (n.d.) Fast facts on NIE. Retrieved January 16, 2013, from http://www.nie.edu. sg/about-nie/general-information/fast-facts-nie National Institute of Education (n.d.) History. Retrieved January 16, 2013, from http://www.nie.edu.sg/aboutnie/general-information/history National Institute of Education (n.d.) Vision, Mission, Core Values. Retrieved January 16, 2013, from http://www. nie.edu.sg/about-nie/general-information/vision-mission-core-values National Library Board (1995–) Annual Report 1995–. Singapore: National Library Board. National Library Board (2005b) Library 2010: Libraries for life, knowledge for success. Singapore: National Library Board. National Library Board (2007) The people’s library: 50 years of national and public library services. Singapore: National Library Board. National Library Board (2009) Molly’s memories, milestones and moments: celebrating mobile library services in Singapore. Singapore: Public Libraries Singapore, National Library Board. National Library Singapore (1964–) Annual Report 1963–. Singapore: The Library. Raffles Library and Museum (1876) Annual Report 1875. Singapore: The Museum. Raffles Library and Museum (1940) Annual Report 1939. Singapore: The Museum. Raffles Library and Museum (1956) Annual Report 1955. Singapore: The Museum. Hallowell R, Knoop C-I and Siong NB (2001) Transforming Singapore’s public libraries. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School. Seet KK (1983) A place for the people. Singapore: Times Books International. Seet KK (2005) Knowledge, imagination, possibility: Singapore’s transformative library. Singapore: SNP Editions. Singapore Polytechnic (2012) Singapore Polytechnic Annual Report 2011/12, Singapore. Singapore Polytechnic (2013) Singapore Polytechnic website [online]. Available from: http://www.sp.edu.sg [Accessed 24 January 2013]. Singapore Polytechnic (2013) SP Prospectus 2013–14, Singapore. Turnbull CM (2009) A history of modern Singapore, 1819– 2005. Singapore: NUS Press. Wijeysingha E (1989) The eagle breeds a gryphon: The story of the Raffles Institution 1823–1985. Singapore: Pioneer Book Centre. Useful links to Singapore library homepages Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, ISEAS Libraries. http://www.iseas.edu.sg/library.cfm 120 Nanyang Polytechnic Library, NYP Library. http:// library.nyp.edu.sg Nanyang Technological University, NTU Library. www.ntu.edu.sg/library/ National Institute of Education, Library and Information Services Centre. http://libris.nie.edu.sg National Library Board, Singapore. http://www.nlb. gov.sg/ National University of Singapore, NUS Libraries. www.lib.nus.edu.sg/ Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Lien Ying Chow Library. http://www.np.edu.sg/library Singapore Institute of Management, SIM Libraries. http://www1.sim.edu.sg/ Singapore Management University, Li Ka Shing Library. http://library.smu.edu.sg/ Singapore Polytechnic, SP Library. http://eliser. lib.sp.edu.sg/ Singapore University of Technology and Design, SUTD Library. http://library.sutd.edu.sg/ Temasek Polytechnic, TP Library. http://library.tp. edu.sg/ Author biographies Julie S Sabaratnam has rich experiences from the public, private and academic sectors. She was instrumental in the landmark Library 2000 study that shaped the transformation IFLA Journal 39(2) of libraries in Singapore, the establishment of the National Library Board and the Masters in Information Studies programme at NTU. She helped establish and manage information and research services in various organizations. Though Julie was the corporate librarian, she had the opportunity to work as the strategic planner and was actively involved in various national plans such as IT2000, ICT21, and Renaissance City. She spearheaded the first national digital library initiative, TiARA in 1996. Julie obtained her Masters in Information Studies from Loughborough University of Technology. Contact details: Ms Julie S Sabaratnam, University Librarian, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 20 Dover Drive Singapore 138682. Tel: þ6563036691. Email: juliesabaratnam@sutd.edu.sg Web: www. sutd.edu.sg Library Homepage: library.sutd.edu.sg Mrs Esther Ong Wooi Cheen is the Director of Library and Information Resources at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore since 1991. She is the pioneer librarian who set up the present day 11-storey library building. She graduated with a BSc (Econ) from the University of Canterbury, NZ in 1974 and obtained her Postgraduate Diploma in Librarianship from the University of NSW, Australia in 1978. She has worked in the National University of Singapore and Nanyang Technological University libraries prior to her present appointment. Contact details: Temasek Polytechnic Library, 21 Tampines Ave 1, Singapore 529757. Tel: 65-67805211. Email: ongwc@tp.edu.sg I F LA Article Commonwealth of uncertainty: How British and American professional models of library practice have shaped LIS Education in selected former British Colonies and Dominions International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions 39(2) 121–133 ª The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0340035213486405 ifla.sagepub.com Mary Carroll Charles Sturt University Wagga Wagga Paulette Kerr University of the West Indies, Mona Abdullahi I. Musa Emporia State University Waseem Afzal Charles Sturt University Abstract Worldwide the library and information profession has been the focus of competing social and political agendas that have contributed to the shape of the profession. From the late 19th century to the present in countries aligned to the former British Dominions and Colonies (today part of the Commonwealth of Nations) these external influences were predominantly from two cultural arenas, that of the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (US). The result in many Commonwealth countries been two competing and at times contradictory models for LIS pedagogy which have been labelled the British and American ‘models or patterns’ of education. The convergence of these two influences has had a role in shaping LIS education and has left a complex legacy. This paper will examine how the legacy of this convergence continues to shape the aspirational agenda of local professional communities and will discuss how this has influenced the delivery and the educational model for librarianship. This paper will examine as a series of case studies how the legacy of this convergence has shaped the aspirations of the LIS profession and influenced the delivery and the educational model of librarianship in a number of Commonwealth countries. Keywords library and information education, cultural influences, Commonwealth countries Exploration of the foundations of modern library and information science (LIS) worldwide reveals a discipline which has been the focus of competing international agendas seeking to influence education and practice at the local level. These international influences can be seen clearly in many of the countries which constitute the Commonwealth of Nations1. From the late 19th century to the present in many former British Colonies and Dominions2 these international influences were derived predominantly from the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (US) and have been variously called the British and American Corresponding author: Mary Carroll, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, Boorooma Street, North Wagga NSW, Australia. Postal address: Locked Bag 588, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia. Email: macarroll@csu.edu.au 122 ‘models’ or ‘patterns’ of education and practice (Bramley 1975; Bryan 1972; Keane 1985). As a consequence of this duality of influence in many local professional communities there exists an uneasy convergence of two competing and at times contradictory models of LIS. The outcome in countries where this has occurred can be professional tensions and uncertainties and complex, and at times contradictory, models for education and practice within the one jurisdiction. This paper will examine as a series of case studies how the legacy of this convergence has shaped the aspirations of the LIS profession and influenced the delivery and the educational model of librarianship in a number of these Commonwealth countries. Models of education The British model In the late 19th and early 20th century the LIS profession in many of the former British Colonies and Dominions derived its educational and professional structures principally from UK precedents. This so called ‘British model’ for LIS included training in the workplace in an apprenticeship mode and eventually involved examinations in both general and specialist knowledge set by the local professional association or the Library Association (LA) of the United Kingdom. In the second half of the 20th century this model evolved into one which initially included local training schools catering for these examinations and later first or undergraduate degrees in librarianship with some of the LIS professional associations acting as course accrediting rather than examining bodies. These changes were in response to a variety of factors including increasing accessibility of education, growth in the number of libraries, changes in government policy and lobbying by professional associations for education to support practice and promote the status of their professions. Despite these changes in the second half of the 20th century, educational conditions in the United Kingdom and many of its former colonies and dominions remained very different from those of the United States and consequently the pathway to professions such as librarianship was equally dissimilar. Access to libraries and the conditions under which they operated in the US were also very different as was the role the library was seen to play in society. In the US public libraries were widespread thanks to the work of philanthropists such as Andrew Carnegie and they, like education, were entwined with wider social and political agendas. In the US Education for librarianship follows this pattern. The first recognized professional degree is the master’s; IFLA Journal 39(2) admission to most library schools requires the fouryear bachelor’s degree, following the twelve years of elementary-secondary education (Asheim 1971: 43). The concept of librarianship as a postgraduate profession in the US style was not favoured however by British trained librarians working nationally and internationally in the many former colonies and dominions and was viewed as inappropriate to local needs and conditions. It was argued these differences in education and library infrastructure made a postgraduate model neither appropriate to the needs of local communities, nor sustainable, aimed as it was towards producing library leaders rather than workers. The British based apprentice and undergraduate model of education for librarianship held sway in many Commonwealth countries for a large part of the 20th and 21st centuries. Yet in many countries US based influences and practices ran parallel to these British practices. The promotion of US library practice Historically US standardized work practices and systems such as Dewey Decimal Classification began to make inroads internationally in the second half of the 19th century (though not without some resistance3). The exportation of these standardized practices and systems was to be a harbinger of a broader promotion of US style professional principles and practice internationally in the 20th century. Led by the American Library Association and supported by both US philanthropic and government agencies, the promotion of an American model of ‘modern’ library practice and education abroad was part of a broader agenda to provide a living example of democratic culture at work (Kraske, 1985: 3). In this ‘American model’ education for librarianship occurred in tertiary institutions and followed the precedents of professions such as law and medicine as a graduate profession. The professional association acted as an accrediting body for tertiary programmes rather than an examination body and the establishment and promotion of professional associations was seen as central to promoting the status of the profession. Ongoing issues Within many international professional groups the complex legacy emerging from this historical context can be seen in local professional and aspirational struggles as attempts are made to reconcile the competing influences and contrasting educational structures. Such struggles have, in some instances, resulted in ongoing uncertainty and tension over best practice in education, Carroll et al.: Commonwealth of uncertainty preferred professional entry points and persistent and unresolved debate associated with what constitutes appropriate education for the LIS profession. These debates encompass issues such as apprenticeship versus degree models of education, the role of professional associations in education and defining standards– including the question of examination versus accreditation; the appropriateness of undergraduate or postgraduate education as an entry point for the profession and to meet local labour needs; whether paraprofessional training (that is for library technicians or library technical assistants) is necessary in the industry, and; if those trained in such a way should be given access to, and credit for, their training towards professional undergraduate or postgraduate qualifications (Carroll 2011). Each of these issues reflects a tension between the two different and contending educational paradigms which can be seen running through the development of professional librarianship internationally. This legacy and its implications for professional practice will be discussed in this paper as they relate to four LIS communities: Australia, Jamaica, Nigeria and Pakistan. Australia European Australia has long been exposed to various cultural pressures from beyond its own shores and has been profoundly influenced by its colonial heritage–resolutely and proudly part of the British Empire and Commonwealth yet pragmatically looking elsewhere for inspiration, identity and a sense of independence. Despite its strong cultural and emotional ties to the former British Empire, from the late 19th century onwards Australia began to look frequently to its increasingly influential Pacific neighbour, the United States, for cultural, political and educational inspiration. Historical trends in Australia The first decades of the 20th century were to see increased exposure to US popular culture through media such as popular fiction, film and radio and the increasing engagement of influential Australian professionals with their US counterparts. Nationally, educational historian Richard Selleck believes that there was ‘significant cultural change’ during this period, as ‘Australian educationalists were beginning to seek inspiration in the United States rather than Britain’ (1982: 272). The increasing presence of US philanthropic bodies and other non-government agencies in Australia also provided opportunities to Australian professionals for and exposure to new ideas and modes of practice emerging from the US. 123 Importantly for the library profession in Australia (and elsewhere) amongst the US philanthropic organization making their presence felt in Australia, was the CCNY. The influence of the CCNY on the Australian education and library community in the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s is considered significant (Horrocks, 1971; White, 1997). The years prior to World War II saw the CCNY become actively engaged in Australian professional life, funding the establishment of the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) and the Australian Institute of Librarians (AIL) later known as the Library Association of Australia (LAA). The CCNY also funded the international travel of many key men and women to both Europe and the United States. CCNY funding in Australia was to align with emerging US government agendas in promoting the US abroad and the opportunities provided by the CCNY also exposed key influential Australian librarians to new templates for practice and ambitions for Australian LIS education. While not uncritical or all-embracing in their acceptance, these influential practitioners were to place in the Australian arena ambitions for a mode of education and practice often at odds with Australian educational conditions, which at this time more closely resembled those of its traditional mentor, the UK. In Australia the activities of the CCNY were to lay the ground for the work of other US agencies in the construction of the library profession. Ensuring democratic librarianship was the benchmark for professional practice and an essential part of the broader defence of democracy was to become an integral and overt element in wider US diplomatic efforts. In 1944 the Australian library fraternity welcomed a number of high-profile US Office of War Information (OWI) librarians to its shores as part of an effort to establish OWI libraries in strategically important locations in the Pacific. The Australian OWI libraries were established in Melbourne, Victoria and Sydney, New South Wales and were part of a broader information effort by the US government involving news services, films and intelligence gathering, as well as library service. The Australian OWI librarians included Helen Wessells, later editor of the Library Journal and Harriet Root, librarian of the US Information Service in Washington. Their arrival was to continue the promotion of US practice started by the CCNY in Australia and was aligned to the US war efforts and the role defined for libraries and librarians identified these efforts as being critical in the defence of freedom and in supporting democracy. In the time they were to spend in Australia, these librarians had a lasting impact on local library practice. The US democratic vision presented by these librarians was to 124 have a hold in the imagination of many of the elite of the library profession who had benefited from CCNY travel grants in Australia, and ambitions emerged for a US model of professional education. This was an agenda to be pursued in the coming decades. The activities of the US library fraternity did not mean that the influence of the UK had ceased entirely. In November 1946, sponsored by the British Council, well-known British librarian Lionel McColvin4 arrived Australia in somewhat controversial circumstances5 to follow up progress on the conditions of public libraries in Australia. McColvin was known to view US librarianship as an opportunity for ‘‘useful guidance’’ but ‘‘not of a character to completely meet our needs’’ (1939: 60) and promoted a system for Australia closely aligned to the UK model in his resultant report, Public libraries in Australia: present conditions and future possibilities (1947). Perceptions of the degree of influence of McColvin’s Australian report vary, but what McColvin’s visit accomplished was to reinforce perceptions of UK modes of practice and their appropriateness for Australian conditions to Australian professionals in a period which was to see the arrival of many British-trained librarians to Australian shores. The consequences of this were to engage the Australian profession for the following decades. Despite a clear preference to follow US precedents amongst leading Australian librarians, much activity during the 1940s and 1950s followed models emerging out of the UK. In 1941 the Australian Institute of Librarians (AIL) Board of Certification and Examination was established making the AIL an examination rather than accreditation body much as was its British counterpart. Training schools were established in the major state libraries to conduct classes for employees and others wishing to sit the Institute’s exams and LIS training continued very much in the model of the UK with close links to vocational and applied education. Issues of education and accreditation The 1960s and 1970s were to see the expansion of Australia’s tertiary education, and the long-term impact and confluence of educational influences of the CCNY, the OWI librarians and visitors such as McColvin began to emerge. In the 1960s ‘‘the library workforce consisted of clerical level staff, trainee librarians, registration librarians, graduates without library qualification and graduate librarians’’ (Ennever, 1989: 167). This workforce was a reflection of a complex and divided vision for the profession. The balance, however, seemed to be tipping in favour of IFLA Journal 39(2) a US model, with the first school of librarianship based on the ‘American model’ established at the University of New South Wales in 1960. At this time official LAA policy for LIS education– led as it was by many of those who had been influenced by US practice in the 1930s and 1940s–was also in favour of a postgraduate qualification from a university (Library Association of Australia, 1965). The wider LIS library community, however, became concerned with this direction for Australian librarianship and a divide began to surface between those who had been exposed to US practice, either through contact locally with prominent US librarians or through travel funded by organizations such as the CCNY, and the remaining library workers. Despite the moves earlier in the decade to establish the Australian profession as a graduate one by 1965 the LAA had pragmatically adopted a different model other than its preferred graduate policy with the acceptance of 2-year diplomas from ‘second-tier’ institutions, such as the Royal Melbourne Institutes of Technology (RMIT) and Sydney Technical College (STC) as conferring exemption from some its registration exams. Reflecting on these activities, librarian Harrison Bryan states: Prior to the recognition, in rapid succession, of the two non-university schools (STC and RMIT) it would have been reasonable to assume that what it really had in mind was in favour of university schools on the (basically) American pattern of education for librarianship (1972: 15) From this point onward the LAA moved officially away from the concept of an entirely ‘graduate profession’ though this continued (and continues) to be fiercely debated and these ambitions were never fully relinquished. Encel, Bullard and Cass, in their sociological review of Australian librarianship, Librarians: a survey (1972), believed that an influx of British librarians into Australia in the years following World War II was largely responsible for a shift away from the previous graduate policy. According to Encel, Bullard and Cass, Outside N.S.W. [New South Wales] the majority of librarians were non-graduates. This applied in particular to the large numbers of British librarians who came to Australia with the post 1945 War wave of migrants. Instead they had a background of solid training in a well developed Public Library system. The (British) Library Association, the professional body to which most of these librarians had belonged was predominantly an association of non-graduate librarians. Many of these librarians were opposed to 125 Carroll et al.: Commonwealth of uncertainty the concept of a graduate profession, and their influence has been strongly felt in the affairs of the Library Association of Australia (1972: 59). To add to the complexity already evident, in 1969 US educator Lester Asheim visited Australia. Asheim was a proponent of the three-tiered model of librarianship consisting of untrained clerks, trained library technicians and graduate librarians. Such a model presumed the existence of a postgraduate US-inspired education model situated in a university. Many prominent librarians, particularly in the State of Victoria, continued to aspire to postgraduate education despite the official change of policy and resistance among its members. They had reason to be hopeful as there emerged positive moves at the University of Melbourne towards another postgraduate school. This, however, foundered in the face of what Harrison Bryan called the ‘‘general uninterest on the part of the universities’’ and ‘‘the distressing apathy shown by the University of Melbourne’’ and its reluctance to take up the funding of a Chair of Librarianship on offer from the philanthropic Myer Foundation (1972: 15). In 1970, with the ambitions for this three-tier model still influential amongst the executive of the Victorian branch of the LAA, a Library Technicians Certificate was introduced into the technical division of the Victorian Education department. The aim of such a certificate was to supply a body of trained clerical staff. In the same year, and in the same state, the first 3-year first professional award (Associate Diploma in Librarianship) was introduced at RMIT. It was at this moment that the two different approaches to LIS education met in one state and at the one time, setting the scene for the future. The following decades were to see continued shifts in the broader social and educational forces driving Australian LIS education, yet the tensions and structures which emerged in the first half of the 20th century remained. Educationally a pendulum tipped back and forth over time, favouring at times the ‘British model’ then the ‘American model’. Of those who travelled during the 1930s and 1940s, prominent Australian librarian and educator John Metcalfe perhaps best typified the Australian approach when, in reflecting on his travels to the UK and the US, he states, ‘‘I want to see if I can strike something of a balance between British and American Librarianship (1996: 138). The legacy This theme of somehow ‘balancing’ the two models becomes a recurrent one throughout the following decades in Australian LIS literature and continues to concern Australian LIS education into the 21st century, with many of these original debates remaining unresolved (Harvey, 2001; Myburg 2003). Tension and debate surrounding appropriate entry points to the profession and the preferred model of education to meet industry aspirations for professional recognition and status continue, and the legacy of Australia’s divided vision is still evident in the complex education system and structures in place for Australian LIS. Entry to the profession continues at baccalaureate and post-baccalaureate levels, with little distinction made between the two. Post-baccalaureate qualification do not necessarily mean a Master’s qualification, as they can include a postgraduate diplomas, and paraprofessional training has continued uninterrupted from the 1970s onward leading to a porous educational structure. What is evident in Australian LIS education today is the unresolved legacy of two competing professional paradigms. Jamaica A British colony from the 17th century, Jamaica reveals a complex combination of colonial, cultural and geographic legacies. Jamaica’s historical and cultural legacies confirm the national motto, ‘‘Out of Many, One People’’. While the country proudly presents a unified ‘creolized’ face that has been developed by multiple cultural influences ranging from Spanish, British and American to African and Asian, there remain the sometimes unspoken contradictions and tensions among dominant cultures. Similarly, while the country boasts a centuries-long colonial relationship with Britain, which has shaped its political, social and educational milieu, close proximity to the United States has presented another contending paradigm which has profoundly impacted cultural, economic and educational aspirations. Library education in Jamaica, (and indeed in the wider English-speaking Caribbean), mirrors trends in the national education system, which is rooted in British practice and which remained predominantly British into most of the 20th century. Douglas cites major influences on the development of information professionals in the Caribbean and argues that the British practice has been the most influential model for educating Jamaican and Caribbean librarians, mainly because of the strong colonial relationship with Britain (1992: 12). However, with increasing cultural and economic relationships and travel between the US and Jamaica, North American standards and practice have led to major changes over the last 30 years. According to Douglas, the British influence was greatest in the earliest years but ‘‘British 126 progressive activity had less influence in later years’’ (p.13). The challenge to find autonomy remains today. Historical trends in Jamaica Similarly to what occurred in Australia, education for Caribbean librarians started in the 1940s, when would-be librarians studied for and sat examinations set by the Library Association, then the examining body for library education in Britain and the British Commonwealth. Early Jamaican and Caribbean librarians attended library schools in Britain as well as the Eastern Caribbean Regional Library School (ECRL School), which was established in Trinidad in 1948 by the British Council for Colonial Development and Welfare. A few also studied on their own under the guidance of those who had attended British library schools. The ECRL School was intended to train personnel to operate public libraries which the British Council was establishing in the Caribbean region (Bennett and Ferguson, 2000). Although not initially participating in the project, a number of Jamaican students utilized this option, as although a part-time facility, it prepared persons for the Library Association’s examinations which earned different awards namely the Associateship of the Library Association (ALA) and the Fellowship of the Library Association (FLA), which was awarded on the basis of a thesis (Mohamedali 2004: 103). Unfortunately, with reduced funding, the ECRL School closed in 1962 and Jamaican library personnel sat these examinations privately. Bennett and Ferguson declare that a hiatus was created with the closure of the ECRL School and with the revision of the Library Association’s curriculum towards full-time study. Intense lobbying by the Jamaica Library Association and other library associations in the English-speaking Caribbean region resulted in the creation of a local School of Library Studies in Jamaica. The aim for these librarians was to design a ‘‘programme suited to the needs of the Caribbean’’ (Bennett and Ferguson, 2000). Mohamedali argues that when this independent training institution was established in 1971, it was ‘‘modelled largely on British concepts and practices because the University of the West Indies in which it was established was derived from a British institution and because the planners were oriented to this system’’ (p.103). The University of the West Indies ( UWI), which started in 1948 as a College of the University of London, gained university status as the University of the West Indies in 1962 when Jamaica became independent. Modelling the British tradition, the newly developed library school, the Department of Library Studies, began with an undergraduate IFLA Journal 39(2) 3-year degree, rather than the North American graduate model. At the time of its introduction, an undergraduate degree ‘‘was considered to be more suited to the existing situation in the Caribbean where this was the first attempt to provide professional education in the discipline at the local level and the majority of prospective students from the region had only high school certification’’ (Quality Assurance Self-Study Report, 2012: 10). It was felt at the time that such a programme was suitable to provide graduates who are able to manage libraries and other information units to meet needs expressed by organizations in the public sector. Interestingly it seems that this apparently single British orientation to library education was seen as a means of building a cohesive regional library force, as Mohamedali states it ‘‘provided for the establishment of a sound, stable network of library systems across the region’’ (p.103). In 1973, also based on the British tradition, a Postgraduate Diploma was introduced for persons with a non-library university degree. Both programmes included mandatory internship components. While the UK model was seen as the more suitable for developing Caribbean librarians, US influence was inescapable. Although the new programme was shaped on the British model, the initial grant from UNESCO for developing the school provided for two UNESCO experts who would fill posts of Professor and Senior Lecturer. One came from Columbia University in New York and the other from Loughborough University of Technology School of Librarianship in Britain. These experts would bring different approaches to bear on the direction of the programme. In addition, since the library school was situated in an academic research institution, the programme was not entirely professional, but combined librarianship and academic subjects to meet the requirements of the UWI. Further, there were a few Jamaican professionals who received education and training from US universities during those early years. It was felt, however, that their impact was insignificant and that there were ‘‘obvious incompatibilities between what was learned and the needs of the region’’ (Mohamedali, 2004: 103). Many of these sentiments would change over time with demands for curriculum revisions and for international accreditation. The increasing influx of US trained faculty via the Organisation of American States (OAS) and Fulbright funding would see changes towards the inclusion of alternative approaches and a US-based model of education. Douglas contends that 127 Carroll et al.: Commonwealth of uncertainty the ‘‘information science’’ approaches and the’’ facilitator’’ aspects were derived from North American influences (p.13). In addition, when the UWI decided to change from the traditional academic year system to the US semester-based system in 1988, major reviews of the curriculum were initiated by the Department, which enabled greater specialization at the upper and graduate levels (Bennett and Ferguson, 2000). Given the growth of information technology, the Department introduced new courses to reflect the trends. Mohamedali states that American practices in the areas of automation and audiovisual work have influenced practice in the Caribbean (p.103). Curriculum and programme revisions Major revisions were brought to bear on the curriculum from the changing influences. In 1987, adopting a US approach, the Department introduced the Master in Library Studies (MLS) which was intended to upgrade the Postgraduate Diploma. The programme now included a research component. Eleven years later, in keeping with the British tradition, honours graduates of the undergraduate Bachelor’s degree were able to enrol in the Master of Arts in Library and Information Studies (MALIS), an advanced degree with a research component. Also reflecting changes in library education in North America, the Department’s name was changed in 1996 from the Department of Library Studies to the Department of Library and Information Studies. The introduction of courses in records management, information literacy, information technology and information resources management, to name a few, underscored the need for the name change. Later a Master of Philosophy (MPhil) programme was also introduced, reflecting the British educational tradition. Despite the pull between American and British influences, balance is somehow maintained by a system of external examiners in which LIS professors from both jurisdictions monitor standards in the two Masters programmes. In 2011, in another major curriculum review process, extensive revisions were introduced in all programmes, based primarily on the evolving trends in LIS education globally and particularly in North America. Cognizant of the demands of employers, and increasing competition in the library and information science landscape, the Department embarked on a repositioning of the Department to emphasize the information aspect of Library and Information Studies (Kerr, 2012). A new undergraduate major in Information Management and Technology was proposed, reflecting current trends. The process also included a benchmarking exercise of courses against the American Library Association (ALA) Core Competencies for Librarianship. New courses developed include digital libraries, advanced metadata and resources discovery, information literacy for graduate students as well as digital curation and law librarianship. Currently there are demands from internal and external stakeholders to benchmark the education of librarians in Jamaica and the English-speaking Caribbean against US and North American standards. Yet there is a challenge to maintain the British model of an undergraduate degree parallel to two Masters Programmes. The undergraduate programme continues to be essential to the Department because it still attracts the highest number of students, the majority of whom do not have the required first degree for entering graduate programmes. There are demands for increased specializations and programmes in line with North American traditions. Issues of education and accreditation Until recently, the Royal Charter status of the University of the West Indies negated the need for accreditation of its programmes. However, influences relating to globalization and the emergence of competition from offshore institutions and the proliferation of online degree programmes emphasize the need for institutional as well as programme accreditation. Change matters coalesce around benchmarking the programmes of the Department, particularly against North American standards, particularly in light of geographical proximity and expectations of job opportunities in the USA and Canada. Recognizing the challenges associated with accreditation by the American Library Association outside of its territories, the way forward for the Department will be to explore accreditation from both sides of the Atlantic and maybe this will result in the best of both worlds. The greater aim, however, is to develop programmes which reflect the mission of the Department to provide the highest standard of teaching and research to produce library and information professionals equipped to face the challenges of the dynamic information environment capable of managing the information needs of the Caribbean for the twenty-first century and beyond. (2012: 3) Nigeria This section will discuss the influence of the AngloAmerican systems of library education on library 128 pedagogy and practices in Nigeria, uncovering many similar themes and influences to those evident in Australia and Jamaica. Like in many other Commonwealth countries, Nigerian LIS education and its development make apparent to the observer the broader sociopolitical influences at work in the country. The trends which emerge in post-war library education in Nigeria mirror the previously explored themes emerging in Australia and Jamaica of apprenticeship versus professional education, examination versus accreditation, and professional entry and undergraduate versus postgraduate education models for the discipline discussed elsewhere. As will be discussed, the story of library education in Nigeria serves to illustrate many of those tensions discussed previously. Historical trends in Nigeria Nigeria became a British colony in 1861 and under British rule the country was divided into two administrative protectorates: the Southern and Northern protectorates. However in 1914, the two protectorates were administratively joined. In 1960 Nigeria gained full independence and was politically administered under a federal system of government with three regions: the Northern region, South region, and Eastern region. Today Nigeria is divided into 36 states and a Federal Capital Territory. During the post-World War II period, similarly to what occurred in Australia, the many British librarians in Nigeria favoured a part-time apprenticeship model for library education, reflecting their own experience, and did not see a great need for a fulltime library school (Bramley, 1975: 138). The mode of library training in the country up until 1960, therefore, was largely conducted through short courses organized for the staff of local reading rooms and the Native Authority libraries. In some instance library staff were sponsored for training to go to the United Kingdom by the British Council (Hood, 1962).The short courses and sponsored training enabled participants to sit the British Library Association (LA) examinations. In the years immediately after World War II the influence and resources of the United Kingdom were depleted and the influence of British practice lessened. Newer influences began to be felt, including that of philanthropic organizations such as the Carnegie Corporation of New York (CCNY) and the United States Government as they began to take a much more active role in this region. The first moves towards the full-time professional model for LIS education arose out of recommendations for the establishment of a system of professional library schools emerging from a seminar organized in IFLA Journal 39(2) 1953 by UNESCO on the future of public library service provision in the region . One of the outcomes of recommendations made at the UNESCO seminar was that the Carnegie Corporation of New York commissioned a study to assess the library needs of West Africa. Conducted by Harold Lancour, Dean of the University of Illinois Library School, the report recommended the establishment of a library training institute at University College, Ibadan, in southern Nigeria. A grant of US$88,000 was provided by the CCNY to establish this new school, which commenced operation in 1959. Bramley claims Lancour’s report ‘‘presaged the end of British influence on library education in West Africa’’ (1975: 140). While the school initially offered training leading to the certificate of Associateship of the British Library Association (ALA) and Fellowship of Library Association (FLA), by 1963 it had changed to the American model of graduate library training (Aina, 2007; Nweke, 1995). Subsequent to the establishment of the first library school in southern Nigeria; the northern Nigeria regional government, under the auspices of the Special Commonwealth African Assistance Plan, undertook a survey of the library needs of northern Nigeria in 1963. This report was conducted by F.A. Sharr, State Librarian of Western Australia from 1953 to 1976 and a librarian trained in the British tradition. The survey recommended the establishment of a library school in northern Nigeria to train librarians at diploma and bachelor’s degree levels and in 1967 the second library school was opened in Nigeria based on British practice. Issues of education and accreditation The establishment of the second library school in Nigeria marks the beginning of new controversies and heated debates over the appropriateness of undergraduate versus graduate qualification as an entry point into the profession. While the Ibadan library school situated in southern Nigeria was premised on training librarians at graduate level, the Zaria library school in northern Nigeria was founded on training librarians at diploma and bachelor’s degree levels. Those who favoured graduate level qualification as an entry point into the profession argued that the country needed high level leaders who would provide the direction for library development in Nigeria after independence, and that only the holders of a first degree in an academic subject should be considered for admission to library schools. Those working in the region, including leading British librarians, opposed graduate level library qualification on the basis of Nigerian educational and developmental realities in the 1960s. Such 129 Carroll et al.: Commonwealth of uncertainty opposition was based on a view that a graduate school and librarians with postgraduate qualifications had very little to offer a Nigerian quest for rapid development, and argued that what Nigeria needed was library professionals at undergraduate and diploma levels who could manage existing libraries (Onadiran, 1985). The resultant debate over appropriate professional qualifications and the subsequent addition of technician level qualifications to the Zaria programme ‘‘added another confusion in the philosophy and curriculum of education and training of library professionals in the country’’ (Mohammed, 2008). From these arguments it can be seen that the conflicting trends in library education in Nigeria are in many ways a mirror of those influences and conflicts discussed previously in the Australian context and show the influences of Britain and the US in shaping the local professional model for education. Controversies surrounding library education in Nigeria were explicated by Gerald Bramley in his book World Trends in Library Education (1975). The author has identified a number of contradictory trends and divergent thinking in the development of library education in English-speaking countries of West Africa, including Nigeria. In the context of countries such as Nigeria, however, the struggle between old and new for cultural and strategic influence was in many ways more overt than in Commonwealth countries such as Australia and New Zealand. According to Bramley, by 1975 the ‘‘struggle between the old and new colonists had not been resolved in any clear cut way’’ and was the result of conscious attempts by new and old colonial powers to ‘‘extend their authority in Africa’’ (Bramley, 1975: 137). The trends which emerge in post-war library education illustrate once again the recurring themes of apprenticeship versus professional, examination versus accreditation and undergraduate versus postgraduate education models for the discipline discussed elsewhere. In addition, Bramley identifies a number of unique concerns in the development of education in this region. These include debate around the perceived purpose of Nigerian LIS education – if its purpose was to educate leaders and academics, or the emerging workers needed to expand and sustain the nation’s public libraries. Tension also emerged around the issue of the need for independent national LIS schools in preference to a regional school of librarianship. As will be discussed, the story of library education in Nigeria serves to illustrates many of these tensions. However, controversies still exist as to who is a professional librarian in Nigeria. For instance The NLA (Nigerian Library Association) . . . accepted the recommendation made by the Education Committee that holders of HND (Higher National Diploma) in Library Science are registrable as professional librarians. This decision was upturned by the Librarians Registration Council of Nigeria (LRCN). The LRCN observed that the Polytechnic Library Science education programmes lack subject’s specialization and that the courses offered are not enough. A librarian without any subject background, cannot offer specialized information service to any given specific subject specialist group (Chukwuma-Nwosu, 2009: 22). Presently there are over 50 institutions that offer library training in Nigeria at universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education. Courses offered include Certificates in Librarianship, National Diploma; Higher National Diploma in Library Science; Bachelor’s Degree, Master’s and Doctorate degree (Saleh, 2012). Today in Nigeria the body responsible for registering librarians to practice as professionals is the Librarians Registration Council. The body was established by Decree 12 of 1995. It is conferred with the responsibility of determining who is a Librarian, and to determine the standards of knowledge and skills for the library profession in Nigeria. Accreditation of library programs in Nigeria is, however, done by many government agencies, depending on whether the program is run in a university, polytechnic, or college of education. Library courses offered in universities are accredited by the National Universities Commission. Library courses offered in polytechnics are accredited by the Nigerian National Board for Technical Education, while library courses offered in colleges of education are accredited by the National Commission for Colleges of Education (Nigeria. Federal Republic, 1995; Nigeria. National Universities Commission, 1995). The legacy The legacy of the Anglo-American library system of education is apparent in the courses that are offered in Nigerian library schools and in the mode of library practices in the country. The core courses of Nigerian library schools reflect Anglo-American library philosophies that are based on transfer of explicit knowledge. The core courses are: cataloguing and classification, reference and bibliography, collection development, library administration, and automation (Aguolu 1985; Ajidahun, 2007; Saleh, 2012). Also inspired by the Anglo-American mode of providing library services via information and communication technology (ICT), many librarians in Nigeria 130 are strongly advocating for ICT and digitization to be the cornerstone for Nigerian library training and practices (Saleh, 2012; Ozioko and Nwabueze, 2010; Nzotta, 1984; Salman and Olanrewaju, 2005). It should be observed that while the teaching of ICT in library schools in Nigeria has the potential of producing manpower for the profession that is proficient in modern technologies, it should however be treated with caution within the economic, social, technological, educational, and cultural realities of the country. The future To move forward in the provision of effective library services in Nigeria, library schools in the country require a new paradigm of librarianship. This new paradigm should be rooted in the sociology of knowledge and should take into account the uniqueness of Nigeria in respect to the following: societal ontology, societal epistemology, patterns of knowledge flow among communities in Nigeria, and how knowledge is constructed within each segments of the Nigerian polity. This can be achieved through curriculum restructuring and will require Nigerian library schools to include as part of their core curricula courses on Oral and Indigenous Knowledge Transfer. This recommendation is premised on the fact that Nigeria is predominantly an oral society with an estimated 50 million adults who cannot read or write (UNESCO, 2011; Olden, 1999). The recommendation is also consistent with the Nigerian National Policy on Education and UNESCO which states that ‘‘the goals of education in Nigeria shall be to develop the intellectual capability of individuals to understand and appreciate their local environments’’ (Edegbo, 2011; UNESCO, 1976: 36). Therefore library curricula that are based on Anglo-American traditions will not effectively serve the needs of the majority of Nigerians who cannot read and write. By not adequately servicing the non-literate population in Nigeria, library professionals negate the principles of equity of service which underpin the profession. Afolabi has observed that when the departments of library and information science were established in Nigeria in the early 1960s, their aim was ‘‘to produce librarians for libraries’’ in accordance with the British and American library philosophies (Afolabi, 1994). However, today library schools in Nigeria should aim to produce librarians that will serve the developmental needs of every citizen wherever and whenever. Roberts’ observation is as relevant in Nigeria as it was many years ago ‘‘To educate librarians to think only in terms of a place called the library as we currently IFLA Journal 39(2) know that institute is to do them a disservice and probably doom them to ineffectuality’’ (1979: 1879). Pakistan Pakistan came into being as an independent nation in 1947. Before 1947, Pakistan was part of United India which was ruled by the British for almost two centuries. During this rule various administrative norms and institutional structures developed in the Indian Subcontinent that reflected the British way of governance. There was, however, a finer and more subtle permeation of British cultural practices into Indian culture, and educational practices were no exception. Many high schools and convents were established primarily in the big cities of United India. These schools were in addition to a large number of religious schools already operating. These religious schools were normally part of mosques and students were educated both in religion and contemporary sciences. Religious education included training in morphology, syntax, principles of jurisprudence, theology and other traditional sciences, including logic, philosophy, astronomy, arithmetic (Zaman,1999) leading towards a wellseated understanding of religion as informed by the education in contemporary sciences. After independence, the inherited educational structure as well as the needs dynamics of a newly born nation shaped the education system as a whole. The schools that were established during British rule continued to conduct education using the English language as the medium of instruction while the new schools established by the government of Pakistan started to use Urdu (the national language of Pakistan) as the medium of instruction. In this way a dual education system developed representing two parallel streams of education, one looking to a colonial past and another to an independent future. This duality of systems penetrated the administrative structure also. For instance, the official language for administrative documentation is English, whereas the national language is Urdu. As a result anyone trying to get a job as a civil servant should have a good command of the English language and the schools set up either during the British rule or afterwards but following the same model do a good job in preparing students to compete for these positions. However, students trained in the schools where Urdu is the medium of instruction usually have to exert extra effort to compete for opportunities in a system reminiscent of the British tradition. Colleges and universities represent also a very novel educational environment. Due to widespread development of educational institutions in the private 131 Carroll et al.: Commonwealth of uncertainty sector and especially for imparting business education, there have been tremendous inflows of the American way of education – including semester system, credit hours, grade point averages (instead of first second or third divisions or pass, fails, distinctions, etc.). These influences, which were limited primarily to private business educational institutions, started to permeate and influence educational institutions at large, and LIS institutions were no exception to this. It can be argued that LIS education and profession in Pakistan represent a convergence of the British and American influences, although the British influence can be identified more prominently with the way in which the school system prepares a student for higher education. That is, the British influence is acting more as a mediating factor rather than a direct influence on the design of LIS education and development of professional practice in Pakistan. On the other hand, American influence in terms of LIS education (its content and underlying pedagogy) and in a felt need among LIS circles in Pakistan to have some sort of national accrediting body (Mahmood, 2003) can be identified. It is important to note that LIS education in Pakistan presents a unique situation in that some of the educational credentials awarded depict a very British influence. For example, postgraduate diploma, certificate level of education, and MPhil – all of these educational awards are customary in the British educational tradition but almost foreign to America’s. Universities imparting LIS education have the semester system, requirements for students to have apprenticeship (Warraich, 2008), the option to write a thesis, availability of MPhil leading to PhD, and different certificates and postgraduate diploma programs. These practices clearly represent a convergence of two significant traditions – one British and the other derived from the United States. A Commonwealth of uncertainty This exploration of LIS education in Australia, Jamaica, Nigeria and Pakistan provides a vignette of what Bramley (1975) called ‘‘new’’ and ‘‘old’’ colonialism and its impact on local practice, and provides insights into how professions have been shaped internationally. As has been shown by these case studies, the tensions running through LIS education are not unique and resonate across communities and continents with recurring debates and themes evident from country to country. The complex legacy of competing influences in countries such as Nigeria, Australia, Pakistan and Jamaica continue to engage these local communities as they attempt to reconcile their professional traditions with the new, emerging and future needs of their communities. LIS education has been accused of being ‘‘a harp of the winds responding to every slight breeze’’ (Harper, in Mulvaney 1989:12) but if it is to survive and to meet both the many challenges confronting it in the 21st century and engage and meet the needs of local communities then it is essential we recognize and reconcile this legacy. Notes 1. The Commonwealth of Nations, formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an association of 54 sovereign states, historically British colonies. The Commonwealth was first officially formed in 1931 when the Statute of Westminster gave legal recognition to the independence of the British dominions. 2. A territory constituting a self-governing commonwealth and being one of a number of such territories united in a community of nations. 3. At the Melbourne Public Library(now the State Library of Victoria), Australia for example in 1910 the issue of the appropriateness of the US Dewey Decimal System for the research library led to such acrimonious debate that it was raised in State Parliament and led to longterm divisions amongst the staff. This debate came to be known as the ‘‘disaffection at the library’’. 4. Lionel McColvin was Secretary of the Library Association and undertook a three-month visit to Australia. 5. For further discussion of these events see Jones, D. (2005). Great minds: Metcalfe, McClain and Public libraries in Australia. Australian Library Journal 54(4), 386-412. 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Accessed April 19 2012: http://www.webpages. uidaho.edu/*mbolin/ozioko-nwabueze.pdf Quality Assurance Self-Assessment Report (2012) Department of Library and Information Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona. Carroll et al.: Commonwealth of uncertainty Saleh AG (2011) Educators’ perspective on library education in Nigeria [electronic version]. Library Philosophy and Practice. Retrieved 17 April 2012 from http://www. webpages.uidaho.edu/*mbolin/gambo.htm Salman AA and Olanrewaju IA (2005) Library and information science practice in Nigeria: trends and issues. The Information Technologist 2(2): 88–95. Selleck R (1982) Frank Tate: a biography. Melbourne, Melbourne University Press. Summers FW (1986) Role of the Association for Library and Information Science Education in library and information science education. Library Trends (Spring) 668–677. Taylor RS (1979) Reminiscing about the future: professional education and the information environment. Library Journal 15 September: 1871. UNESCO (1976) Conference of Ministers of Education of Africa Member States, Lagos, 27 January-4th February. Final Report. Paris UNESCO (UNESCO Doc. Ed-79/ Cont. 640/12). UNESCO (2011) UNESCO and Nigeria team up to improve literacy in Nigeria. Accessed April 13 2012 from http://www.unmultimedia.org/radio/english/2011/ 05/unesco-and-nigeria-team-up-to-improve-literacy-innigeria/ . Warraich NF (2008) LIS graduates employability-needs and expectations of the Library and Information Science (LIS) curriculum at the University of the Punjab (PU): an appraisal of Pakistani LIS professionals. Retrieved 13 April 2012 from http://www.ifla.org/iv/ ifla74/indes.htm. Zaman MQ (1999) Religious education and the rhetoric of reform: The Madrasa in British India and Pakistan. Comparative Studies in Society and History 41(2) 294–323. Author biographies Mary Carroll is a lecturer in the School of Information Studies at Charles Sturt University Australia. Formerly she was an Early Career Development Fellow in the School of Business, IT and Logistics at RMIT University, Melbourne and also worked for many years in LIS Vocational Education. She has published in the area of history of librarianship, vocational education and library education. Her PhD was both an historical and contemporary investigation into the role sectoral educational divisions have played in the construction of LIS professional identity in Australia. Contact: Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, Boorooma Street, 133 North Wagga NSW, Australia. Postal address: Locked Bag 588, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia. Email: macarroll @csu.edu.au Paulette A Kerr is Head of the Department of Library and Information Studies at the University of the West Indies, (UWI) Mona, Jamaica. Prior to pursuing a PhD at Rutgers University she was Information Literacy Coordinator at the UWI, Mona. Her research areas coalesce around information literacy education, conceptual change and Caribbean social history. She has published and presented in these areas. Contact: University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica. Email: paulette.kerr@uwimona.edu.jm Abdullahi I. Musa is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Library and Information Science, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria. He is currently a Doctorate Student and an Adjunct Faculty in the School of Library and information Management Emporia State University, Kansas USA. His research interest is on diffusion, adoption, and use/non-use of knowledge. He has presented at conferences and published in peer reviewed journals. Contact: Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas, USA. Email: aibrahim@em poria.edu Waseem Afzal holds a Lecturer appointment at the Charles Sturt University School of Information Studies, Australia. His formal education took place at the Emporia State University, USA where he earned his MBA in Business Administration and PhD in Library and Information Management; and the University of Punjab, Pakistan, where he earned his Master’s of Commerce with an emphasis in Finance. He researches in the areas of human information behavior, economics of information, social informatics, and Library and Information Science education. Contact: Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, Australia. Email: wafzal@csu.edu.au Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 78th IFLA General Conference and Assembly, 11–18 August 2012, Helsinki, Finland, in session 105; International and comparative librarianship: toward valid, relevant and authentic research and education. Library Theory and Research, Education and Training and LIS Education in Developing Countries Special Interest Group. I F LA Article Leadership in libraries in times of change International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions 39(2) 134–139 ª The Author(s) 2012 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0340035212473541 ifla.sagepub.com Petra Düren Hamburg University of Applied Sciences Abstract Academic as well as public libraries nowadays have to face constant change. This paper gives an overview about leadership competences needed to succeed with deliberate large-scale changes in libraries. Most of the needed competences can already be imparted during undergraduate studies toward a bachelor’s degree in library and information science, as can be seen in the example of the University of Applied Sciences Hamburg. The critical success factors of every change project are information, communication and participation. Two qualitative studies concerning leadership in academic libraries and leadership in academic and public libraries in times of change, as well as a quantitative study in an academic library concerning the influence of a transformational and a transactional leadership style of the top management on the middle management as well as on team members including the influence of the organizational culture, emphasize the importance of these success factors, especially the communication competence of leaders in times of change. Keywords leadership competences, change management, academic libraries, public libraries, information, communication, participation Need of competences in change management and leadership for current and upcoming deliberate large-scale changes in libraries There always have been changes in libraries, but in the last years the rate of change as well as its speed and complexity did increase (Stewart, 1996) and is still growing. Continuing change is already and will be the norm in libraries, but this paper concentrates on major, deliberate large-scale changes with a high complexity and the involvement of many members of staff. After a profound look at the three phases of change by Lewin (1947) it is clear that deliberate large-scale changes in organizations need planning and organizing as well as certain leadership competences. Phase 1 – Unfreezing After the top management has recognized the need to change something in their library or in his or her department, and had a vision about the future demands of users as well as sponsors, the upcoming deliberate large-scale change needs to be announced in the library and especially the reason for the alterations should be known and made clear for everyone affected. Deliberate large-scale changes in libraries, such as the implementation of a Library RFID (Radio Frequency IDentification) Management System or the introduction of team work or of performance-based pay, cannot be understood and accepted without explanations. Phase 2 – Changing / Moving Also throughout the entire change process information needs to be given about the alteration itself as well as its progress. Moreover it is important in this phase to give those who are affected by this major change the possibility to participate in this process and to bring in own ideas about the inevitable alterations. This is the phase where change managers and Corresponding author: Prof. Dr. Petra Düren, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, HAW Hamburg, Faculty Design, Media & Information, Department Information, Finkenau 35, 22081 Hamburg, Germany. Tel. þ40 42875-3637. Fax: þ40 42875-3609. Email: petra.dueren@haw-hamburg.de Düren: Leadership in libraries in times of change 135 Table 1. Helpful competences in times of change. Phase 1 – Unfreezing Phase 2 – Changing / Moving Phase 3 – Refreezing Communication Strategic Planning Project Management Communication Leadership Styles Management by Delega tion and by Objectives Motivation Performance Appraisal Teamwork Selection of Personnel Employee Representation Communication Controlling Research Methods promoters of the change are needed as well as volunteers for pilot projects. Phase 3 – Refreezing After the official ending of the change project there needs to be time given to learn the new processes and to work in them for a while before these new processes as well as the change project need to be evaluated. If some aspects of the alterations need to be changed again, the process begins afresh with Phase 1 – Unfreezing. During change processes everybody involved should be seen as an individual with certain concerns and fears as well as an expert in his or her own working field. This already shows that some aspects of leadership are needed to handle a deliberate largescale change in the library. In Table 1 competences are listed that might help leaders as well as promoters to fulfil their tasks during change projects. To already prepare students to be able to cope with deliberate large-scale changes in their career, the following subjects are integrated in the curriculum of the undergraduate studies toward a bachelor’s degree ‘Library and Information Science’ at the University of Applied Sciences Hamburg.        Management of Library and Information Services (compulsory subject) Information Controlling (compulsory subject) Media and User Research (compulsory subject) Statistics and Data Analysis for Business (compulsory subject) Communication Training (compulsory subject) Human Resource Management (compulsory optional subject) Libraries in Times of Change – Change Management (compulsory optional subject) Also in the curriculum of the studies toward a master’s degree ‘Information Science and Services’ at the University of Applied Sciences Hamburg there are compulsory optional subjects which provide the students with further knowledge which can be helpful in times of change, such as ‘Learning Organization’ and ‘Project Management’. Critical success factors: information, communication, and participation During change processes team members often ask three questions (Vahs and Leiser, 2007):  Why are we changing?  What are the goals of this change project?  What does this change project mean for me personally? Information and communication A change process may stall if there isn’t a regular and consistent exchange of clear and, for everyone, understandable information about the purpose as well as the change project’s strategies and benefits. This information should be given as accurately as known at the given time (Smith, 2011). For this – depending on the phase of the change project – leaders should ask themselves the questions illustrated in Figure 1. Communication – of vision, strategies and action – which is transparent, can open the door to an understanding and sharing (Smith, 2011). Participation Participation should meet the requirements of the group, of the team members affected by a deliberate large-scale change, as well as satisfy the individual team member. For this a two-way-communication should be established, which enables, listens and responds to the team members’ communication (Stewart, 1996). Especially the questions (Figure 1) asked in the second phase (‘Changing / Moving’) and in the third 136 IFLA Journal 39(2) Phase 1 – Unfreezing Phase 2 – Changing / Moving Phase 3 – Refreezing “Why are we doing this?” “Which of our goals did we achieve up to now?” “Did we learn something new?” “Where should we change something?” Figure 1. Important questions during the phases of a change project. (Düren, 2013). phase (‘Refreezing’) should be discussed with the members of staff involved in the change project and team members affected by the major change. Leadership in libraries Leadership in libraries has been analysed by a student of ‘Library and Information Science’ at the University of Applied Sciences Hamburg for her bachelor thesis. For this she accomplished four expert interviews with leaders of academic libraries to find out what characterizes their leadership style (Berke, 2012). Three of the four interviewed leaders said of themselves that they prefer and use the cooperative leadership style; only one tends to a more authoritarian leadership style. Interesting is that this leader is the one who would prefer the implementation of Management by Objectives in the library as she thinks that this allows more participation. This shows that sometimes determining factors lead to a leadership style that isn’t truly the one wanted by the leaders themselves. Those who lead in a more cooperative style see their team members as experts in their working fields and for this let them participate in decisions. Furthermore they delegate tasks to these team members independent of their individual hierarchical status. They see themselves more as coordinators with many conceptual tasks. One said that the authoritarian leadership style is – especially for someone who is new in the position of leader of an already existing team – not enforceable, as he or she is confronted with a team that has been working together for a while and is thus very experienced. Another leader said that the authoritarian style may be needed by someone who didn’t get a good education and training or if the parents didn’t socialize this person during his childhood years in such a way that he is able to integrate himself in teams or participate in discussions and team working processes. But all in all there should be a liability in the leadership style to give the team members a certain degree of reliance. All leaders want their team members to work independently. They use a lot of their working time for communication. One points out the importance of the personal dialogue with his team members instead of using mail for communication. Also this one gives everybody access to his online calendar so that his team members can calendar their appointments directly. With this his team members have a great influence on the organization of his daily routine as a leader. Some leaders work together with their team members on a regular basis, for example at the information desk. This gives them the chance to talk to team members and to know what their tasks are. Management by Objectives is only implemented in one of the examined libraries, although this is a participative method and three of the four leaders think that this is a reasonable management method, even if it is very time consuming. In another research project for a dissertation – among others – the influence especially of the leadership style of the top management on the middle management as well as the team members was explored. For this a written survey was carried out with leaders and members of the staff of an academic library that participated directly or indirectly in the development of the library’s strategy or which were affected by the resulting measures (Düren, 2009). Transformational as well as transactional leadership (see Table 2 for detailed information about these Düren: Leadership in libraries in times of change 137 Table 2. Transformational and transactional leadership style (Podsakoff et al., 1990; Hall et al., 2008). TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP Identifying and articulating a Vision Providing an Appropriate Model Fostering the Acceptance of Group Goals High Performance Expectations Providing Individualized Support Intellectual Stimulation Contingent Reward Behavior Table 3. Trust-based organizational culture (Düren, 2009). Vision TRUST-BASED ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Change Manager Participation Leader Reliable Person leadership styles) of the top management has a positive influence on a trust-based organizational culture (see Table 3 for details of the trust-based organizational culture). And a trust-based organizational culture leads to a high own initiative and great flexibility of the middle management as well as the team members. Transformational leadership, therefore, is suitable to handle major changes in libraries. Transactional leadership, which is based on contingent reward behavior, correlates with transformational leadership (Avolio, Bass and Jung (1999), which means that leaders should display both transformational and transactional leadership. Anxieties Team Members Trust Information Participation Minor Density of Regulation Others Working in the Library Figure 2. New aspects of leadership. (Düren, 2013). have done, that a lot of them did change their behaviour throughout a change process and that all of them had to cope with new leadership aspects. How new aspects of leadership – as can be seen in Figure 2 – can help to master a deliberate large-scale change in a library is shown in the following examples (Düren, 2013): Leaders and their Vision Leadership during change processes In this section some interesting findings of a research project at the University of Applied Sciences Hamburg about leadership aspects during the time of deliberate large-scale changes in libraries can be found (Düren, 2013). For this, expert interviews with middle management leaders of academic and public libraries, as well as change managers in libraries, have been accomplished. The idea of this research project was to find out what leaders thought throughout their change projects, if they recognized and how they reacted to the anxieties, worries and fears of their team members, how they communicated during the change process and if they thought afterwards that they could or should have done anything better. This of course does not say if a change project was done well, but it shows that leaders nowadays are able to reflect on what they To introduce a deliberate large-scale change in a library, leaders should be able to discover trends and new challenges and act proactively instead of only reacting to changes and external pressure. They are in the role of innovators and forerunners. Leaders need to be reliable During a merger of an academic library with an information service provider, the leaders working for the information service provider questioned the correctness of the evaluation results which had led to their integration in the academic library, and communicated this to their team members. At the same time, these leaders communicated to the director of the academic library their willingness to cooperate. All in all, the team members of the information service provider were given inconsistent information and decisions. This unclear and unreliable leadership 138 resulted in unwillingness of the team members of the information service provider to work together with their leaders and stand behind them any longer. They told them this in one of their regular status meetings, which led to the leaders’ resignations. Leaders as change managers Leaders should be change managers themselves and for this they need to know the different tools and methods of change management, such as the different phases of a change process, as well as the phases of the staff’s reaction to change1 and what this means for their leadership style. One leader recognized in the course of his change project a short intermediate phase of euphoria, which was followed by a deep valley of uncertainties, worries and anger, before the phase of acceptance followed, and had to deal with it. Team members and others working in the library Their anxieties need to be recognized and those who are directly affected by a deliberate large-scale change should be given a chance to participate in the change project. One of the most important aspects for the success of a change project is the communication process. Leaders have to communicate much more than before to reduce their team members’ anxieties and concerns regarding the change project. This does not necessarily mean they need to change the communication tools, but they should raise the frequency of providing information. During one change project, a leader learned that some information needs to be given twice or even more times, and that it is essential to communicate the repeated information with the same enthusiasm and conviction as the first time. The communication process includes the other managers of the library, especially the leader’s own superior. Here it is important to take the time to talk with them – even if the change project is running short of time. One leader has seen in retrospect that it would have been better to have a personal discussion with her superior regarding a very important issue, rather than just using the telephone, or – even worse – via e-mail. Leaders interviewed for this research project in general emphasized how important it was to listen to what their team members had to say. In extreme situations that affect everybody of the team, such as deliberate large-scale changes, a leader cannot act single-handedly. For this there should always be a personal dialogue between the leader and his or her team members. IFLA Journal 39(2) Conclusion Leaders in times of change need special competences to handle major changes in their library. They need not only to know and react to their users’ needs and wishes and to be able to anticipate the future of information services – and with this, of their library. Besides their potential to create a vision and a strategy for their library, leaders have to deal carefully with their team members’ anxieties. Change projects might raise concerns and fears with employees that need to be understood and taken care of. For this, students of library and information sciences should be prepared for their (potential) future leadership role in leadership and management aspects as well as change management. Top management as well as middle management leaders operating on the basis of the transformational leadership style – in combination with the transactional leadership style (Avolio, Bass and Jung, 1999) – in a trust-based organizational culture might be able to handle deliberate large-scale changes better than others, especially than those with a more authoritarian leadership style. All in all, leaders should have a vision, be reliable, act as change managers, recognize their team members’ anxieties and give those team members and others working in the library who are directly affected by a deliberate large-scale change a chance to participate in the change project. Management by Objectives as a participative method can support the handling of major changes. The most important aspect of leadership in times of change is to communicate with everybody as often as possible! Further research should include the question of whether modern methods of communication, such as wikis, blogs or Twitter, can support the communication process. The research project at the University of Applied Sciences Hamburg about leadership aspects during the time of major changes in libraries (Düren, 2013) did not show an interest in employing these modern communication tools. Also, it might be interesting to find out how leaders can be prepared to communicate better, and especially not only to inform their team members, but to install a communication process which includes a regular dialogue in change projects. Note 1. The reaction curve usually starts with shock and denial and ends with acceptance and integration (e. g. Kostka and Mönch, 2006). References Avolio BJ, Bass BM and Jung DI (1999) Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional Düren: Leadership in libraries in times of change leadership using the multifactor leadership questionnaire. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 72(4): 441–462. Berke KE (2012) Führungsstile in wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken – Vergleich und Analyse in Bezug auf Bibliotheken als moderne Dienstleistungsunternehmen. In: W Tannhof and P Düren (editors): Aus der Praxis für die Praxis, Veröffentlichungen der Universitätsbibliothek der Helmut-Schmidt-Universität / Universität der Bundeswehr Hamburg, No. 5, 2012. ISBN 978-3-86818030-5. Düren P (2009) Einfluss von Führungsverhalten und Unternehmungskultur auf die Steuerung öffentlicher Einrichtungen. Modellentwicklung, Empirie und Gestaltungsempfehlungen für eine Balanced Scorecard-Einfu¨hrung. München und Mering: Rainer Hampp Verlag, 2009. ISBN 978-386618-321-6. Düren P (2013) Leadership in academic and public libraries: a time of change. Oxford: Chandos Publishing, not yet published. ISBN 978-1-84334-690-6. Hall J, Johnson S, Wysocki A and Kepner K (2008) Transformational leadership: the transformation of managers and associates. EDIS document HR 020, July 2002, Reviewed October 2008. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ pdffiles/HR/HR02000.pdf Kostka C and Mönch A (2006) Change Management: 7 Methoden für die Gestaltung von Veränderungsprozessen. München: Hanser Verlag, 3. Auflage, 2006. ISBN 978-3-446-40285-0. Lewin K (1947) Frontiers in group dynamics: concept, method and reality in social science; social equilibria and social change. Human Relations June 1947, 1(1): 5–41. DOI: 10.1177/001872674700100103. Podsakoff PM, MacKenzie SB, Moorman RH and Fetter R (1990) Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly 1(2): 107–142. 139 Smith I (2011) Organisational quality and organisational change: Interconnecting paths to effectiveness. Library Management 32(1): 111–128. DOI: 10.1108/ 01435121111102629. Stewart J (1996) Managing change through training and development. Second Edition. London: Kogan Page Limited, 1996. ISBN 0-7494-1846-X. Vahs D and Leiser W (2007) Change Management in schwierigen Zeiten. Erfolgsfaktoren und Handlungsempfehlungen für die Gestaltung von Veränderungsprozessen. Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universitäts-Verlag, 2003 (second modified reprint in 2007). ISBN 978-38244-0711-8. Author biographies Prof. Dr. Petra Düren is Professor for Management of Library and Information Services at the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences. She was formerly a lecturer at three universities and Head of Department at the German National Library of Science and Technology and the University Library Hannover (TIB/UB), a member of the library management and responsible for corporate management. Contact: Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, HAW Hamburg, Faculty Design, Media & Information, Department Information, Finkenau 35, 22081 Hamburg, Germany. Tel. þ40 42875-3637. Fax: þ40 42875-3609. Email: petra.dueren@haw-hamburg.de Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 78th IFLA General Conference and Assembly, 11–78 August 2012, Helsinki, Finland, in session 162 — Libraries and librarians as forces for transformative change: continuing education the fuel — Continuing Professional Development and Workplace Learning. I F LA Article Welcoming, flexible, and state-of-the-art: Approaches to continuous facilities improvement International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions 39(2) 140–150 ª The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0340035213486408 ifla.sagepub.com Charles Forrest Emory University Sharon L. Bostick Illinois Institute of Technology Abstract As digital access to all sources of information continues to expand at an accelerating rate, libraries around the world are working to transform themselves in response to their changing role in the communities they serve and support. Academic libraries face particular challenges as a generation of students enters university having embraced online, mobile, anytime, anywhere access to information. At the center of an academic community that increasingly values intellectual collaboration among faculty and students, and learning in and out of the classroom, the 21st century academic library must continually recreate itself as a place that fosters curiosity, engagement, collaboration, and lifelong learning. Typical 20th-century capital investment cycles in academic libraries in the United States were characterized by large-scale once-a-generation investments in facilities expansion and enhancement. In the first decade of the 21st century the drive to transform is greater than ever before, but there is less capital funding available, increasing the pressure on institutions to reduce the capital investment cycle time in order to remain responsive to rapid changes in technology, pedagogy, scholarship, and user expectations. The end of any project is the start of evaluation and planning for the next cycle of change and investment. This paper will explore and discuss library efforts at two major academic institutions in the United States, one receiving public funds and one private, to develop innovative ways to evaluate library spaces, functions, services, operations and maintenance. The speakers will highlight projects intended to operationalize capital investment, shorten cycle times and provide incremental interventions, within a general framework of planning big and implementing small. Data encompass exit counts, occupancy rates, and peer comparisons; data sources include surveys, focus groups, and simulations. Particular projects and initiatives will address user needs, program innovation, and facilities enhancement, with the aim of continually refreshing and renewing library spaces that enhance learning, inspire scholarship, and foster community. Keywords library facilities, continuous improvement, data-driven decision-making, library renovation Introduction Academic libraries are reinventing themselves as learning spaces for 21st century students and faculty. Cognitive research informs and shapes emerging pedagogies to foster problem-based, experiential, active learning. Our campuses and parent institutions are working hard to understand and respond to the implications of these new relationships among learners, learning experiences and learning spaces. Academic libraries are increasingly willing to characterize their communities of users as ‘customers’; some are prepared to take another page from business in an attempt to transform themselves from service providers to collaborative partners in learning and research, embracing and deploying powerful technologies for distribution, access and manipulation of Corresponding author: Charles Forrest, Director, Library Facilities, Emory University, 540 Astbury Circle, Atlanta, Georgia, USA. Tel. þ1 404-7270137. (Mobile: þ1 404-895-5037. Email: charles.forrest@emory.edu Forrest and Bostick: Welcoming, flexible, and state-of-the-art: Approaches to continuous facilities improvement massive quantities of digital information in a variety of formats–print, image and sound. The virtual library accessible from the ‘‘anywhere, anytime’’ of the Internet, is complemented by the human scale and human experience of the library as place, providing a unique user experience that creates and supports the academic community, the basis for the modern residential campus. The customer experience In The Experience Economy Pine and Gilmore propose a model for understanding the transition they see underway from a goods and services economy to an experience economy. The service economy supplanted the goods-based economy in your lifetime. We’re now moving into the experience economy, where the target ‘‘commodity’’ is your experience as a customer. Goods are useful and service is helpful, but experiences are memorable. Experiences leave a lasting impression and can be transformative. In the information world, data is a commodity, the raw material of research and learning. Compiling and analyzing the raw material of data, information aggregators package and deliver information goods, ‘‘tangible items sold to largely anonymous customers who buy them off the shelf, from the lot, out of the catalog, and so on.’’1 Libraries select and acquire these information goods (books, journals, databases, other resources) as the foundation for programs of services, intangible activities customized to the individual request of known clients; services employ an estimated 80 percent of the workforce.2 But the dominance of services in the modern economy leads to their commoditization; the Internet is the greatest force for commoditization, for both goods and services. Automation promotes disintermediation; the end user is increasingly able to go ‘‘straight to the source’’ of information, decreasing reliance on intermediaries such as libraries.3 Will the end result be to take libraries completely out of the equation? What value do libraries add? Pine and Gilmore suggest that services can be differentiated based on the quality of the customer experience. The focus on the customer experience occurs whenever a company intentionally uses services as the stage and goods as props to engage an individual. While goods are tangible and services intangible, experiences are memorable.4 Figure 1 summarizes this transformation of the customer relationship in libraries. When the patron’s mode of interaction with the library was the transaction, the library’s goal was control, and its primary role was that of gatekeeper, with the aim of exercising effective stewardship over limited, shared resources. With information packaged 141 and deployed in print-on-paper physical containers (books and journals), the library worked to organize and manage scarce physical resources, focusing on policies and rules governing access and use; the library loaned and the patron borrowed. The library’s success was measured in terms of its investments in the resources it made available, the inputs in the information transaction (such as volume count, number of subscriptions, total staff, or total expenditures). When the library patron evolved into the library customer, the primary mode of interaction became service. The library’s goal was the provision of customer assistance, connecting the prepared user with the appropriate source of information or set of resources. The library’s success was measured not in terms of what it had (inputs) but of what it did, the activities it supported, its outputs (such as circulation transactions, reference questions answered, classes taught and students served). In the transition to the experience economy the library’s resources and services (its inputs and outputs) are used to set the stage for the customer experience. When the library customer is seen as a guest (in the all-inclusive resort sense, rather than the hotel/motel or restaurant sense), the library begins to pay attention to all the factors that contribute to the quality of the total user experience. Library staff become collaborative partners, setting the stage and attending to the library’s guests on a number of levels. The library’s success is measured not by what it has or what it does, by how it’s used or the activities it supports, but what happens as a result of those activities and encounters, the impacts or outcomes of what goes on in the library (such as fostering student learning success, supporting faculty productivity, and enhancing institutional reputation). After the library deploys its resources in support of its activities, the question becomes one of results: What difference has it made? Transactions are useful, service is helpful, but experience is memorable–and potentially transformative. Measuring success Libraries count. We count volumes added and volumes withdrawn, subscriptions received and back issues bound, total circulation and gate count. We use this data to let our user communities and our funding agencies know what we’re doing and, perhaps more importantly, how well we’re doing. We compare our present to our past to document our growth, and justify our requests for ongoing support or additional resources. We compare our own library to other libraries, to demonstrate our success or highlight our shortcomings. We plan for the 142 IFLA Journal 39(2) CUSTOMER LIBRARY Mode Role Mode Role Success measured by Transaction Patron Control Gatekeeper Inputs Service Customer Connect Assistant Outputs Experience Guest Collaborate Partner Outcomes Figure 1. Transformation of the customer relationship in libraries. future by projecting growth and setting measurable goals. The ARL Statistics is an annual data series that describes the collections, expenditures, staffing and service activities for the more than 120 member libraries of the Association of Research Libraries (ARL). The whole data series from 1908 to the present represents the oldest and most comprehensive continuing library statistical series in North America. 5 For most of its history, the ARL Statistics has reported data on library inputs, such as total volumes in collection, volumes added, serials received, number of staff, and expenditures in broad categories. In response to a call for more meaningful and relevant measures of library activity, in the mid-1990s ARL added a handful of output measures to its annual survey, including number of reference transactions and number of classes taught.6 More recently, in response to increased demands for institutional accountability, research libraries are being challenged to provide measures that document their contributions to teaching, research, scholarship, and community service. ARL’s Statistics & Measurement program is supporting member efforts to develop new models for measurement that address issues of service quality, electronic resource usage, and outcomes assessment. In 1999, the ARL membership endorsed the ‘‘New Measures Initiative,’’ aimed in part to develop tools for comprehensive collection, compilation and reporting of outcome measures, including surveys of user satisfaction and measures of service effectiveness.7 One of the first surveys to emerge from this effort was the LibQUALþ initiative.8 These new initiatives aim to document the library’s contributions to institutional mission in large part by asking the library’s users what they think about the quality and accessibility of information resources, the friendliness and helpfulness of staff, and the comfort and functional effectiveness of library as place. Local surveys, focus groups, and other sociological and anthropological research protocols bring the authentic voice and observed behavior of the user to the process of designing new types of library spaces. These emergent methodologies for assessing the usefulness and effectiveness of those new spaces are based not solely on traditional measures of investment (inputs) and activity (outputs) but on the library’s influence on enhanced learning and quality research (outcomes).9 In the broad area of inputs, widely available guidelines ask about the adequacy of space to the intended purpose: Is there enough shelving to house the collection at efficient and effective working density? Are there enough group studies proportionate to the size and pedagogical needs of the student body? In the area of outputs, efforts build on basic activity measures: Is the library used? Are gate counts and occupancy rates commensurate with expectations, and comparable to peers? Is seating generally adequate, and especially during peak demand periods around midterms and finals? These investments and activities, these inputs and outputs, are tactical and short-term, observable on regular cycles (quarterly, semester to semester, annually), familiar and relatively easy to measure. Outcomes and impacts, on the other hand, are strategic and long term, are often only measurable over several annual cycles, and are more difficult to define and measure validly and reliably. But critical to accountability is the ability to answer the question: When you add up the investment, and review all the activity, what difference did it make? The customer survey is the cornerstone of outcomes assessment, asking users themselves about their satisfaction with library resources, services, staff and facilities. Student pre- and post-testing can begin to demonstrate the positive value of library instruction and library use. Do students self-report a positive value for certain types of library spaces? Is it possible to demonstrate a correlation between certain types of facilities designed for student group work and the quality of student collaborative projects? Does the library contribute to developing a sense of academic community? What’s the connection between student Forrest and Bostick: Welcoming, flexible, and state-of-the-art: Approaches to continuous facilities improvement perceptions of the library as a welcoming and inviting facility, and their self-reported satisfaction with library staff and services? Are users staying away from the library, perhaps going elsewhere, preferring other on-campus or off-campus spaces–and if so, why? The answers to such questions can inform strategic planning, helping to frame initiatives whose implementation period is often measured in years. Case study: Emory University Emory University is a private research university in metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia, United States. The University was founded as Emory College in 1836 in Oxford, Georgia by a small group of Methodists, who named the town for the school’s prestigious British cousin, and the school itself for Methodist bishop John Emory, who dreamed of an American education that molded character as well as the mind. A land-grant by Asa G. Candler, then president of The Coca-Cola Company, enabled the small college to relocate to metropolitan Atlanta in 1915 where it was chartered as Emory University. The University currently enrolls nearly 14,000 students in nine academic divisions: Emory College of Arts and Sciences, Oxford College, Goizueta Business School, Laney Graduate School, School of Law, School of Medicine, Nell Hodgson Woodruff School of Nursing, Rollins School of Public Health, and the Candler School of Theology. Libraries at Emory There are libraries for Business, Law, Health Sciences, Special Collections, and Theology. Opened in 1969, the Robert W. Woodruff Library, named for another president of The Coca-Cola Company, is the main library at Emory. Library development at Emory University has followed a typical cycle of major capital investment about once a generation, typical of 20th century academic libraries in the United States. The 30 year cycle starts with a new library or a major capital investment in an existing library, followed by a decade of optimal operations. Then come 10 years of decreasing satisfaction culminating in a strong call for remediation and action, initiating a capital planning process that typically takes another decade to produce a new library or a major capital investment in an existing library, at which point the cycle begins all over again. This thirty-year generational cycle of development can be seen in the development of the main library at Emory. The University received its charter in Atlanta in 1915, and began to build its new campus within a few years. The first free-standing main library on campus, the Asa G. Candler Library, opened in 1926. Thirty 143 years later, in the mid-1950s, the Candler Library was partially renovated by adding an infill floor to the grand reading room and two story lobby, increasing assignable square footage but severely compromising the character of these spaces. The inadequacy of this renovation soon became apparent, and 15 years later the campus built a new main library, the Robert W. Woodruff Library, which opened in 1969. The Woodruff Library in turn underwent a major expansion and renovation nearly 30 years later in 1997, creating the Center for Library and Information Resources (CLAIR). In 2003 the renovation of the Candler Library, including the restoration of the lobby and reading room, completed the upgrading and updating of the main library complex. A major capital investment can have a dramatic influence on the use of library facilities; potentially doubling gate counts. Figure 2 shows 20 years of exit counts in the Woodruff Library. The opening of CLAIR produced an 80 percent increase in the exit count in 1998. Increased traffic counts were also seen after the opening of the new Music and Media Library in 2001 and the library coffee shop in 2005. New spaces and novel services produced enduring in baseline rates of library use. Shortening the capital cycle: ‘‘opportunistic incrementalism’’ The pace of change is accelerating. Facilities enhancements that take up to a decade or more to implement do not produce flexible, responsive, innovative library spaces, and can result in library facilities that are ‘‘frozen in time’’. Planning big and implementing small means a growing number of smaller, phased projects on an annual basis, an approach that Emory’s Director of Libraries Rick Luce has called ‘‘opportunistic incrementalism’’. Figure 3 shows the number of Emory Library facilities projects for the last five fiscal years with a price tag of at least US$50,000. Group studies Data on use formed the basis for decision-making about furnishing group studes. A review of group study use in the main library from Spring 2011 revealed that the two most unconventionally furnished group studies (565 and 756) also had the lowest use. During the summer of 2011, more standard conference tables and chairs were installed to replace the low table and cushions in 656 (affectionately nicknamed the ‘‘tea room’’, modeled after three sit-on-the-floor individual workstations in the Cox Hall Computing Center at Emory) and the café height table and stools in 756 (which were relocated to L1 Learning Commons). Figure 4 shows the resulting increase in reservations for these two rooms in the fall of 2011. Note 144 IFLA Journal 39(2) Figure 2. Emory University Main Library annual exit count fiscal year ending 1989 through fiscal year ending 2011. Figure 3. Number of facilities projects, each at least $50K USD, last 5 fiscal years. Figure 4. Tech Equipped Group Studies: Change in # of reservations, Spring 2011 to Fall 2011. especially the increase in use of 656 (formerly the tea room). The data further suggest that the availability of the newly refurnished 656 and 756 could acount for the drop in traffic in 764 and especially 213. A site visit to group study 213 revealed that it needs a general AV and furniture refurbishment and upgrade. Likewise, observation of the use of 764 suggests that the furniture is less than effective; students move one of the benches to gain better access to the markerboards. Both rooms now appear on the list of proposed renovations. hours. Representatives from Emory University’s Student Government Association approached the Woodruff Library to request an expansion of operating hours to 24 hours per day, seven days per week (24 x 7). At the time of the student request, the main library at Emory opened at 12 noon on Sunday, and remained open 24 hours a day during the week, closing again at 20:00 pm on Friday evening. The students claimed that Emory is the only top 20 library in the US that doesn’t provide 24 x 7 access. The first thing we did was test that claim. Figure 5 shows total weekly hours of operation across top 20 US universities which revealed three tiers of hours of operation, each tier representing roughly a third of the sample population. The top tier institutions offer at least one library, or space within a Hours of operation Occupancy data helped inform decision-making when Emory students requested that the library offer longer Forrest and Bostick: Welcoming, flexible, and state-of-the-art: Approaches to continuous facilities improvement 145 Figure 5. Total weekly hours of operation for 20 large US academic libraries. Figure 6. Head count Friday & Saturday nights, continuous 24 hour operation, April 2011. library, that is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, for at least part of the year, usually the fall and spring semesters. The second tier (including Emory University) offered 24-hour library access at least part of the week, typically five days Monday through Friday. The third tier of libraries did not offer 24-hour access. While Emory does provide 24-hour access five days a week, it is at the bottom of the middle tier (by a small margin), so it seemed reasonable to think there was an opportunity to consider an expansion of hours of operation. On the Library side we had always claimed ‘‘we don’t remain open because there’s insufficient demand to justify remaining open’’. But how can we say anything about demand if we’re closed? We decided to test our own claim as well. We remembered that the Library remains open continuously for two and a half weeks at the end of the fall and spring semesters. So we examined the data from the month of April 2011, during part of which we were open continuously, round the clock and through the weekend. Figure 6 shows that on the days the Library closed at 20:00 pm use fell off quickly beginning around 17:00 pm. On the days the Library remained open 24 hours, use held fairly steady until about twelve midnight, when it began to fall off until it reached its lowest level around 6:00 am or 7:00 am. The top line 146 IFLA Journal 39(2) Figure 9. University of Missouri Kansas City Miller Nichols Library, Information Commons, 2000. Figure 7. University of Kansas City Library, 1950s. Figure 8. University of Missouri-Kansas City Miller Nichols Library, 1989. shows occupancy for the last day of April, during the middle of final exam week, always one of the busiest days of the year. It’s interesting to note that although the occupancy rate is higher on April 30, the pattern of decline after 12 midnight is the same. So overall, although occupancy remains high through midnight, it falls off significantly by around 2:00 am. The data suggested the library could meet the needs of a large number of students by remaining open an additional four hours until 12 midnight on Friday and Saturday evenings, instead of closing at 20:00 pm. The Library is continuing to collect occupancy data, including during the new hours of operation on Friday and Saturday evenings. The data will be reviewed, and the Library will decide to continue the changed schedule into the fall, or revert to the previous hours of operation, based on the actual level of use. Case Study: The University of Missouri-Kansas City The University of Missouri-Kansas City (UMKC) Libraries date back to 1933, when the university was called the University of Kansas City. Back then the library was located in the only building on campus. Lack of space became a problem almost immediately and the collections moved to several places, sometimes separated. The urgent need for new library space was understood, but funding was not made available for a true library building until 1966. The General Library was completed in 1969, providing a permanent home for the collections. Even at that time there was awareness that the size would soon be insufficient and the design for the General Library included plans for an additional two floors to be added at a later time. That time came in 1989 when the fourth and fifth floors were built, funded by an appropriation from the Missouri General Assembly and supplemented by a generous gift from local businessman and philanthropist Miller Nichols. The expanded building was then named the Miller Nichols Library. The Miller Nichols Library remained functional for many years, but by the late 1990s it became apparent that once again, more space was needed. Several plans were created for a major renovation, but funding never followed. That was the time when truly looking at opportunities for incremental renovations began. While the unfunded plans for an expansion languished, a great deal of interest was exhibited on the campus in the new concept of information commons. A plan was developed to take space on the first floor and transform it into an innovative, physically attractive and accessible space for study and learning. A variety of furniture styles were incorporated, and the technology was placed in areas designed to be the most efficient. The Miller Nichols Foundation provided funding, and the Information Commons opened in 2000. Forrest and Bostick: Welcoming, flexible, and state-of-the-art: Approaches to continuous facilities improvement 147 Figure 11. Example of a collaborative learning space, 2011. Figure 12. Example of a collaborative learning space, 2011. Figure 10. Automated storage and retrieval system. The Information Commons was a great asset to library services and was used heavily. It did not reach the maximum number of students however, because it was on one side of the first floor, and students tended to enter the library and go straight ahead to the stack floors without looking to the side. It was, however, very useful, and served as a model for future plans. The future plans still, at that time, included the goal of renovating and expanding the entire Miller Nichols Library. In 2004 a design team (Sasaki Associates, Boston and PGAV Architects, Kansas City) was hired to prepare a conceptual study, looking at collection, study and staff space. In 2007 they were asked to provide a schematic design, utilizing the following vision: ‘‘Transform the library from a ‘‘book vault’’ into a facility that embraces both the University and the surrounding communities by renovating Miller Nichols Library’s existing 169,733 gross square feet and adding approximately 68,296 gross square feet.’’ The total cost of the building was not funded. It was then that the idea of renovating in increments began in earnest. The initial design was divided into phases. A study determined that installing an automated storage and retrieval system (ASRS, or robot) was a cost Figure 13. Example of a collaborative learning space, 2011. effective and efficient way of safely storing books and making them easily accessible, while at the same time creating the type of space needed to begin the transformation of the library into a student centered collaborative learning environment. A combination of private and university funding allowed the construction of the first phase, which was the extension to house the ASRS as well as its purchase. The costs were actually considerably less than estimated, and a substantial amount of funds remained. It was decided to alter the phases, and use the 148 IFLA Journal 39(2) Figures 14 a and 14 b. University of Missouri-Kansas City Miller Nichols Library. Usage statistics, 2010–2011. Figure 15. Publicity for the LibQUALþ results. unexpected funds to renovate the first floor once again, greatly expanding and updating the old information commons. It was also decided to use the project as a way to test ideas for future building renovations, creating in essence a ‘‘prototype information commons’’. This phase of the project was completed in 2011, creating a variety of collaborative learning spaces. These spaces are relevant now and also will guide future renovations. This new space was evaluated in 2012, and the most basic measure–building usage statistics–indicated an amazing 40 percent increase between 2010 and the same time in 2011. As this part of the project was nearing completion, another opportunity arose. Bond money was unexpectedly made available explicitly for another phase. This one, as of this writing, is under construction. It will provide a classroom addition and grand entrance to the Miller Nichols Library. The distinct phases that were originally planned have ended with this addition. Instead, discrete areas are being selected for planning and focused fundraising. The Library is now fully in the incremental mode for renovations. In the meantime, evaluation of the completed areas is in process. It is different sort of evaluation because it is not an entire building or even all of the related services. This type of evaluation both addresses the success of the new areas, and informs the planning for future ones. Evaluation takes several forms, including punch lists for the very new areas and several types of usage statistics. The University Libraries also participates in the LibQUALþ assessment tool, a nationally-normed survey that helps library staff assess and improve library services, including the library as a place. In addition to input about how the new and older spaces work for students, they are also able to give input about what they would like to see happen in the library. The results are posted online in a multi-page LibGuide (http://libguides.library.umkc.edu/content.php?pid¼ 277782&sid¼2288913), along with the Libraries’ responses to date. Library users also are invited to comment, thereby continuing the evaluation in a less scientific manner. The University Libraries run a new LibQUALþ survey every 3 years. Qualitative evaluation is done periodically, often via focus groups. Focus groups are also used when planning for new renovations. Library advisory groups also provide qualitative input. Another very important and sometimes very informal evaluation procedure is observation. Librarians and library management do walk around the library and note usage patterns and styles. Sometimes it is just visual; sometimes notes are taken, particularly in selected areas. Since further renovations and improvements are now opportunistic, this type of information is very valuable. What does an opportunistic renovation strategy means for UMKC? There are many positive reasons for such a strategy. Pragmatically, it is better, and often cheaper, than doing nothing. It allows for experimentation since much is done in smaller increments, and there is the opportunity for ‘‘as you go’’ evaluation. It is a good strategy for working with visionary donors, as has been possible with UMKC’s relationship with the Miller Nichols Foundation. Some challenges exist as well. The library may be essentially living in a constant state of renovation, which can be disrupting and discouraging. There may be side effects. For example, to expand the area for a Special Collections department, space from another, Forrest and Bostick: Welcoming, flexible, and state-of-the-art: Approaches to continuous facilities improvement adjacent service may be required and they then must have space elsewhere. It can also be challenging to have a constantly changing infrastructure. Planning is essential to a good opportunistic renovation strategy. A strong, up-to-date strategic plan is essential to take full advantage of opportunities, and to provide the framework to evaluate them, before, during and after. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Conclusion: creating a culture of assessment for library facilities A commitment to systematic and ongoing collection, compilation, analysis and reporting of data about library activity and user satisfaction can be the basis for developing a ‘‘culture of assessment’’ in an academic library. Continuous improvement requires continuously updated, regularly reported information. The library’s user community can be a rich source of management information, and should be formally and informally consulted on a regular basis. It is important to ask library users what it is they want from the library, and whether or not they are getting it. Statistical tools and data are not intended to replace current sources of information, but rather to supplement and complement what is already known. Statistical data and survey results should be distributed throughout the organization to inform management processes, shape decisionmaking and, ultimately, improve service to users. The information marketplace has become more competitive in recent years, with academic libraries no longer holding a clear monopoly. As we struggle to understand the library’s new roles and responsibilities among its communities of users, there is inspiration and value to be found in the best practices and innovations of the commercial, retail and even entertainment sectors. We have all been customers, and can rethink our approach to designing services and facilities based on a deeper and more nuanced understanding of that shared customer experience. If we can create experiences for our students, faculty, and visitors that linger in their memory long after they have left our libraries and our campuses, we will remain central to the academic enterprise. Delivering experiences that produce lifelong memories, informing and transforming thought and behavior long after those experiences have ended, is as good a working definition of the educational enterprise as one might hope to find. References 1. Joseph Pine B. II, and James H. Gilmore. The experience economy: Work is theater & every business 8. 9. 149 a stage. (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999), 7. Pine and Gilmore, 8. Pine and Gilmore, 11. Pine and Gilmore, 11–12. About ARL (Association of Research Libraries): ARL Fact Sheet. http://www/arl/org/arl/arlfacts.html Crawford Walt and Gorman Michael. Future Libraries: Dreams, Madness, & Reality. (Chicago: American Library Association, 1995), 140–141. ARL New Measures Initiatives. http://www/arl.org/stats/ newmeas/newmeas.html Thompson Bruce, Cook Colleen and Thompson Russel L. ‘Reliability and structure of LibQUALþ scores: Measuring perceived library service quality.’ Portal: Libraries and the Academy, January 2002(2.1); 3–12. Forrest Charles and Williamson Amy. ‘From inputs to outcomes: Measuring library service effectiveness through user surveys.’ Georgia Library Quarterly, Summer 2003, 40(2); 12–18. About the authors Charles Forrest has more than 30 years of experience in academic and research libraries. He holds an MA in Library Science from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and a BA in Telecommunications and Psychology from Michigan State University. After nearly a decade with the University of Illinois libraries, he moved to Emory University in 1988 where he has held a series of administrative positions in the Emory Libraries, including Director of Instructional Support Services and Director of Planning and Budget. Currently Director of Library Facilities, Charles has served as library project manager for numerous library construction and renovation projects, including the Center for Library and Information Resources, a major addition to Emory’s main library. A member of the Committee on the Environment of Emory’s University Senate, Charles served as library project manager for the renovation of Emory’s original main library, the first LEED-certified renovation project on campus. Charles is active in the American Library Association, the Association of College and Research Libraries, the Library Leadership and Management Association and IFLA. He has served on several library architecture and design award juries, and is a regular presenter at conferences, workshops and institutes. Contact: Director, Library Facilities, Emory University Library, Woodruff Library, 540 Astbury Circle, Atlanta GA 30322, USA. Tel. þ1 404-727-0137. Mobile: þ1 404 895 5037. Email: charles.forrest@emory.edu Sharon L. Bostick is Dean of Libraries at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago. She was formerly Dean of University Libraries at the University of Missouri Kansas City, Director of Libraries at the University of Massachusetts Boston, and has held library positions at the University 150 of Toledo, Wichita State University and Oakland University, all in the United States. She holds a PhD in Higher Education Administration from Wayne State University, an AMLS (Library Science) from the University of Michigan, and a BA in English and Counseling from Oakland University in Michigan. She has also worked as an independent consultant for libraries and higher education, focusing on assessment, innovation, and accessibility, and served as a special advisor on international academic library projects. She has written and presented extensively on information-seeking behavior in university students, on academic and library consortia in the United States and on academic library buildings. She created the Library Anxiety Scale, a statistically validated instrument, which is in use worldwide as a diagnostic and research tool. She is co-author of the book ‘Library Anxiety: Theory, IFLA Journal 39(2) Research and Applications’. Her current research interests combine the study of information-seeking behavior with the study of creative learning environments. Sharon is a member of IFLA’s Buildings and Equipment, and the American Library Association’s LLAMA Buildings and Equipment Committee. Contact: Illinois Institute of Technology, Paul V. Galvin Library, 35 West 33rd Street, Chicago, IL 60616-3793, USA. Tel. þ1 312567-3293 (0ffice). þ1 205-936-3711 (mobile). Email: sbostick@iit.edu Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 78th IFLA General Conference and Assembly, 11–18 August 2012, Helsinki, Finland, in session 190: Making the case for change through evaluation: post-occupancy evaluation of library buildings. Library Buildings and Equipment. I F LA Article UNIMARC – Understanding the past to envision the future International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions 39(2) 151–161 ª The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0340035213486410 ifla.sagepub.com Rosa Maria Galvão and Maria Inês Cordeiro National Library of Portugal Abstract The context of major changes that are envisaged for the bibliographic standards environment demands a reflection on the nature and specification of MARC and its adequacy for the integration of bibliographic discovery systems into the larger world of networked information and systems. From this starting point, this paper provides an overview of the evolution of UNIMARC and the practices of its maintenance, collecting knowledge that may be useful as a first contribution to inform future steps in redesigning bibliographic data standards. Keywords UNIMARC, bibliographic standards Introduction In the library community, the development and future of the library catalog as a discovery system has been the central focus of professional attention, especially since the provision of library services in a web-based environment. Cataloguing principles and codes have evolved alongside models for the functional requirements of records with a potential for significant advances in renewing the foundations of library catalogues, while for many years the future of MARC formats has been a matter of much debate yet with no structural changes. The FRBR (Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records)1 model has brought an understanding of the bibliographic universe based on a detailed analysis of bibliographic data functions from the user’s perspective. There is international recognition of the validity of the model and experience of ‘‘FRBRized’’ displays based on existent MARC records.2 Both have underlined that full FRBRization of bibliographic data will require different levels of data about work, expression, manifestation and their attributes and the capability of parsing data into separate elements that allow enough flexibility and discretion for their manipulation and recombination. However, the framework of MARC formats consists of non-relational implementations – in fact, MARC bibliographic formats are specific ISBD implementations, i.e., essentially oriented to record display rather than to enable a network of relationships based upon the richness of its data elements.3 The principles governing the structure and evolution of MARC formats have not been aligned with technology concepts and the practice of data modelling, despite some past suggestions, e.g., for the application of principles underlying conceptual database schemas to MARC4 for object-oriented thinking in structuring cataloguing data5 or for the use of formal ontologies to design and support relationships of bibliographic entities.6 With FRBR providing a conceptual model of the bibliographic universe built upon the entity-relationship method of analysis a whole new perspective is open pointing to a redesign of standards for data records that is already emerging in undertakings such as the Bibliographic Framework Transition Initiative,7 under which new bibliographic data modeling activities will be carried out. These will be oriented not only by the needs raised in FRBR but also by the demands of the semantic web technology, e.g., linked open data. Therefore, it seems clear that nowadays we may be on the verge of a major shift in the conception and management of library data. In this context it may be useful to make the exercise of looking back at the Corresponding author: Maria Inês Cordeiro, Director, National Library of Portugal, Campo Grande, 83 – 1749–081 Lisboa – Portugal. Tel. (þ351) 217982 021/022. Fax. (þ351) 217982 140. Email: icordeiro@bnportugal.pt 152 evolution of MARC formats and develop a critical analysis of its management and limitations. This is the context of the present paper, the objective of which is to provide an overview study of the evolution of UNIMARC since it started to be used, with special emphasis on the period covered by the activity of the Permanent UNIMARC Committee (PUC), from its establishment in 1991 to the present (March 2012, the date of the last PUC meeting). A brief history of UNIMARC First issued in 1977, as a recommendation of the IFLA Working Group on Content Designators, UNIMARC (standing for UNIversal MAchine-Readable Cataloguing) was primarily aimed at facilitating the exchange of bibliographic records originally produced in any other MARC format. It was therefore designed to act as a common format capable of accommodating / translating data from / to other formats. At the time, a variety of bibliographic data standards8 were in place in different countries and the cost of producing and maintaining different conversion tools was to be avoided. In its development phase, several publications followed that defined the format in detail and provided the necessary documentation for actual use.9 Facilitating the international exchange of records was still the main goal of UNIMARC in the early 1990s, when the Commission of the European Community (CEC) recognized its potential as a common standard for data exchange among European national libraries, bibliographic utilities and the book trade. Following a workshop held in Luxembourg in 1990, a study on this matter was commissioned to the Deutsche Bibliothek whose results,10 presented at a seminar in Florence, in 1991, underlined the importance of UNIMARC for that purpose, confirmed it as the common standard for all European cooperation projects and stressed the need for data conversion programs to and from UNIMARC. Another important outcome of the 1991 Seminar was the establishment of a maintenance body for UNIMARC: the existence and terms of reference of the PUC were decided,11 superseding the review functions of the International MARC Network Committee (IMNC), established in 1975. The PUC, composed of specialists from several countries, has since then governed the maintenance of UNIMARC, first within the IFLA UBCIM Core Activity,12 later, since 2003, under the responsibility of the IFLA UNIMARC Core Activity,13 coordinated by the National Library of Portugal. Since the late 1980s, and especially since the establishment of the PUC, UNIMARC evolved from a theoretically defined format for record exchange to IFLA Journal 39(2) a format used also for the generation and management of original records. Many countries adopted it as their national standard, providing for the emergent need in library automation or replacing other existing national MARC flavors.14 As a consequence, UNIMARC maintenance has been driven by both the need to align with the evolution of other MARC formats, for purposes of exchange, and the practical needs of actual users in the creation of original records. This has reinforced, since the beginning of the 1990s, the need for more detailed and regularly updated UNIMARC documentation and for the completion of the set of standards that correspond to the different library data records: bibliographic,15 authorities,16 classification17 and holdings.18 Over the years, the number of different national MARC formats has decreased, with MARC 21 becoming more prominent at the international level, especially since it emerged from the harmonization of USMARC with CANMARC,19 in 1999, and its adoption to replace UKMARC, in 2004.20 Despite some moves of former UNIMARC users to MARC21, the evolution of the UNIMARC community shows a continuing growth. In 1993, UNIMARC was used as the internal format at six national bibliographic agencies plus as exchange format in another three; and in three countries new MARC formats were based on UNIMARC.21 By 1998, 18 institutions used UNIMARC as their local standard and nine for purposes of exchange only, while four had UNIMARC-based formats.22 In 2008, 23 national institutions were using UNIMARC as their internal format, 10 for exchange only, and there were five UNIMARC-based national formats.23 These figures reveal a community that is stable, relying on the continuity of the standard. The evolution of UNIMARC: general figures Over its 35 years of existence, UNIMARC evolved to adapt to emergent needs related not only to the coverage of different types of resources to describe but also to align with changes in ISBDs, with concepts and terminology arisen from the new International Cataloguing Principles (ICP)24 and, more recently, to reflect changes derived from the implementation of FRBR and FRAD (Functional Requirements for Authority Records) in bibliographic standards. In general terms, we can see the UNIMARC evolution in terms of growing content designation of the bibliographic format: since 1983 we have 68 percent growth in the number of fields and of 431 percent in the number of subfields. While new field definition is quite regular, the subfield growth is particularly high 1998 and 2005 (Tables 1, 2 and 3). 153 Galvão and Cordeiro: UNIMARC – Understanding the past to envision the future Table 1. Number of fields and subfields by edition/year. Hanbook Fields Subfields 1 st. ed. 2 nd. ed. 2nd. ed., 1st. up. 2nd. ed., 2nd. up. 2nd. ed., 3rd. up. 2nd. ed., 4th. up. 2nd. ed., 5th. up. 3rd. ed. 1983 1987 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2005 2008 115 337 144 464 153 489 164 530 167 1109 171 1181 178 1239 185 1653 193 1791 2nd. ed., 1st. up. 2nd. ed., 2nd. up. 2nd. ed., 3rd. up. 2nd. ed., 4th. up. 2nd. ed., 5th. up. 3rd. ed. Table 2. Number of fields by block and edition/year. Hanbook 1 st. ed. 2 nd. ed. Blocks 1983 1987 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2005 2008 0– 1– 2– 3– 4– 5– 6– 7– 8– Total 7 10 8 22 30 16 12 9 1 115 9 21 10 29 31 16 17 9 2 144 10 22 11 30 34 17 18 9 2 153 11 24 11 33 36 18 19 9 3 164 13 24 11 33 36 18 19 9 4 167 15 24 11 33 36 18 19 10 5 171 18 24 11 34 36 18 20 11 6 178 19 25 11 34 40 18 20 11 7 185 20 25 11 34 40 20 22 14 7 193 2nd. ed., 1st. up. 2nd. ed., 2nd. up. 2nd. ed., 3rd. up. 2nd. ed., 4th. up. 2nd. ed., 5th. up. 3rd. ed. Table 3. Number of subfields by block and edition/year. Hanbook 1 st. ed. 2 nd. ed. Blocks 1983 1987 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2005 2008 0– 1– 2– 3– 4– 5– 6– 7– 8– Total 19 29 41 23 30 65 70 57 3 337 22 64 43 35 31 114 84 66 5 464 26 65 44 36 34 117 90 72 5 489 29 64 45 56 36 124 97 74 5 530 37 68 45 56 576 124 97 74 32 1109 43 68 45 56 612 128 116 77 36 1181 61 70 45 76 612 128 129 81 37 1239 78 79 50 83 960 134 135 81 53 1653 78 84 50 90 1000 149 175 111 54 1791 In general, the rate of enlargement and further specification observed in the evolution of UNIMARC parallels that of USMARC, now MARC21: in 1972 there were 118 fields and 471 subfields25 while the corresponding figures rose up to 207 fields and 2042 subfields in 2012. UNIMARC maintenance activities Methodology The study encompassed all the proposals received by the PUC since its establishment, consisting of a total of 384. Throughout time there were changes in the terminology used to reflect the status of a proposal. For this analysis, all proposals recorded as ‘‘approved’’, ‘‘accepted’’, ‘‘approved or accepted as amended, or with amendments, or with changes’’, and ‘‘done’’ are approved proposals. Not approved are those recorded as ‘‘rejected’’, ‘‘cancelled’’, ‘‘superseded by . . . or replaced by . . . or added to . . . ’’ another previous or later proposal, as well as those marked ‘‘postponed’’ and ‘‘withdrawn’’. This section will present data about UNIMARC maintenance and evolution in three perspectives: i) 154 IFLA Journal 39(2)  From other countries: the remaining 73 proposals, of which 77 percent approved. Figure 1. Total of approved and not approved proposals 1991–2012. general data about maintenance activities: number of approved and not approved proposals: proposals approved according to specific UNIMARC formats, years of production and source; ii) type of resources dealt with the approved proposals; iii) characterization of changes by format block. With regard to the type of resources dealt with by the approved proposals, the objective was to analyze the subject and temporal focus of the proposals and its connection with the concerns of providing UNIMARC with features to cope with resources other than books and serials as well as to align with the FRBR and FRAD models. In the characterization of changes by format block, the objective was to analyze the evolution of the format vis-à-vis the changes in ISBD and the type of changes according to the UNIMARC structure. Proposals by format. The majority of proposals respect to UNIMARC/Bibliographic (316), followed by Authorities (64) and Holdings (9). The years with the highest number of approved proposals were 2011 (30), 2007 and 2008 (28), 2006 (24), 2012 and 2001 (21) (Figure 3). The 2011 and 2012 approved proposals were essentially focused on providing UNIMARC with a data structure better prepared to describe the entities of the FRBR model, following the frame of reference described as scenario 1 in RDA Implementations Scenarios.26 Besides some consolidation of descriptive fields and enhancement of appendices, the proposals from 2006 to 2008 were mostly about the creation of fields for identification numbers and new subject and title access points. The 2001 changes were at the level of coded data mostly, followed by descriptive fields, respecting primarily to music, followed by continuing and electronic resources. The years with the highest numbers of not approved proposals were 2009 and 2010. These proposals concerned the format adaptation to ISBD area 0 and requirements of FRBR group 1 entities. They were not approved due to the need of further study of these topics and were submitted later, in 2011 and 2012. Type of resources dealt with the approved proposals General data about maintenance activities Number of proposals. From 1991 to March 2012 a total of 384 proposals were submitted to the PUC, whose status (Figure 1 and 2) is as follows:    approved – 277 not approved – 106 under discussion – 1 According to the source, the distribution of proposals is as follows       France, from CfU mostly: 143 proposals, of which 71 percent approved. Italy, from ICCU mostly: 48 proposals, of which 56 percent approved. UK: 33 proposals, of which 85 percent approved. Russia: 25 proposals, of which 68 percent approved. Croatia and Portugal: 20 proposals each, 90 percent approved. From the PUC itself: 21 proposals, of which 57 percent approved. Throughout the years many proposals consisted of changes that we can consider of a general nature, i.e. applicable to any type of resource: new fields and subfields or the description of existing ones, definition of repeatability and required occurrence, notes and examples, etc. These types of changes (with a total of 109) occurred between 2006 and 2008 mostly (Figure 4). The number of UNIMARC changes applicable to specific types of resources was less expressive and scattered throughout the years. Those relating to printed textual resources (including fields specific to antiquarian) are from 17 proposals only, occurred in 2001 and 2007 mostly (Figure 5). Changes related to electronic resources (a total of 16) occurred in 1999 and 2001 mostly, reflecting specific needs arisen from the 1997 publication of ISBD(ER) (Figure 6). Changes regarding continuing resources (12 in total) occurred mainly in 2002 (the publication year of ISBD(CR)) and 2007, although the first proposals date from 2001 regarding a specific code for this type of resource in the leader and the change to make 210 Galvão and Cordeiro: UNIMARC – Understanding the past to envision the future 155 Figure 3. Proposals by format/year of approval. Figure 2. Approved and not approved proposals by year. repeatable to carry information about several sequential publishers (Figure 7). In what concerns music (notated music, printed or manuscript) there were 21 proposals approved, most of them in 2001, when the need was felt for codes to specifically identify the form of musical work and key or mode, as well as the medium of performance. In 2012, other changes were approved having in mind the adaptation of music data elements to FRBR (Figure 8). Manuscripts and archival materials were also the object of several approved proposals, 10 in total, focused on improving the description of this type of documents. This demand started in 2001 for manuscripts and had a second increment in 2012 with a set of proposals specifically concerning archival documents (Figure 9). Types of resources other than the above mentioned had little expression in the proposals submitted to/ approved by the PUC:  cartographic material was the object of 4 proposals only (1993, 2001, 2003 e 2012), the latter concerning adaptation to FRBR. This little demand for changes is perhaps the refection of UNIMARC having, since the beginning, data elements specific to cartography; 156 IFLA Journal 39(2) Figure 4. Changes applicable to all types of resources. Figure 6. Changes applicable to electronic resources. Figure 5. Changes applicable to textual resources.  sound and video recordings had 7 proposals (1999, 2003, 2006 and 2012) with the last one also concerning FRBR;  graphic material and realia received a total of 8 proposals (1992, 1993, 1999, 2001 and 2008);  for data elements concerning reproductions, there were 4 proposals (1992, 2003 and 2012). Figure 7. Changes applicable to continuing resources. Changes to accommodate FRBR The need for practical application of the FRBR model, especially since its implementation in RDA (Resource Description and Access) motivated the adaptation of UNIMARC to the description of entities work and expression. The movement towards such changes started in 2008 and intensified in 2011. Between 2008 and 2012, 38 proposals were approved with that objective, some in UNIMARC bibliographic, others in Authorities (Figures 10 and 11). UNIMARC Bibliographic format – characterization of changes General overview Table 4 provides an overview of the changes in the bibliographic format, by block. Numbers refer to the Figure 8. Changes applicable to music resources. year the approved proposals were submitted. Blocks 1–, 3–, 5– and 6 – are the most affected. Blocks 2– and 3– Changes proposed to blocks 2– and 3– of UNIMARC bibliographic are the ones that best match the changes in ISBD, as they correspond to areas 1 to 7 of the bibliographic description standard. Most of the changes 157 Galvão and Cordeiro: UNIMARC – Understanding the past to envision the future Figure 9. Changes applicable to manuscripts. Figure 11. FRBR changes by format. Table 4. Distribution of changes in the bibliographic format by block/year. Figure 10. Changes to accommodate FRBR entities. in these blocks occurred in 2001 and 2012 (each with 17 percent of the proposals concerning these blocks), followed by 2003 and 2008 (12 percent each year). Taking into account the data regarding changes by type of resource, we can see that changes in these blocks, mostly in 2001, correspond to the need to consolidate descriptive information elements while more recent changes, mostly in 2012, reflect other needs – those of adapting the format to FRBR. 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Total 0– 1– 2– 3– 4– 5– 6– 7– 8– Total – 1 1 – – 1 3 – – 1 1 – 1 – 1 1 3 – 1 1 – – 16 – 4 1 – 1 1 2 1 7 1 9 – 5 2 – – 3 3 – 2 – 9 51 1 – 1 – – – – 2 1 1 3 1 – – – – – 3 – – – 3 16 – 1 1 – – – – 1 – – 3 1 4 – – 2 2 1 – – – 3 19 1 – – – – – – – – – – 4 1 – – 1 3 – 2 – – – 12 – 1 – 2 – – – – – – – 1 2 1 – 4 2 1 1 – 4 – 19 – 1 1 1 – – 1 1 1 1 – 1 – – – 5 2 4 – – – – 19 – 1 1 – – – – – 1 – 1 1 – – 1 2 – 2 1 – 1 1 13 – – – – 1 1 2 – – – 2 – – 2 – 1 2 – – – 1 – 12 2 9 6 3 2 3 8 5 10 4 19 9 13 5 2 16 17 14 5 3 6 16 177 Block 0– This block contains two types of identification numbers: those that identify the bibliographic record (with 13 percent of the changes) and those that identify the resource being described (accounting for 87 percent of the changes). Only the last one is related to ISBD, therefore more subject to change (Figure 13). In the three blocks analyzed above, the most frequent changes have been the so called content changes i.e. text changes to any part of the content designation description (e.g. definitions, content notes, examples, etc.) which represent 33 percent of the changes in block 2–, 50 percent of the changes in block 3– and 42 percent of the changes in block 0—(Figure 14). Blocks 5–, 6– and 7– In UNIMARC bibliographic, blocks 5–, 6– and 7– are used for access points of title, subject and responsibility, respectively. These blocks account for 29 percent of the changes occurred (Figure 15). In block 5– the most important changes were at the level of new fields and content information (each with 33 percent of the total changes in this block). In what concerns new fields, two of them respect to the identification of the entity work and another two relate to the entity expression. As for block 6–, the most important changes were at the level of subfields (42 percent of the total in this 158 Figure 12. Changes to UNIMARC Bibliographic blocks 2– and 3–. Figure 13. Changes to UNIMARC Bibliographic block 0–. IFLA Journal 39(2) Figure 15. Type of changes to UNIMARC Bibliographic blocks 5–, 6– and 7–. Figure 16. Type of changes to UNIMARC Bibliographic block 1–. Block 1– Data from Block 1– Coded information block, serves mainly restriction functions in the retrieval and selection processes. Most changes were new codes and data elements (44 percent), followed by changes in content. From the new elements created, two relate to the identification of the entities work and expression (Figure 16). Block 8– Figure 14. Type of changes to UNIMARC Bibliographic blocks 0–, 2– and 3–. block). In block 7–, 35 percent of changes were new fields created, while 29 percent respect to changes in content and 24 percent to new subfields. The remaining 12 percent were changes regarding the application of relator codes. This block contains data elements for maintenance and exchange of records. Most changes in this block were new fields created (33 percent) followed by changes in content (25 percent) (Figure 17). UNIMARC Authorities format – characterization of changes The conceptual evolution regarding bibliographic control that developed internationally, especially in Galvão and Cordeiro: UNIMARC – Understanding the past to envision the future 159 Figure 19. Type of changes to UNIMARC Authorities. Figure 17. Type of changes to UNIMARC Bibliographic block 8–. the bibliographic format and changes in content to improve text consistency. Access points are recorded in blocks 2–, 4–, 5– and 7–, respectively for authorized, variant, related access points and access points in another language and/or script. As changes operated in a block 2– field should have parity in the corresponding fields of the other blocks, these changes were taken care simultaneously. Figure 19 shows the creation of new fields to record the controlled information regarding work and expression title. Concluding notes Figure 18. Changes to UNIMARC Authorities – distribution by year. what concerns authority control – from the concept of uniform heading27 to that of authorized heading28 and, later, to that of controlled access point29 –have influenced the maintenance and development of UNIMARC Authorities format. Changes in Authorities have also derived from the need to align with changes in the bibliographic format and the need to implement FRBR and FRAD concepts. In 2008, an important set of changes started to be defined concerning the relationships between entities, both primary entities and specific instances of such entities. From the total (64) of the proposals submitted, 72 percent (46) were approved. The majority of changes occurred in 2011 (33 percent) resulting from approval of new fields to adapt the format to FRBR (fields for data regarding the work and expression), following earlier proposals of 2008 (15 percent) for the creation of fields for international identification numbers or codes such as ISTC, ISWC, ISAN, ISRC. Changes approved in 2006 and 1997 (11 percent each year) were essentially alignments with The objective of the analysis carried out for this paper was twofold: first, to provide an overview of the evolution of UNIMARC aimed at contributing to lead us to improve our actions regarding the future of the format management. Second, to interpret the evolution to get new ideas about the future of the format itself. The analysis revealed that the format evolved to a large standard whose specification became fairly complex. Throughout time the frequency and type of changes has been driven by i) new needs arising from different materials to describe; ii) changes that occurred in other existing or emerging standards; and iii) occasional demands from users, foreign to any strategic directions. In all these cases and for most situations, the factors influencing the evolution of the format have been exogenous to it and, therefore, of a different nature. That is to say, changes in the format have been mostly to accommodate new data elements or attributes by adding new content designators or values, rather than to improve the structure and quality of the format as such. As a consequence, the practical result of the UNIMARC evolution has been essentially one of extension, rather than one of revision, in a structural 160 sense. And this is why we have lived comfortably with so many and constant changes to the format: usually they are not disruptive and in many cases new content designations or values are optional. But can we simply proceed with extending the format? The experiences with FRBRization and other mapping and conversion operations show that one of the reasons why they are difficult is because of the length and complexity of the standard. Not to mention that extending the specification has not circumvented the diversity of local options (and localizations), thus not helping to improve a standard application. Besides, it is known that a significant proportion of existing content designators have a fairly low usage,30 which makes us to question the return on investment of studying, approving, documenting, publishing, changing processing tools, teaching, etc., a very extended element set, also difficult to understand and reuse,31 especially by outsiders and where deficiencies such as redundancy, for example, are not solved. The truth is that the ‘‘expansionist’’ strategy of the format maintenance has served extended content better than functionality, flexibility and facility of use and integration in the wider and diversified space of the online environment. Especially, the evolution of the format has not been dictated by technological changes: this can be claimed for a small number of changes only, and not structural. All this is known, has been long discussed and is not specific to UNIMARC. Other MARC formats have had the same problems and they come from the same historical (or legacy) reasons deeply rooted, first of all, in the model of the old card catalogue and driven by ‘‘display’’ requirements. Even the recent efforts to implement FRBR in UNIMARC, which are deemed of structural value to catalogues, have been made by expanding the format, not otherwise: so far, the need to comply with a different model and simultaneously to provide for continuity does not leave us with other options. This being said, what is different now? The real urgency is in finding practicable ways to realize the restructuring of catalogues and at the same time to achieve easy and smooth integration with the technology and content of the wider information environment,32 by lowering the barriers to understanding and reuse of bibliographic data. This may require radical approaches to transformation, starting with data disaggregation, decomposition and remodeling, as was done, at the conceptual level, in FRBR. The overview of UNIMARC maintenance activities and the evolution portrayed in this paper is offered for further exploration. It does not provide answers to how a radical approach is to be done or what methodology IFLA Journal 39(2) and effort it entails. But we believe that looking back to what, why and how was done in the past may enact a better understanding, or simply some clues, for what we may not want in the future. Notes and references 1. IFLA Study Group on FRBR (1998) Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records. München: K.G. Saur. Also available at: http://www.ifla.org/publications/functional-requirements-for-bibliographic-records. 2. See, for example CHAPMAN, A.; DANSKIN, A. (2003) A new direction for bibliographic records? : the development of functional requirements for bibliographic records. Part 2. Catalogue & Index 149 (Autumn): 9–11. 3. COYLE, K. (2011) MARC 21 as data: a start. Code4Lib Journal, ISSN 1940-5758, Issue 14. Available at: http://journal.code4lib.org/articles/5468. 4. LEAZER, G. (1992) An examination of data elements for bibliographic description: towards a conceptual schema for the USMARC Formats. Library Resources and Technical Services 36(2): 189–208. 5. HEANEY, M. (1995) Object-oriented cataloging. Information Technology and Libraries 14(3): 135–53. 6. WEINSTEIN, P. (1998) Ontology-based metadata: transforming the MARC legacy. In Witten, I.; Aksyn, R.; Shipman, F., eds. Proceedings of the third ACM conference on Digital libraries, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, June 23–26. New York: ACM Press, pp. 254–263. 7. Launched in May 2011, the Bibliographic Framework Transition Initiative is aimed determining ‘‘a transition path for the MARC 21 exchange format in order to reap the benefits of newer technology while preserving a robust data exchange that has supported resource sharing and cataloging cost savings in recent decades.’’ More information at: http://www.loc.gov/marc/transi tion/. 8. HOPKINSON, A. (1984) International access to bibliographic data: MARC and MARC-related activities. Journal of Documentation 40(1): 13–24. Also available at: http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/2705/1/IABD_pdf_2780400 102.pdf. 9. UNIMARC: Universal Marc Format, 2nd ed., 1980; UNIMARC Handbook, 1982; UNIMARC Manual, 1987. 10. Study to establish the feasibility of using UNIMARC amongst EC national libraries, bibliographic utilities and booktrade based upon their present computer facilities: final report . . . by Die Deutsch Bibliothek, under contract LIBACT5/UNIMARC – EC to the Commission of the European Communities, DG XIII– E – 3. Luxemburg: CEC, 1992. 11. PUC (1992) Permanent UNIMARC Committee: terms of reference and procedure. International Cataloguing & Bibliographic Control 21(4): 51–52. 12. See archived information at: http://archive.ifla.org/VI/ 3/ubcim-archive.htm. 13. Available at: http://www.ifla.org/en/unimarc Galvão and Cordeiro: UNIMARC – Understanding the past to envision the future 14. CAMPOS, F. M.; LOPES, M. I.; GALVÃO, R. M. (1995) MARC formats and their use: an overview. Program 29(4): 445–459. 15. UNIMARC Manual: Bibliographic Format, 2nd ed., 1994, with 5 updates between 1996 and 2005; and 3rd ed. 2008. 16. UNIMARC/Authorities: Universal Format for Authorities, 1991; UNIMARC: Authorities Format, 2nd ed. 2001; UNIMARC Manual: Authorities Format, 3rd. ed., 2009. 17. UNIMARC Concise Classification Format, 2000, first approved draft not yet complete, available at: http:// archive.ifla.org/VI/3/p1996-1/concise.htm. 18. UNIMARC Manual: Holdings Format, 2006, updated 2007. Available at: http://archive.ifla.org/VI/8/projects/UNIMARC-HoldingsFormat.pdf. 19. See information at http://www.loc.gov/marc/annmarc21. html. 20. See information at http://www.bl.uk/bibliographic/nb sils.html. 21. Data from the McBride, K.; Jones-Fuller, P.; IFLA UBCIM Programme (1993) International guide to MARC databases and services: national magnetic tape, online and CD-ROM services. München: K.G. Saur. 22. See PLASSARD, M.-F.; RATHEI, S. (1998) International List of UNIMARC Users and Experts. Summary of responses to 1998 questionnaire. Available at: http://archive.ifla.org/VI/3/p1996-2/iluue.htm#tab1. 23. See CORDEIRO, M. I. (2008) The UNIMARC landscape: updated overview. Available at http://www. ifla.org/en/news/unimarc-survey-and-users-meeting. 24. IFLA (2009) Statement of International Cataloguing Principles (ICP). Available at: http://www.ifla.org/ files/cataloguing/icp/icp_2009-en.pdf 25. See MOEN, W.; MIKSA, S. (2007) Catalogers’ Use of MARC Content Designation over Time: An Analysis of MARC Records from 1972 to 2004. MCDU Project. Available at: http://www.mcdu.unt.edu/. 26. DELSEY, T. (2009) RDA Implementation Scenarios. For the Joint Steering Committee for Development of RDA, July 2009. Available at: http://www.rda-jsc. org/docs/5editor2rev.pdf. 27. IFLA (1984) Guidelines for Authority and References Entries (GARE). London : IFLA International Programme for UBC. 28. IFLA (2001) Guidelines for Authority and References Records (GARR). 2nd ed. München : K. G. Saur. Also available at: www.ifla.org/files/cataloguing/garr/garr. pdf. 29. IFLA (2009) Statement of International Cataloguing Principles (ICP). Available at: http://www.ifla.org/ files/cataloguing/icp/icp_2009-en.pdf. 30. See MOEN & MIKSA (2007), op. cit. for USMARC and LOPES, M. et al. (2007) UNIMARC: estudo da sua 161 utilização na PORBASE. Paper to Congresso Nacional BAD, 9, Açores, 28–30 march. Available at: http:// www.apbad.pt/Edicoes/EdicoesCongresso9.htm, for UNIMARC. 31. See, for example, THOMALE, J. (2010) Interpreting MARC: where’s the bibliographic data? Code4lib journal. ISSN 1940-5758. Issue 11, (2010.09.21). Available at:http://journal.code4lib.org/articles/3832. 32. As suggested in COYLE, K. (2010) Understanding the Semantic Web : bibliographic data and metadata. Library Technology Reports 46(1) (Jan.). Author biographies Maria Inês Cordeiro holds a doctorate in Library Science from UCL/University of London and is the Director-General of the National Library of Portugal (NLP), where she served as Deputy Director from 2006 to 2012. From 1996 to 2006 she worked as senior librarian in charge of Information Systems & Innovation Projects at the Art Library of the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. From 1986 to 1996 she held various positions at the NLP, including Director of the National Bibliographic Database – PORBASE. She collaborates with the UDC Consortium since 1994, having served as UDC Editor-in-Chief in the period 2006–2009. She has participated in IFLA activities continuously since 1989, in various standing committees and other groups, and currently serves as Director of the UNIMARC Core Activity, since 2007. Contact: National Library of Portugal, Campo Grande, 83 – 1749–081 Lisboa – Portugal. Tel. (þ351) 217982 021/022. Fax. (þ351) 217982 140 Email: icordeiro@bnportugal.pt Rosa Maria Galvão is a PhD student in Library Science at the University of Évora. She works for the National Library of Portugal (NLP) since 1989, and is the Head of Standards and Quality Unit since 2007. From 1999 to 2007 she served as Director of Collections and Access Department at the NLP, and as Head of the Standards Division of the National Bibliographic Database Department from 1992–1999. She specializes in bibliographic standards and is a member of the Permanent UNIMARC Committee since 1996. She teaches at Universidade Nova (Lisbon) in Library Science Master since 2004. Email: rgalvao@bnportugal.pt Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 78th IFLA General Conference and Assembly, 11–78 August 2012, Helsinki, Finland, in session 92–New futures for bibliographic data formats: reflections and directions–UNIMARC Core Activity. I F LA Article Techniques to understand the changing needs of library users International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions 39(2) 162–167 ª The Author(s) 2012 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0340035212472846 ifla.sagepub.com Susan Gibbons Yale University Abstract This paper demonstrates a set of techniques development by the River Campus Libraries at the University of Rochester (USA) which have facilitated a tight alignment between the services, collections, facilities, and digital presence of the Libraries with the academic needs of the undergraduate students, graduate students and faculty at the University of Rochester. At the heart of what has come to be called the ‘Rochester method’ is a belief that a greater understanding of the academic work practices of a university or college community can reveal unintentional misalignments between a library’s services and user needs, as well as overlooked opportunities for a library to provide new services. The focus and study of academic work practices has been achieved through the adoption and adaptation of methods from anthropological and ethnography, which are then applied to the study of segments of a university community. The process begins with the identification of a question, such as ‘‘what does a student do between the time a research paper is assigned and the paper is complete?’’ A suite of research methods are then developed to explore the question, such as in situ interview, photo elicitation exercises, design charettes, and academic diaries. The application of those study methods results in data in various forms including photographs, drawings, interview transcripts, and bluesky descriptions of ideal tools, spaces, and services. Diverse teams of staff from across the library study the data and develop findings. At this point in the cycle, those findings require an organizational response that results in real change which can vary from improved marketing, altered physical facilities, new services and web tools. The success at the University of Rochester has demonstrated that a greater understanding and appreciation of the academic needs of library users is not overly difficult nor costly to obtain. While the findings of the Rochester studies are unique to the unique community of the University of Rochester, the methods of study can and have been applied successfully to the study of library users on other campuses. Keywords user needs, user behavior, user studies, academic libraries, Rochester method For centuries the prevailing assumption was that a great research university required an equally great library system. Increasingly, however, this assumption is being questioned. The causes vary and can include extreme economic constraints, the decoupling of the physical library from access to digital information, consortial and regional partnerships, and the growth of information services, such as Google, that have built an expectation of nearly instantaneous response to information queries. Today, academic libraries no longer exist in an environment devoid of competition and potential alternatives to some traditional core library services, as evidenced by projects such as Google Books1, DeepDyve2, OverDrive3 and Ask.com4. While librarians often argue that such alternatives fail to match the quality of information and services provided by academic libraries, as Clayton M. Christensen’s research has shown, disruptive innovation enters a market at the lower end of the performance spectrum (Christensen 2005). Disruptive technologies bring a new proposition to the market that is usually cheaper and more convenient than traditional Corresponding author: Susan Gibbons, PhD, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University, 130 Wall Street, New Haven, CT 06511; PO Box 208240, New Haven, CT 06520-8240, USA. Phone: þ1 (203) 432-1818. Fax: þ1 (203) 432-1294. Email: susan.gibbons@yale.edu 163 Gibbons: Techniques to understand the changing needs of library users offerings. Often the established firms fail to pay early and serious attention to disruptive technologies in their ecosystems. By the time the time the traditional firms are able to see the full potential of the disruptive technology, it is too late for them to react. It is not inconceivable that the Internet and the everexpanding services built upon it are in fact disruptive technologies for academic libraries (Gibbons 2007). Academic libraries must acknowledge that they new reside in an increasingly competitive marketplace and should react accordingly. One form of response is the adoption of a more patron-centric, rather than collections-centric, orientation for a library. Traditional measures of libraries, such as size of collections and circulation statistics, fail to articulate or demonstrate the impact and value that an academic library offers its host institution. This paper focuses on a particular set of techniques development by the River Campus Libraries at the University of Rochester (USA) which have facilitated a tight alignment between the services, collections, facilities, and digital presence of the Libraries with the academic needs of the undergraduate students, graduate students and faculty at the University of Rochester.5 At the heart of what has come to be called the ‘Rochester method’ is the adoption and adaptation of methodologies from anthropologies and ethnography which are then applied to the study of the work practices of distinct segments of a university community.6 These studies are driven by a conviction that a greater understanding of the academic work practices of a community can reveal unintentional misalignments between a library’s services and user needs, as well as overlooked opportunities for a library to provide new services. Brief background Since the 1970s, the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (Xerox PARC) has pioneered the practice of using social scientists to study work environments.7 When David Lindahl left Xerox PARC to join the River Campus Libraries in 2001, he brought this idea with him. With funding from a federal granting agency, Institute of Museum & Library Services, the Libraries was able to hire anthropologist, Dr. Nancy Fried Foster, onto a project that studied the academic work practices of faculty in order to better understand why institutional repositories were not being used by researchers as had been initially predicted (Foster and Gibbons 2005). The success of that initial project spawned what is now nearly 9 years of anthropology and ethnography-based studies at the Libraries which have focused on a variety of research questions, including the work practices of Queson Change Findings Methods Data Gathering Diagram 1. Rochester Method Research Cycle. graduate students (Randall et al. 2008), how undergraduate students create research papers (Foster and Gibbons 2007), the role of science library facilities in disciplines where so much of scholarly communication has gone digital, and how researchers discover information to inform the design of a new catalog interface (Foster et al. 2011). As a participant in the work practice study projects at the River Campus Libraries for 8 years, over time I came to see the process as having distinct steps as illustrated in Diagram 1. The cycle began with the identification of a question, such as ‘‘how do students write their research papers?’’ Dr. Foster would then take the lead in determining and developing methods by which we could explore the question, such as in situ interview, photo elicitation exercises, design charettes, and academic diaries. The methods would all conform to the standards and protocols established in the United States which govern human subject research, with oversight by the University of Rochester’s Institutional Review Board. The application of those study methods would result in data in various forms including photographs, drawings, interview transcripts, maps, and idealized descriptions of new tools, spaces, and services. Diverse teams of staff from across the Libraries would study the data and develop high level findings, examples of which included the fact that the Libraries lacked collaborative learning spaces (Gibbons and Foster 2007) and that students were largely unaware of the services and expertise that the subject librarians can provide (Burns and Harper 2007). At this point in the cycle, those findings required an organizational response that resulted in real change which could vary from improved marketing, altered physical facilities, new services, and redesigned web interfaces (Foster, 164 Dimmock and Bersani 2008). Change is difficult for any organizational culture to embrace and the River Campus Libraries was no exception. However, because the changes were grounded in the rigorous study of library users and the Libraries’ administration fully embraced and supported the program, an organizational culture developed over time which embraced the need for the Libraries to continually realign itself to the rapidly changing academic community that it served. Moreover, the studies demonstrated how often our personal assumptions about our library patrons, which had guided years of decisions, were incorrect. Academic work practices are rapidly changing, in no small part due to technological changes, yet we too often assumed that our own college and university experiences are largely similar to those of students today. Examples of the Rochester Method in action The power of the Rochester method is perhaps best explained by a few examples of movement through the research cycle in Diagram 1. During 2004–2006, the Libraries undertook a focused study of undergraduate students. One of the questions was, what activities did students undertake when assigned a research paper? A group of volunteer students were identified and Dr. Foster remained in touch with the students throughout the semester, asking for updates on the progress of their research papers. When their papers were submitted to the professors for grading, the students were individually interviewed by Dr. Foster and asked to detail the activities involved in researching and writing their paper. In addition to a verbal narrative, each student was asked to draw the steps on a large poster board (Briden, Burns and Marshall 2007). When the data from the interviews and the drawings were studied, a curious feature emerged. Sometimes the student would involve his/her parent in the paper-writing process, such as asking for advice on the thesis of the paper or requesting that the parent help to edit the paper. This finding was consistent with a child/parent relationship paradigm emerging in American culture which has often been labeled as ‘‘helicopter parents’’; parents who retain close involvement in the activities of their children even after the child leaves the home and goes to college (Strauss and Howe 2006). The Libraries’ response to this finding was to consider how to leverage the close parent/child relationship to promote library services. Historically, the Libraries had participated in freshmen orientation, which was a brief, lecture-style orientation to the Libraries within the students’ first IFLA Journal 39(2) days on campus. The effectiveness of the student orientation was questionable because the students, who had just arrived on campus, were much more focused on the upheaval of the transition to university than the great collections and services provided by the Libraries. The Libraries pulled out of freshmen orientation in 2006 and instead started the tradition of hosting a breakfast for the parents. The purpose of the breakfast was to deliver a very pointed message to the parents about the many ways in which the Libraries can assist students in the research and writing of research papers. We asked the parents to convey this message to their sons and daughters at the point of need, recognizing that the parents would likely know when the students needed library assistance before we would. A second example of the impact of the Rochester method also came from the undergraduate research project of 2004–2006. Another question that the project explored was, what it was like, at a holistic level, to be an undergraduate student at the University of Rochester? In addition to observations, maps, academic diaries, and interviews, Dr. Foster recommended the use of cameras through a photo elicitation project (Briden 2007). Students were given disposable cameras and a list of items to take pictures of, including a place in the library where you feel lost, your favorite place to study, the things you always carry with you, and a picture of your dorm room showing your computer. Once the pictures were developed, Dr. Foster conducted an interview with the student, using the photographs as starting off points for broader conversations about life on campus. For me one striking pattern that the photographs revealed was that students were coming to campus with a laptop, rather than a desktop, computer. Yet, that laptop computer was not included in the photograph that showed the items the students always carried with them. The cost of providing and maintaining hundreds of desktop public computers in the Libraries was considerable, yet if the laptops remained in the students’ dormitory rooms, the Libraries had no option but to continue to provide desktop public computers. We began to explore the question about how to make the Libraries a more laptop-friendly environment. At the time, the weight of the laptops was one reason that the students did not wish to carry them about campus, but advances in laptop and battery technology have significantly decreased the weight. Battery life was another barrier to laptop use, particularly in the main library, Rush Rhees Library, which was built in 1930 and had very few power outlets. When we engaged the students in drawing their ideal library spaces, we saw power outlets drawn into some of the pictures. Wireless Internet Gibbons: Techniques to understand the changing needs of library users connection and wireless printing were determined to be other criteria necessary for a laptop-friendly library space. In 2007, the Libraries opened the Gleason Library, a renovation of 23,000 square feet in the Rush Rhees Library, with one, of many goals, being the creation of a laptop-friendly library space. The floor was cored to provide power outlets throughout. The ratio of table space to seats was increased to adequately provide enough room for a laptop to comfortably be placed into the workspace. Strong wireless signals throughout and wireless printing were given top prioritization in the technology specifications for the space. The space was designed with only ten desktop public computers, but they proved sufficient because the students brought their laptops almost immediately. Within a year, the percentage of students observed using a personal laptop in the Gleason Library was 49 percent (Briden and Maarshall 2010). This initial success led to small facilities projects to bring more electrical outlets into the book stacks and reference room, and to strategically place tables near power outlets. When a new power outlet could not be ideally situated, extension cords were provided at the circulation desk. Yale University Library finished a renovation in January 2012 of the Center for Science & Social Science Information in which lockers were built with power outlets inside every locker so that students can power-up their laptops, phones and other electronics securely. A third and final example of the Rochester method in action emerged during a 2-year study of graduate students, 2007–2009. When exploring the question of the barriers to successful dissertation completion, in situ interviews were conducted with graduate students in the spaces where they most often worked on their research. While science and social science students at the University of Rochester often had laboratory or office space on campus, the humanities students frequently had no office-like space on campus. Moreover, the Libraries’ few remaining study carrels were assigned to faculty and thus provided no assistance to the graduate students. The interviews revealed a sense of isolation among some graduate students, particularly those who lived and worked in off-campus housing and who had not formed peer support groups from amongst their fellow graduate students. We came to realize that the Libraries could assist in the success of our graduate students by providing study spaces dedicated to graduate students. Design workshops with graduate students further articulated the type of space the students needed: quiet, with a variety of chairs and tables, and a mature style that emulated a faculty member’s office, rather 165 than an undergraduate students’ study commons. The graduate students also expressed the desire that the space be for graduate students only. Initially, such a request seemed elitist; however, when we probed this question further, we came to recognize that at the University of Rochester, graduate students played many roles including teaching assistant, lab assistant, and tutor. The graduate students were seeking a place wherein they could focus on their primary role as dissertation researcher and writer without being interrupted by others, such as undergraduate students in their classes seeking assistance. The evidence for the need for a graduate student study was strong enough to convince a loyal supporter of the Libraries to fund the renovation of a tired, neglected room in the Rush Rhee Library into a stately graduate student study.8 Before the renovation was even finished, the same donor funded the renovation of a second graduate student study.9 This experience demonstrated the great power and effect of the Rochester method. Not only did the process reveal a need among the graduate students that the Libraries were well-positioned to address, but the process also provided credible and compelling stories, from the students themselves, about the significant impact the graduate student study space was going to make in their academic success. Conclusion As more and more alternative information providers and services chip away at the traditional offerings of an academic library, it is essential that a library more closely align itself with the unique needs of its host institution. This trend will likely necessitate that academic libraries become more dissimilar than similar, just as universities are increasingly striving to distinguish themselves from others. Librarians cannot rely on their own college and university experiences to inform the design and provision of services in today’s academic libraries. Technology and the rapidly changing education landscape have made our own university experiences largely anachronistic. The success at the University of Rochester’s River Campus Libraries, however, has demonstrated that a greater understanding and appreciation of the academic needs of library users is neither overly difficult nor costly to obtain, but very powerful. While the findings of the Rochester studies are unique to the distinct community of the University of Rochester, the methods of study can and have been applied successfully to the study of library users on other campuses as documented on the AnthroLib Map (Diagram 2).10 166 IFLA Journal 39(2) Diagram 2. AnthroLib Map. To be clear, the Rochester method will not quantify the precise return on investment that a university receives from each dollar or Euro invested in its library. However, the Rochester method can provide the foundation for evidence-based decision making and be a catalyst for organizational change. In the right organizational environment, the results can be a better, more evident, alignment between an academic library and its host institution, thus silencing the questions about whether a great university needs a great academic library. Notes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. http://books.google.com/ http://www.deepdyve.com/ http://www.overdrive.com/ http://www.ask.com/ Author was employed as a librarian at the River Campus Libraries, University of Rochester from 2000– 2011. Two examples of work-practice study are Wenger, Etienne. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity (New York: Cambridge University Press) and Goodwin, Charles. (1994). Professional Vision. American Anthropologist, New Series, 96:3, pp. 606–633. http://www.parc.com/services/focus-area/ ethnographyservices/ http://www.rochester.edu/news/show.php?id¼3476 http://www.rochester.edu/pr/Review/V73N1/0305_ messinger.html http://www.library.rochester.edu/anthrolib/ References Briden J (2007) Photo surveys: eliciting more than you knew to ask for. In Studying Students: The Undergraduate Research Project at the University of Rochester. Chicago: ACRL Publications, pp. 40–7. http://hdl.handle.net/1802/7520 Briden J and Marshall A (2010) Snapshots of laptop use in an academic library. Library Hi Tech 28(3): 447–453. Briden J, Burns V and Marshall A (2007) ‘Knowing our students: undergraduates in context’, presented at the Association of College and Research Libraries 13th National Conference, March 29th–April 1, 2007, Baltimore Maryland. http://docushare.lib.rochester.edu/ docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-25072/Knowing_our_ students_URochester.pdf Burns V and Harper K (2007) Asking students about their research. In Studying Students: The Undergraduate Research Project at the University of Rochester. Chicago: ACRL Publications, pp. 7–15. http://hdl.handle. net/1802/7520 Christensen CM (2000) The Innovator’s Dilemma. New York: Harper Business. Foster NF and Gibbons S (2005) Understanding faculty to improve content recruitment for institutional repositories. D-Lib Magazine 11(1) http://www.dlib.org/dlib/ january05/foster/01foster.html Foster NF and Gibbons S, eds. (2007) Studying Students: The Undergraduate Research Project at the University of Rochester. Chicago: ACRL Publications. http://hdl. handle.net/1802/7520 Foster NF, Dimmock N and Bersani A (2008) Participatory design of websites with web design workshops. Codef4glib Journal 2. http://journal.code4lib.org/articles/53 Gibbons: Techniques to understand the changing needs of library users Foster NF, et al. (2011) Scholarly Practice, Participatory Design and eXtensible Catalog. Chicago: ACRL Publications. http://hdl.handle.net/1802/12375 Gibbons S (2007) The Academic Library and the Net Gen Student. Chicago: ALA Edition, pp. 1–11. Gibbons S and Foster N (2007) Library design & ethnography. In Studying Students: The Undergraduate Research Project at the University of Rochester. Chicago: ACRL Publications, pp. 20–9. http://hdl.handle.net/1802/7520 Randall R, et al. (2008) The Next Generation of Academics: A Report on a Study Conducted at the University of Rochester. http://hdl.handle.net/1802/6053 Strauss W and Howe N (2006) Millennials and the Pop Culture. Great Falls, Va: Life Course Associates. Author biographies Susan Gibbons, PhD, is University Librarian at Yale University. She earned an MLS and MA in history from Indiana University, a professional MBA from the University of Massachusetts and a doctorate in higher education administration from the University of Rochester. She is well known in the library world, most significantly for the 167 library user studies at Rochester she has undertaken since 2004. In collaboration with an anthropologist, Gibbons determined how faculty and students do their academic work, find information, and make use of the physical and technological resources offered by the libraries. The results have led to service, collections and physical space changes in the River Campus Libraries designed to better meet user needs. In 2007 she co-edited Studying Students: The Undergraduate Research Project at the University of Rochester (ACRL Publications), and published her own book, The Academic Library and the Net Gen Student: Making the Connections (ALA Editions). Contact: Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University, 130 Wall Street, New Haven, CT 06511; PO Box 208240, New Haven, CT 06520-8240, USA. Phone: þ1 (203) 432-1818. Fax: þ1 (203) 432-1294. Email: susan.gibbons@yale.edu Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 78th IFLA General Conference and Assembly, 11–18 August 2012, Helsinki, Finland, in session 94: Creating a culture for innovation and change. Management and Marketing with Academic and Research Libraries. I F LA Article Measuring the public library’s societal value: A methodological research program International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions 39(2) 168–177 ª The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0340035213486412 ifla.sagepub.com Frank Huysmans University of Amsterdam Marjolein Oomes Netherlands Institute for Public Libraries Abstract Public libraries in the Netherlands face growing scepticism about their value to communities and society at large. The digitization of media, information and communication gives rise to questions about the library’s function, as it still is based mainly on physical service provision. Furthermore, the current economic recession causes local, regional and national governments to critically question every euro spent on cultural institutions. In this climate, there is a growing need for public libraries to show their worth – not only in an economical, but also in a more sociological sense. As standardized measurements for these values are still lacking, a research program was started to develop these outcome measurements. In this paper, we sketch the rationale behind this program and the steps the Netherlands Institute of Public Libraries is taking to develop a measurement instrument geared at validly and reliably demonstrating the societal value of public libraries. Results from the first stages of the research program will be presented: a theoretical framework of the (possible) impact of libraries on Dutch society, based on the findings of a literature study and qualitative research. The findings help us identify and conceptually enrich five domains of possible impact: cognitive, social, cultural, affective and economical. This outcome framework will guide the development of a measuring instrument. Keywords public libraries, outcome measurement, societal value, social return on investment Introduction The value of public libraries in the Netherlands to communities and society at large is less taken for granted than it was in the past. The societal context in which libraries operate is rapidly changing. They are confronted with various challenges in the field of digitization, changing usage patterns and changing expectations of patrons. These challenges give rise to questions about the library’s function, as it is still based mainly on physical service provision. Furthermore, the current economic recession causes local, regional and national governments to critically evaluate every euro spent on cultural institutions. Libraries are therefore more and more urged to document their value and demonstrate their relevance to citizens, commentators and politicians. Dependent on the prevailing public management theory at the local level – either new public management or public value strategic management1 – this takes the form of (only) economical or (additional) sociological frames of reference. Demonstrating relevance can take the form of output and outcome measurement. Hitherto, much attention has been paid to the outputs of the library (numbers of materials, loans, visits, etc.) in addressing the importance of public libraries for Dutch society. Corresponding author: Frank Huysmans, Professor of Library Science, Media Studies, Faculty of Humanities, University of Amsterdam, Turfdraagsterpad 9, NL-1012 XT Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Email: huysmans@uva.nl. 169 Huysmans and Oomes: Measuring the public library’s societal value What is considerably less well known and documented are the outcomes of the library, or, in other words, its real social worth to society (Institute of Museum and Library Services, 20002; Johnson, 20103; Marless and Streatfield, 20014). Attempts to capture the meaning of libraries to the users are being made with user surveys, but these measures are mostly aligned to assessing or evaluating library performance (in the context of user needs, preferences and satisfaction). These output and performance measures, however, do not shed enough light on the value of the library to the user and the impact on his or her life (Durrance and Fisher, 20035; Debono, 20036, Vakkari and Serola 20127; Poll 20038; Poll and Payne, 20069). A further step, measuring outcomes, is made in several studies abroad. Most of the research is, however, aimed at university libraries and research libraries.10 However, in some countries efforts to conceptualize and measure the impact of the public library have also been made. These measures are mostly aimed at specific domains or types of outcome. The various approaches and results will be discussed below. These studies do not always depart from a theoretical framework or at least an inventory of possible societal domains where impact of public libraries is expected. Where they do, approaches diverge and it is not clear which approach is to be preferred. To help improve this state of affairs, the aim of this research project is therefore a methodological one, combining the development of both a theoretically inspired framework for studying the societal value of public libraries, and a combination of measurement instruments which constitutes a valid and reliable operationalization of that framework. In so doing, in the long term, we:  contribute to the level of knowledge (from the branch, stakeholders and politics) about the outcomes of the public library in society  hereby stimulate critical reflection of what we do and how we do it  which contributes to maximization of the impact of libraries on society  and helps us show the impact of public libraries to the outside world (e.g. stakeholders and politicians). The main research question reads as follows: How can we develop a valid and reliable research instrument (or combination of instruments) that makes it possible to measure various aspects of the societal value (returns or benefits) of the public library on the national level? Outputs versus outcomes in public libraries For long, public libraries have collected statistics on their performance. In the Netherlands, more or less reliable statistics are available starting from the sector’s birth years at the beginning of the 20th century.11 These statistics consist largely of units that could easily be registered or counted, e.g. the number of organizations, branches, registered users, loans, loan extensions and opening hours. Numbers like these are valuable for mapping the sector’s expansion and having crude measures of its societal impact. However, if one’s aim is to demonstrate the public library’s value to critical observers like subsidy providers, these measures quickly fall short. A book having been borrowed does not equal a book having been read or consulted. One would want to know what reading a book has contributed to a person’s worldview or knowledge. Here, we touch upon the distinction between outputs and outcomes. Outputs can be described as     a product directly resulting from a program (be it an activity or a service); typically measured in numbers to demonstrate the productivity of a program; hence output ¼ count / event (entity that can be registered) usually a measure of volume (expressed in numbers, counts): i.e. number of products / services that are provided, people who are helped, activities that are organized the results of inputs (resources) and activities (programs or services) to be objectively quantified by neutral observers. Outcomes take the importance of the library for individuals and society one step further in relating to the differences that are being made through the goods and services offered:      they reflect the changes or improvements brought about in people’s lives, showing that your program has (or has not) been successful (effective) they are measures of impact or benefit they are usually reported in amount of change in skills, knowledge, attitude, behaviour, or condition (life situation / social status) they are the success stories of outputs they are moving away from ‘‘what did we provide’’ to ‘‘why do we matter?’’ Output statistics can demonstrate the ‘‘capacity utilization’’ of library services, which is only one dimension in the determination of the effectiveness of the library. On the other hand, outcome measurements can demonstrate how well a library is meeting 170 IFLA Journal 39(2) Table 1 Library story: Output: Expressed in mission statements (things we say and aim to do) Products / services / activities (Things we say) (Things we do and that we (should) count) Stimulate reading Collection (quantity / quality); host and contribute to literacy courses, reading circles; the level of supply schools with books and language skills learning materials Stimulate local involvement and citizenship Outcome: # people who are helped / reached Perceptible effect / change (in behaviour, knowledge, skills, attitude, life situation, status) (Things we want to know) Did people truly read the books they borrowed? Were they inspired/ surprised? Did their reading skills improve? Was their horizon broadened? Are they inclined to read more often? Organization of meetings / lectures / # of participants, Did people learn new things? Did they debates; supply of government visitors, brochures meet new people? Did information information that were taken, help them to form / change their web statistics opinion? Were they activated to be more involved in the democratic process? the (information) needs of its users (Curry Lance et al. 2001; Dugan and Hernon 2002; Dugan et al. 2009).12 In Table 1, the distinction between outputs and outcomes is clarified with two examples. The leftmost column contains the library’s story as it is usually told in policy documents and mission statements. ‘Mission statements reflect the desire of librarians to show that libraries show a vital role in their community’ (Durrance and Fisher, 2003: 54313), ‘for many organizations it is written in such general and utopian terms that have little substance’ (Marless and Streatfield, 2001: 170). Mission statements show that libraries seek to strengthen their communities by offering guidance; inform, culturally enrich and empower citizens; contribute to democracy, promote cohesion and inclusion, support local identity, etc.14 A further step to better illustrate this story is to describe the products, services and activities employed/performed to realize or support the mission. In themselves, these do not shed much light on whether or not the mission is actually realized. The first thing one should know is the extent to which the public is actually ‘reached’ by these services. But what matters most in solidly substantiating or testing the mission, is the extent to which services have factually brought about an effect in people’s lives. A methodological research program The research path is divided into two phases, each comprising several steps. The first phase comprises a Use of materials, # of participants preliminary investigation that consists of a literature study, a qualitative study and a quantitative survey research. The results of the first two steps (literature and qualitative study) will give a first glimpse at the possible domains that libraries have an impact on, at least in Dutch society. In the third and last step of this phase these domains will be converted into a questionnaire in order to get a first grip on the user’s experience on outcome: what (general) benefits that we found in the qualitative and literature study do they actually recognize and/or experience? The findings stemming from these first three research steps help us identify and conceptually enrich domains of possible outcome and will result in a theoretical framework that will guide the development of a measuring instrument. The development of the actual instrument(s) is the central focus of the second stage of the research project. Insights from the literature study, qualitative study, survey research, as well as from an expert meeting that will be organized in the autumn of 2012, will be used to develop one or multiple questionnaires geared at validly and reliably demonstrating the societal value of public libraries. This questionnaire offers the operational definitions of the outcome concept that we choose to study and offers ways to measure it. For this purpose the concept will be split up into research dimensions (the qualities of the concept), indicators (measurable evidence, i.e. actions or behaviours) and, finally, questions. During the process of formulating the Huysmans and Oomes: Measuring the public library’s societal value questionnaire, it will be elaborately pretested before it is ready to be administered. Every test phase consists of a preliminary test to determine its effectiveness and problems (administered to friends or acquaintances) and a formal pretest to examine patterns of response (administered to a trial group that is as similar as possible to the actual survey administration).15 On the basis of the preliminary pretest and formal pretest revisions will be made and, if regarded necessary, tested again. A first glimpse on the results of Phase 1, stages 1 and 2 Phase 1, stage 1: literature review and constructing theoretical framework – results There is a growing body of national and international studies that have attempted to measure the value of public libraries to their communities, often as an instrument in advocacy efforts on behalf of public libraries. These studies are connected with various projects, in various nations, across different research populations. The populations under study range from national, to statewide, to a few libraries and their communities. A wide range of methodologies is used: often questionnaires were selected as a tool to assess library impact, but qualitative methods (interviews and focus groups) were also applied to look for evidence or anecdotal stories to support conclusions. Furthermore, the literature varies from describing general or overall studies, covering multiple societal domains, to studies that focus on one specific field of impact (e.g. social / economic) in particular. Finally, outcomes were established among different target groups (users / non-users; library staff; stakeholders; local / national community leaders) and the ones reported / found / expressed vary from very abstract or intangible (e.g. contribution to democracy) to more concrete (tangible / manifest / observable) ones (e.g. supporting language skills). Next we will introduce some major studies dealing with the outcome of public libraries conducted in different countries. We do not aim to offer a comprehensive or even exhaustive review of the broad literature, but to shed light on the breadth of the subject under study. US Impact study (USA)16 In the US the Global Libraries Programme of the Bill & Melissa Gates Foundation systematically evaluates the effects of Internet PCs in the library on its users. Findings of the so called ‘US Impact study’ were based on nearly 50,000 completed surveys from patrons of over 400 public libraries across the country and 319 interviews with users, non-users, staff, administrators, 171 funding agencies, and other community agencies in four case study sites from all over the country. Results show that Internet access is now one of the most sought-after public library services, and it is used by nearly half of all visitors. The overall purpose for using library computers is to perform both life-changing and routine tasks, such as finding work, applying for college, securing government benefits, and learn about critical medical treatments. The variety of fields where library influence was perceived was reduced to seven categories: social connection (maintain personal connections); education (e.g. using library computers to do schoolwork and taking online classes); employment (e.g. search for job opportunities; submit an application online or work on a resumé); health and wellness (learning about medical conditions, finding health care providers, and assessing health insurance options); egovernment (e.g. learn about laws and regulations, find out about a government program or service); community and civic engagement (e.g. learn about politics, news, and the community, keeping up with current events); personal finance (e.g. manage personal finances, online banking and making purchases online). Although many different types of residents use public library computer and Internet services, libraries appear to be particularly effective in addressing the needs of families who still lack access in their homes or elsewhere. But also when they do have an Internet connection at home, they use the library, because they either wanted technical help from a librarian, they competed with each other for access to the computer at home, or simply wanted to work somewhere more peaceful and inviting than a crowded coffee shop or a hectic unemployment office. Perceptions of public libraries in Africa In six African countries, eIFL has asked users and nonusers, librarians, local and national government officials about benefits from, and impact of, public libraries.17 The study was conducted from December to July 2011 in Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe. The goal of the study was to understand the perceptions of national and local stakeholders (municipalities, ministries, public agencies, media, etc.) and the public (including non-users) on the potential of public libraries. Findings show that all groups surveyed seem to agree that libraries are essential to individuals as well as communities in general and that they have the potential to contribute to community development in important areas such as health, employment and agriculture. The main fields of impact as perceived by the respondents correspond to a large extent with the ones in the US impact study: 172 education (e.g. children’s learning, literacy), economic development (productivity enhancement, cost savings, access to new ideas), health (e.g. access to health information, space for health-related events), communication (build new (online) social relationships, reach distant friends and family); culture (i.e. collect and promote local content, provide access to resources); social inclusion and community development (i.e. provide meeting space, serve needs of disadvantaged populations); citizen empowerment, democracy and egovernment (i.e. access to and dissemination of government information, civic space for discussions, opinion sharing and exchange); agriculture outcomes (e.g. information on weather or pricing, planting and maintaining crops); information society and digital divide (technology skills and free access to information technologies). Libraries Building Communities study (Australia)18 In Australia, the Library Board of Victoria and the Victoria Public Library initiated an extensive research project aiming at increasing community awareness of the range of public library services and showing how public libraries can help achieve government policy goals. Several reports were written in which the results of interviews, surveys and focus groups with almost 10,000 people were presented. Information was gathered from a diverse range of stakeholders – including library users, non-users, library staff and co-mmunity leaders such as local councillors, bureaucrats, business people, school principals and teachers, and people working in key community organizations such as maternal and child health and religious groups. The study shows that libraries and librarians make a fundamental contribution to the communities in four key areas: overcoming the digital divide; creating informed communities; convenient and comfortable places of learning and building social capital. More specifically, findings show that on the individual level, the library contributes by providing access to information (stimulating and supporting information discovery; providing access to multilingual services; helping culturally and linguistically diverse communities; mediating between the user and the information available and maintaining local history and culture, and helping individuals to develop their skills (promoting learning in infancy and childhood; supporting young people/students; supporting basic literacy and encouraging reading; providing access to new technology and skills; stimulate thinking). On the community level, libraries are perceived to add value in the fields of: social interaction; promoting social inclusion; bridging the generation gap and providing a focal point for the community. IFLA Journal 39(2) Participants in the Libraries Building Communities project were also asked to place a monetary value on the library services available to them. The findings suggest that a large library with about 150,000 registered borrowers would be adding value to users of about $730 million each year and a small library with about 20,000 users somewhere in the order of $10 million. This far exceeds the annual expenditure on public libraries – which varies from a minimum of $350,000 to a maximum of $11 million. Enriching communities: The value of libraries in New South Wales (Australia)19 Another Australian research project was conducted more recently by the Library Council of New South Wales. A variety of methodologies was utilized to adequately explore the subject, including: a survey inviting input from the library managers of all public library services; ten case studies for a more in-depth evaluation of stakeholders’ views and interviews with representatives from nine external organizations to better understand how public libraries benefit other institutions. The project has demonstrated that public libraries sustain the community and contribute positively to several fields reflecting four types of wellbeing in society: social (offer safe, harmonious, welcoming and inclusive environment; promote acceptance and understanding of others; ensure free and equitable access to collections; address the needs of specific target groups; contribute to develop, maintain and improve literacy levels; and preserve the past through extensive local and family history collections); cultural (play an active role in local cultural coordinating committee; participate in literary events; celeb-rate cultural diversity; work with local theatres to promote events; host local artists and travelling exhibitions; cooperate with other cultural institutions; keep alive the names and work of significant Australians); economic (enable users to avoid or reduce expenditures, enlarge job opportunities; support local businesses; build programs to establish new libraries or extend/refurbish existing libraries; assist small to medium-sized enterprises to maintain high professional standards and compete with larger organizations; contribute to tourism); environmental. Concerning monetary benefits, the study found that public libraries generated an economic benefit equivalent to $4.24 per invested dollar (which means freeing the same amount of funds for use elsewhere) and that NSW public libraries generated $2.82 of economic activity for each dollar expended on public libraries. Huysmans and Oomes: Measuring the public library’s societal value Public Libraries: Arenas for Citizenship (Norway) 20 In Norway, a research project called Public Libraries – Arenas for Citizenship (PLACE) has started in 2007 to gain more understanding in the role of the public library in the making of social capital. The project aims at investigating the possibility of developing public libraries in multicultural local communities into arenas where different kinds of meetings can take place. Two quantitative surveys were carried out in 2006 and 2011 (no publication to date) in three communities in Oslo and Tromsø to measure the role of the library as a meeting place as reflected in actual use. Results indicate that the library is a complex meeting place with a range of meetings along a continuum from high intensive to low intensive. The different kinds of meetings that can take place in the library are grouped into six categories: 173 which is based on the individual’s own assessment of the good to be valued and implies ‘‘that respondents are asked to state their values of a change in the provision of a nonmarket good, in the form of willingness to pay (WTP) for an improvement or willingness to accept (WTA) a change to the worse’’(Aabø, 2005b:178). In this case, respondents were asked to make a trade-off between closing the library to save money for investment in other community fields, such as care for the elderly and education. The overall conclusion from the empirical study is that, on average, Norwegian households value the benefits from public libraries clearly higher than the costs of providing the library services, demonstrating a cost-benefit ratio of approximately 1:4 at the national level. This means that for each NOK of taxes that is used on public libraries, the population gets four times back in benefits from them. Outcomes in every day life (Finland) 1. the library as a public space and a low threshold social meeting place, a place for accidental meetings and conversations, for making appointments to do something else 2. a meeting place between meeting places, an arena where you can find information about and be directed to other meeting places in the community 3. a public sphere in its own right where political and cultural ideas are presented and discussed (e.g. participation in meetings with authors or politicians, search information on community issues) 4. an arena where you can acquire the information and knowledge you need to be an active, involved and participating citizen 5. an arena where you live out professional or private involvements together with colleagues and friends (joint activities) 6. an arena for virtual meetings on the web. The library is heavily used as a meeting place and the type of meeting with the highest score is that of encounters with people belonging to a different culture, where one has observed and experienced things about these cultures. The library thus appears to be a place where, in a safe environment and in an unobtrusive way, people are exposed to the complexity of the digital and multicultural society and learn something about multiculturalism. In Finland a quantitative study was performed to explore the benefits in everyday life that adult citizens derive from using public libraries.22 For measuring the outcomes of public libraries the researchers asked a sample of 1000 respondents from 15–79 years to rate how frequently they have benefited from public library services in the following 22 segments of human daily life: education (finding educational opportunities; completing formal education; work related educational development; self-education during leisure time); work and business (finding jobs; executing specific work tasks; developing job skills); everyday activities (household; child care and schooling; housing; consumer issues; health; travel and holidays; social relations); leisure time (reading fiction / non-fiction; cultural activities; creative activities; outdoor activities; exercise sports; interest in nature; interest in history or society; participating in and following public discussions). After a factor analysis, these benefits were grouped into three categories: everyday activities, benefits in cultural interests, and career benefits. Results show that public libraries seem to be used most commonly for recreational, cultural or educational literary purposes in leisure time. Libraries were least successful in core everyday activities relating to family and household, but did considerably well in other aspects like health and travel. Dividends: the value of public libraries in Canada23 Monetary value of the public library Also in Norway, Svanhild Aabø21 conducted research in which the value of public libraries was estimated from the population’s perspective, in monetary terms. Aabø uses the contingent valuation (CV) method, In 1996, the Library Action Committee of the Book and Periodical Council undertook a research project to review the importance of public libraries to library users, suppliers, publishers, retailers and other businesses, as well as to Canadian culture. An inventory 174 IFLA Journal 39(2) impact comes about. Finally, because affective outcomes flow directly from library use (i.e. fun in using a library service) as well as indirectly through outcomes that are experienced in the other domains (i.e. self confidence because of reaching educational goals), as in the model above it is situated on a different level than the other four domains. Figure 1. Overview of domains of library impact based on literature review. of several Canadian sources, as presented in a discussion paper that was written by Leslie Fitch and Jody Warner, outlines the many areas in which public libraries play a vital role in Canada. The researchers conclude that public libraries: are cost-effective information providers; support the local economy; contribute to the economic wellbeing of local businesses; improve the market worth of a community; invest in the economy; benefit local businesses; provide high-skill and high-tech jobs; support the cultural industry sector and Canadian culture, support a democratic society, support children and students and lifelong learning; help people to make informed personal decisions and ensure the information highway is accessible to all Canadians. Overall outcome framework Based on these studies discussed above and quite a few additional sources in related areas, we derived five categories, or main domains (areas), of (possible) impact: educational, cultural, social, economical and affective. In these domains, the library is assumed and/or proven to be influential, through its function as a warm, welcoming and neutral meeting place, as a supplier (disseminator) of information, as a multimedia learning environment, organizer of or host for cultural activities and debates, etc. The particular concepts that the outcome domains contain are shown in Figure 2. They concern both individual and community outcome dimensions. As is by definition the case with models, this one presents a simplified representation of reality. Relationships between the dimensions covered by the main outcome domains are not shown in the model, whereas in reality these specific concepts (and, by consequence, the dimensions) are narrowly intertwined, both within and between main dimensions; e.g. career management skills or opportunities (economical domain) are obviously related to cognitive skills (educational domain). And preservation of and access to cultural heritage (cultural domain) will be linked to the common identity of society (social domain). Also, the model does not describe the mechanisms through which Phase 1, stage 2: verifying/expanding framework: qualitative librarians and stakeholders study – results In order to examine and further enrich the outcome domains and dimensions identified in the literature study, specifically for Dutch society, in the second stage a qualitative study was conducted in November / December 2011.24 The aim of this study was to explore the concept of public library outcome in the Netherlands, in all its breadth. In the first research stages, in-depth interviews were held with several stakeholders: seven library directors (hereby covering big city as well as countryside libraries of different sizes and geographically dispersed across the country), experts in specific relevant fields of interest (liveability on the countryside and reading promotion), and partners in the cultural field. These interviews appeared not to bring about much new or unexpected information, thus supporting the resulting model from the literature review (Figure 2). Also, library outcomes were formulated in relatively abstract terms by the stakeholders. In the remainder of the study, the focus was therefore shifted from directors and stakeholders/partners to the user of the library. The main findings of the study were the following. The dimensions of the literature review (Figure 2) were replicated in the qualitative research and remained intact. The affective dimension was indeed found to be supportive of the other four and can only partly be viewed as an independent one. The research indicated further that a distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic value of the public library’s functioning is of importance. Patrons are not always aware of many outcomes, because some outcomes reveal themselves only after quite a while. Furthermore, since they report using the library for the intrinsic (affective) reward of reading, they may not acknowledge the additional consequences of that activity in their lives. Another finding is the complicated nature of disentangling outcomes from various sources. It is difficult to establish with any certainty that any particular outcome was the direct result of a specific intervention. The library is but one of many organizations which are all striving for a societal ‘return’ for their investments, quite often in the same domains as the public Huysmans and Oomes: Measuring the public library’s societal value 175 Figure 2. Specified overview of the domains and dimensions of library impact. library. This finding serves as a warning sign for the remainder of the research program, which has (at the time of writing, in May 2012) still to be carried out. We will be turning to it now, by way of conclusion. Looking ahead: What’s next? Phase 1, stage 3: verifying/expanding the framework: quantitative (non) users study Now that the reference framework for the societal outcomes has been developed and qualitatively tested and enriched, it is necessary to try and verify it by way of a quantitative test with its main stakeholders: the users and non-users. The main aim of this last stage in the first phase of the program is to have another check. The outcome dimensions in the literature and the stakeholders’ views are very likely to be coloured by societal discourses about the public library as ‘storehouses of knowledge’, ‘cornerstones of democracy and information freedom’ etc. Noble and perhaps also apt as these labels may be, it could very well be that in the views of the users, their societal importance is of a less elevated nature. In any case, the user interviews in the qualitative study pointed in that direction. Users worded the benefits they derive from the public library’s services more in intrinsic than extrinsic terms. 176 In August/September 2012, we will have a short quantitative survey research carried out among the Dutch population. The questionnaire to be administered will contain items measuring the four main dimensions – educational, economic, social and cultural benefits, plus affective benefits. As far as possible, the questions will copy those of earlier surveys25 for cross-national comparison purposes. Other questions will be developed and pre-tested in order to have all dimensions of the framework covered, both in terms of intrinsic and extrinsic benefits people can derive from the public library. Phase 2: developing and testing new measurement instrument Once the first phase will have been completed (end of 2012), we will have an empirically validated theoretical framework for measuring societal outcomes of public library services. The next and crucial step will then be to further develop and pre-test measurement instruments, in order to arrive at a set of instruments with which the societal impact of public libraries could be tested in a valid and reliable manner. As has become clear from the literature review and the qualitative study, it is far from certain that ‘the’ outcomes of the public library system are the same from various perspectives, in particular institutional versus individual ones. To give an extreme example: an institution like a primary school might find that it benefits considerably from the library’s collections and its support in reading promotion activities. The school’s teachers may feel freed from the burden of having to incorporate reading promotion in their curricula without having learned the necessary skills themselves. From the point of view of the individual children, this institutional outcome may not be desirable at all, for now it is left to them to find the way to the library and its reading promotion activities. So in this second phase of our research program, we will have to decide how to deal with these divergent perspectives on outcomes. Will it be feasible to incorporate all stakeholders’ viewpoints in one measurement instrument, or will we have to resort to multiple instruments, each geared at another group of stakeholders? Furthermore, will it be possible to cover all dimensions – educational, economic, social, cultural – in all of these cases? A decision will probably have to be made to exclude some of the stakeholders and/or some of the dimensions in order to limit the budgetary requirements. As should be clear, the instrument(s) is (are) not developed for the sake of this methodological program itself, but in order to be put into practice in the real world. Practical IFLA Journal 39(2) considerations therefore will have to be leading in this phase. After the practical boundaries have been set, the project will enter a phase of developing, testing, improving, re-testing and re-improving the measurement instruments. This phase will consequently be of a methodological nature, possibly using multitrait-multimethod designs to judge the validity and reliability of the instruments.26 In 2014, we hope to be able to present the validated instrument(s) to the library community. Notes and references 1. Moore MH (1995) Creating public value. Strategic management in government. Harvard: Harvard University Press; Benington J (2009) Creating the public in order to create public value? International Journal of Business Administration 32(3–4): 232–249. 2. Institute for Museum and Library Services (2000) Perspectives on outcome based evaluation for libraries and museums. Washington, D.C.: IMIS. Retrieved on May 5, 2012, from http://www.imls.gov/assets/1/ workflow_staging/AssetManager/214.PDF. 3. Johnson CA (2010) Do public libraries contribute to social capital? A preliminary investigation into the relationship. Library and Information Science Research 32: 147–155. 4. Markless S and D Streatfield (2001) Developing performance and impact indicators and targets in public and education libraries. International Journal of Information Management 21: 167–179. 5. Durrance JC and KE Fisher.(2003) Determining how libraries and librarians help. Library Trends 51(4): 541–570. 6. Debono B (2002) Assessing the social impact of public libraries: what the literature is saying. Australian Public Libraries and Information Services 12(2): 80–95. 7. Vakkari P and Serola S (2012) Perceived outcomes of public libraries. Library & Information Science Research 34(1): 37–44. 8. Poll R (2003) Impact/outcome measures for libraries. Liber Quarterly 13: 329–342. 9. Poll R and P Payne (2006) Impact measures for libraries and information services. Library Hi Tech 24(4), 547– 562. 10. E.g. Kaufman PT (2008) The library as strategic investment: results of the Illinois Return on Investment study. Liber Quarterly 18(3/4); Harless DW, Alle FR (1999) Using the contingent valuation method to measure patron benefits of reference desk service in an academic library. College & Research Libraries 60(1): 56–69; Tenopir C, King DW, Mays R, Wu L, Baer A (2010) Measuring value and return on investment of academic libraries. Serials. 23(3): 182–190. 11. See e.g. Greve H.E (1933) Geschiedenis der Leeszaalbeweging in Nederland [History of the reading room movement in the Netherlands]. Den Haag: Uitgeversfonds der Bibliotheekvereenigingen. Huysmans and Oomes: Measuring the public library’s societal value 12. Curry Lance K; NO Steffen, R Logan, MJ Rodney, S Kaller (2001) Counting on results new tools for outcome-based evaluation of public libraries. Aurora: Bibliographic Center for Research. http://www.lrs. org/documents/cor/CoR_FullFinalReport.pdf; Dugan RE and Hernon P (2002) Outcomes assessment: not synonymous with inputs and outputs. Journal of Academic Librarianship 28(6): 376–380; Dugan RE, Hernon P and Nitecki DA (2009) Viewing library metrics from different perspectives: inputs, outputs and outcomes. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. For more information on outputs and outcomes, see for example an online course for Outcomes-based planning and evaluation (OBPE) by the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) and Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) http://www. shapingoutcomes.org/index.htm or the website of IMLS (http://www.imls.gov/applicants/outcome_based_ evaluations.aspx). 13. Durrance JC and KE Fisher (2003) Determining how libraries and librarians help. Library Trends 51(4): 541–570. 14. For an overview of mission statements worldwide: International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA), Members of the Government Libraries Section (2011) Mission and/or vision statements of government libraries worldwide. Retrieved from http://www.ifla. org/files/government-libraries/publications/MissionSt atementsAugust2011-2.doc at 02-05-2012. 15. Baker TL (1999) Doing social research. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Co. 16. Becker S., MD Crandall, KE Fisher, B Kinney, C Landry, A Rocha (2010) Opportunity for all. How the American public benefits. Washington: Institute of Museum and Library Services. 17. eIFL (2011) Perceptions of public libraries in Africa: full report. Retrieved from http://www.eifl.net/ perception-study, 4 May 2012. See also: Elbert M, D Fuegi, U Lipeikaite (2012) Perceptions of public libraries in Africa. Ariadne. Web magazine for Information Professionals. Retrieved from http://www. ariadne.ac.uk/issue68/elbert-et-al, May 15, 2012. 18. State Library of Victoria (2005) Libraries building communities. Retrieved from http://www2.slv.vic. gov.au/about/information/publications/policies_report s/plu_lbc.html, May 15, 2012. 19. Library Council of New South Wales (2008) Enriching communities: The value of libraries in New South Wales. Sydney: Library Council of New South Wales. 20. Aabø S, Audunson R and Vårheim A (2010) How do public libraries function as meeting places? Library & Information Science Research 32(1): 16–26. Audunson R, A Vårheim, S Aabø, ED Holm (2007) Public libraries, social capital and low intensive meeting places. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Conceptions of Library and Information Science—‘‘Featuring the Future’’. Information Research 12(4): 1–13 (http:// informationr.net/ir/12-4/colis20.html). 177 21. Aabø S (2005a) Are public libraries worth their price? A contingent valuation study of Norwegian public libraries. New Library World 106(11/12): 487–495. Aabø S (2005b) Valuing the benefits of public libraries, Information Economics and Policy 17: 175–198. 22. Vakkari P. and S. Serola (2012) 23. Fitch L, J Warner (1998) Dividends: the value of public libraries in Canada, The Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances 11(4): 158–179. 24. Zweers J, De Kleijn M and Stroeker N (2012) Maatschappelijke opbrengst van openbare bibliotheken, Een verkenning [Societal outcomes of public libraries, An exploration]. Zoetermeer: Research voor Beleid/Panteia. 25. The questions formulated by Vakkari and Serola (2012) are being used in Sweden and Norway at the time of writing. They will be used in our Dutch study as well. Furthermore, the instruments of the eIFL (2011) study will be copied as far as this is useful for our purposes. Additional questions still to be developed will complete the questionnaire. 26. Saris WE and Andrews FM (1991) Evaluation of measurement instruments using a structural modeling approach. In PP Biemer, RM Groves, LE Lyberg, NA Mathiowetz and S Sudman (Eds.) Measurement errors in surveys (pp. 575–597). New York [et al.]: Wiley. Author biographies Frank Huysmans, MSc in communication science, University of Nijmegen, NL (1992), PhD in social science (University of Nijmegen, NL, 2001). Worked as senior researcher at the Netherlands Institute for Social Research (2001–2010) and programme manager for Research & Knowledge Sharing at the Netherlands Institute for Public Libraries (SIOB, 2010–2012). Since 2012 independent research consultant (WareKennis, The Hague, NL). Since 2005 holding an extraordinary chair in Library Science, Faculty of Humanities, University of Amsterdam. Correspondence: Media Studies, Faculty of Humanities, University of Amsterdam, Turfdraagsterpad 9, NL-1012 XT Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Email: huysmans@uva.nl Marjolein Oomes, MSc in sociology, University of Tilburg, NL (2007). Worked as researcher/advisor and project manager at the library service provider Cubiss (Tilburg, NL, 2007–2010) and as programme officer for Research & Knowledge sharing at the Netherlands Institute for Public Libraries (SIOB, 2010–current). Correspondence: PO Box 16160, NL-2500 BD Den Haag, Netherlands. Email: oomes@siob.nl Paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 78th IFLA General Conference and Assembly, 11–78 August 2012, Helsinki, Finland, in session 76 — Crisis? What crisis? The use of statistics and data for libraries at a turning point — Statistics and Evaluation. I F LA News International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions 39(2) 178–184 ª The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0340035213486415 ifla.sagepub.com News IFLA therefore reaffirms the following principles: News Contents IFLA Policies News from IFLA Headquarters Membership Matters Future IFLA Conferences and Meetings IFLA Publications 178 181 182 183 184 IFLA Policies IFLA Professional Statement on UBC A statement reaffirming IFLA’s commitment to Universal Bibliographic Control has been endorsed by the Professional Committee. The statement was initiated by the Bibliography Section and has been endorsed by the Cataloging Section and the Classification and Indexing Section: During the 1970s IFLA established an office for Universal Bibliographic Control following several years of discussion about the importance of international sharing of bibliographic data to help reduce costs and to encourage greater cooperation worldwide. That office became known as UBCIM (Universal Bibliographic Control and International MARC). At that time the philosophy was that each national bibliographic agency would catalog the works published in its own country and establish the names of its authors, and that data would be shared and re-used around the world.1 However, in the 1990s it was recognized that having data in a language and script users can understand is extremely important, so respecting the cultural diversity of users around the world should be addressed as well. These are not necessarily mutually exclusive conditions, as has been demonstrated in the subsequent Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) initiative. Web technologies offer new possibilities of sharing data at a global scale and beyond the library domain, but also show a need for authoritative and trusted data. Thus, the concept of UBC is still valid and worth IFLA’s continued support and promotion.  A national bibliographic agency (NBA) has the responsibility for providing the authoritative bibliographic data for publications of its own country and for making that data available to other NBAs, libraries, and other communities (for instance archives and museums) through appropriate and timely services with the goal of increasing open access to the bibliographic data;  NBAs, as a part of the creation of authoritative bibliographic data, also have the responsibility for documenting authorized access points for persons, families, corporate bodies, names of places, and authoritative citations for works related to its own country and for making that authority data available to other NBAs, libraries, and other communities (for instance archives and museums);  IFLA has the responsibility for maintaining and promoting the Statement of International Cataloguing Principles (ICP), published in 2009, as the foundation for the sharing of bibliographic data;  IFLA has, through the work of its relevant professional units and advisory committees, the responsibility for creating, maintaining and promoting bibliographic standards and guidelines to facilitate this sharing of bibliographic and authority data (e.g., ISBD, the FRBR family of conceptual models, etc.);  IFLA works collaboratively with other international organizations (e.g., ISO, ICA, ICOM, etc.) in the creation and maintenance of other standards in order to ensure that library standards developments, including compatible data models, are coordinated with those of the wider community. In 2003 the UBCIM core activity was closed and the coordination of bibliographic standardization was moved to the IFLA-CDNL Alliance for Bibliographic Standards (ICABS), which was later changed to the IFLA-CDNL Alliance for Digital Strategies (ICADS). In 2011 it was decided to discontinue ICADS. During the 2011 WLIC conference the idea arose of revitalizing UBC and the Bibliography Section took on this task. News 1. Readers interested in the UBC history are directed to the following resources: Dorothy Anderson, ‘‘Universal Bibliographic Control : a long term policy, a plan for action’’ Pullach/Muenchen: Verlag Dokumentation, 1974. 87 p. There is also a report from IFLA for the UNESCO Intergovernmental Conference of 1974 that includes a chapter more briefly describing UBC (p. 10–12: ‘‘IFLA and the role of libraries’’ published by IFLA in 1974. 38 p. Download links at: http://www.ifla.org/news/iflaprofessional-statement-on-ubc Statement of Principles on Global Cross Sectoral Digitisation Initiatives The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA), the International Council on Archives (ICA), the Coordinating Council of Audiovisual Archives Associations (CCAAA), the International Council of Museums (ICOM), the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Council for Scientific and Technical Information (ICSTI) share a common mission of collecting, recording, organising, storing, preserving in perpetuity, and providing access to the world’s cultural patrimony and intellectual output in documentary form. Together they support and follow the long-term vision as formulated by the CDNL (Conference of Directors of National Libraries) in 2008, on the development of a global distributed digital collection – comprehensive, open, seamlessly-connected, and universally accessible on the Internet – giving ready access to digital materials in the collections of all the cultural heritage institutions of the world and in private collections, in the interests of scholarly research, education and lifelong learning, innovation and economic development, and the promotion of international understanding; in this way complying with the wish to strengthen the strategic collaboration with other stakeholders such as cultural heritage professionals, cultural heritage institutions, scientific institutions, national and international government organisations, other NGOs, publishers and information providers, and other private sector organisations. A shared vision for global digital heritage To this end IFLA, ICA, CCAAA, ICOM, ICOMOS and ICSTI adopt the CDNL recommendations and will promote these recommendations through its international constituency: 179 Notwithstanding the fact that cultural heritage institutions operate in different environments, the above institutions encourage cultural heritage professionals in heritage institutions and/or with private collections to: 1. promote, encourage, and support the development of collaborative digital collections of all types; 2. promote and support the connecting of the digital collections of national cultural heritage institutions, and in cross sectoral dialogue with one another, to provide a window to the cultures of the world and to open up their rich and diverse holdings; 3. support cultural and linguistic diversity and multilingualism, and also respect indigenous cultures and cultural property; 4. promote the development of digital tools, products and services and common standards through standard setting organisations within their own organisations and through the International Internet Preservation Consortium (IIPC), and with a particular focus on critical issues such as long-term digital preservation, authenticity, and understanding the needs of our users; 5. ensure that learning on digital collection developments and best practice are shared between cultural heritage professionals, whether in cultural heritage institutions or working with private collections, at a cross sectoral level; 6. increase digital capability and support digital developments by cultural heritage professionals, whether in cultural heritage institutions or working with private collections in the developing world; 7. work for widespread appreciation of the importance of intellectual property issues in the digital age; 8. advocate for solutions to intellectual property issues which strike the appropriate balance between the crucial public interest in ensuring access to information and ideas and also the rights of creators to be recognised and rewarded for their work; 9. advocate for the development of the global digital collections and for regulatory support (particularly through legal deposit and intellectual property regimes) and financial support for digital developments; 10. strengthen the strategic collaboration of cultural heritage professionals, through their cultural heritage institutions or through their private collections, with national and international government 180 IFLA Journal 39(2) organisations, publishers, information providers, and other private sector organisations. Long-term access to cultural heritage IFLA, ICA, CCAAA, ICOM, ICOMOS and ICSTI      Facilitate discussion and promote understanding of and cooperation on matters of common interest to the international cultural heritage sector in the areas of copyright, cultural heritage protection and recovery, effective advocacy and lobbying at international level, and long term preservation of and access to its institutions cultural heritage. Support the promotion, facilitation and advocating for long-term access to the cultural heritage, in all formats, preserved by cultural heritage professionals, whether in private collections, or in the cultural heritage institutions of the world. Are committed to cultural and linguistic diversity. Promote mutual understanding as well as the sharing of best practices, mutual support and professional networking. Seek to facilitate the cross sectoral collaboration of cultural heritage institutions and cultural heritage professionals, and the integration of access to collections for the benefit of the global community. Background to the Principles In 2008 the Conference of Directors of National Libraries (CDNL) developed a long term vision on the development of a global digital library. The international NGO’s on cultural heritage regularly meet to discuss issues of mutual interest and to share experiences on common practices in an informal gathering called the LAMMS Coordinating Council. At one of these occasions they took up this Vision Statement to adjust it and make it suitable for adoption by all NGO’s within LAMMS. After a long review process in which various subsequent versions were discussed thoroughly, the representatives of IFLA, ICA, CCAAA, ICOM, ICOMOS and ICSTI at their 6th LAMMS Coordinating Council meeting in December 2011 decided to adhere to this Statement of Principles on Global Cross Sectoral Digitisation Initiatives and to promote this within their membership. The Principles were prepared by: The LAMMS Coordinating Council (2012): Ingrid Parent (IFLA President, chair of LAMMS Coordinating Council 2009–2011); David Leitch (ICA Secretary General); Bénédicte Selfslagh (ICOMOS Secretary General 2008–2011); Kurt Deggeller (CCAAA Convener till 2012); Julien Anfruns (ICOM Director General); France Desmarais (ICOM), Herbert Gruttemeier (ICSTI past President), Ingeborg Verheul (IFLA, LAMMS Coordinating Council Secretariat). Endorsed by the IFLA Professional Committee 12 August 2012. Download: http://www.ifla.org/publications/statem ent-of-principles-on-global-cross-sectoral-digitisationinitiatives The IFLA Position on Internet Governance (2013) IFLA issued a Position on Internet Governance in 2005 in connection with the second phase of WSIS in Tunisia. As WSIS enters a review period in the run up to its assessment by the UN General Assembly in 2015, the IFLA Governing Board endorsed a revised statement in January 2013 to ensure that IFLA’s thinking on Internet governance reflects current thinking and issues: 1. As the foremost international professional association concerned with information and library services, IFLA represents associations and institutions worldwide that endeavour to provide access to all publicly available information today and in the future, whether factual or fictional, and regardless of media or format. The Internet is a critically important platform for the information services delivered by libraries, and in many countries public and educational libraries are the major or only agencies that provide the general population with free or affordable access to these resources. In doing so, they make a huge contribution to cultural, social and economic development. IFLA therefore has a direct interest in the future governance of the Internet, and in contributing to the debates, mechanisms and processes shaping its future. 2. IFLA opposes any measures which would lead to control of information access and freedom of expression by commercial, governmental or sectoral interests, or hinder the development of the Internet as an enabler of human rights. Measures which may be necessary to ensure the reliable operation of the Internet, ensure its security, and enable individuals to protect their privacy must not be used to limit the rights expressed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, especially those in Article 19. IFLA therefore endorses the free flow of information on the Internet, rejects any discrimination by network operators between different types of services, content and applications transmitted by their 181 News networks/infrastructure, and supports balanced copyright frameworks that facilitate the widest possible public access to digital information resources. 3. IFLA supports the development of the Internet as a reliable multilingual system which will be available to all and will facilitate unrestricted access to information by all peoples in their languages and scripts of choice. 4. In regard to the governance of the Internet and related public policy issues, IFLA supports a multistakeholder approach which involves governments, civil society, business, academia and the technical community and which offers an opportunity for increasing participation by those interests in all countries as the capacity to participate develops. IFLA consequently endorses the principle and spirit of the multistakeholder approach under the UN aegis and supports the process of enhanced co-operation in relation to critical Internet resources. In this context, IFLA emphasizes the need for effective representation of all stakeholder interests and the broader involvement and participation of stakeholders from developing countries in particular. 5. As a voice for more than one billion registered library users across the world and an United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) accredited international professional organisation, IFLA is resolved to contribute to the development of effective multistakeholder models for Internet governance. IFLA therefore encourages the participation of library and information professionals in Internet governance at all levels. Endorsed by the IFLA Governing Board, January 2013 Source: http://www.ifla.org/node/7515 From IFLA Headquarters New webpages on IFLA and the Information Society IFLA is pleased to launch a new set of resources relating to the role libraries play in the information society and the way they can contribute to Internet governance. The new webpages look at the different forums of the information society, such as the World Summit of the Information Society (WSIS), and the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) and highlight why the involvement of libraries is important. In addition to these resources, a 2013 revised version of the IFLA Position on Internet Governance stresses our view of the multistakeholder approach to Internet governance issues, and the pages also provide information on how you can get involved with the issues at national and international levels. It is our intention to build these resources over time. We would welcome feedback about the pages. Please feel free to inform your network about our new pages and do not hesitate to contact us with questions or suggestions. Access the new pages on the IFLA and the Information Society: http://www.ifla.org/information-society Stuart Hamilton, Director, Policy & Advocacy. Email: stuart.hamilton@ifla.org Webpages on Libraries and Development IFLA is pleased to launch a new set of resources relating to the role libraries play in supporting development. Access to information is one of the core needs of society and libraries are stepping up and fulfilling this need through capacity building, partnerships, training, and access opportunities for everyone. The new webpages look at how libraries are furthering development worldwide as well as highlighting the role of public libraries as agents for development. They share links to information resources on development projects and research, highlight what IFLA is doing to further development through libraries and how you can get involved in the process. It is our intention to build these resources over time and to focus on innovative library projects that contribute to development. We would welcome feedback about how we can increase the numbers of case studies highlighted, or provide links to information resources that can raise awareness of the way libraries can contribute to development activities. Access the new pages: http://www.ifla.org/ict4d Impact Report 2012: Building Strong Library Associations programme Library associations are key institutions in the library and information sector around the world. Library associations are advocates for equitable access to information, and help to build strong, sustainable library communities by improving services for library users, and supporting development of the profession. The IFLA Building Strong Library Associations Programme, launched in 2010, offers a strategic and coordinated approach to capacity building and sustainability of library associations. This report highlights the first six country projects undertaken between 2010 and 2012. Strong library associations support and enrich society and the library and information profession. 182 They unite a country’s library community around a common platform for advocacy and development of the profession. Building Strong Library Associations Impact Report 2012 BSLA builds capacity by facilitating experience sharing within regions, strengthening library leaders in-country, and developing locally relevant solutions. Through cascade workshops and outreach, the programme has had an impact across countries and regions. Programme activities include training and mentoring which helps associations to form partnerships, strengthen governance and member services, and to become better advocates for their library community. Training and activities are customised to the objectives of library associations, and for different cultural, political, technological and social conditions. IFLA measures the difference its programmes make using impact evaluation. This methodology considers the change that the programme has effected on individuals, associations and library communities. The impact evaluation process involves the clear identification of the goals and objectives for each programme, with evidence collected to measure the extent to which those goals and objectives are achieved. This report presents preliminary programme impact following the conclusion of project activities and incountry evaluation meetings and interviews in mid2012. Download: BSLA Impact Report 2012. http:// www.ifla.org/files/alp/BSLA/impact-report/ IFLA_BSLA_impactreport_2012.pdf IFLA launches principles, research and advice for eLending in Libraries IFLA is pleased to launch a new set of resources relating to eBooks and libraries. Providing access to eBooks is one of the most pressing issues facing libraries right now. Public libraries, in particular, are dealing with implications of rapidly changing business and access models. IFLA has previously issued a background paper on eLending during 2012, and is now building on this paper to launch a new official policy document ‘IFLA Principles for Library eLending’ which was endorsed by the Governing Board in February 2013. In addition, the new webpages contain links to the background paper, and a commissioned thinkpiece on eBooks in libraries, both of which are intended to further the debate around the subject and provide IFLA Journal 39(2) interested colleagues with further information. There are links to existing campaigns on eBooks, and further details on how to get involved in IFLA’s work on the issue. The plan is to build on these resources during 2013 and expand the amount of information available. The Principles will be discussed at the MLAS Seminar on eBooks in Libraries on February 21st 2013 in London. Access the new pages: http://www.ifla.org/e-lending Stuart Hamilton, IFLA Director of Policy and Advocacy Membership Matters New Members We bid a warm welcome to the 34 members who have joined the Federation between 10 December 2012 and 15 March 2013. Including the following: National Associations Te Ropu Whakahau, New Zealand Institutions Columbus Metropolitan Library, United States Communauté Agglomération Sophia Antipolis, Direction de la Lecture Publique, France New Jersey State Library, United States URFIST de Bretagne et Pays de la Loire, France Halifax Public Libraries, Canada Lappeenranta Provincial Library, Finland University of Cincinnati, United States Kokkola City Library – Regional Library, Finland Université du Luxembourg, Bibliothèque, Luxembourg Rovaniemi City Library – Provincial Library of Lapland, Finland Personal Affiliates Lisa Krolak, Germany David Ramı́rez-Ordóñez, Colombia Nancy Vanegas Cuevas, Colombia Thomas Simiele, United States Dixie Jones, United States Triveni Kuchi, United States Sharon Mader, United States Janice Van de Velde, Australia Rebecca Brown, United States Bozena Rasmussen, Norway Fred Stielow, United States Judy Jeng, United States Mireille Lamouroux, France Dolaya Buranasing, Thailand 183 News Leticia Anidiobu, Nigeria Elizabeth Wallace, Canada Hilda Estela Gomez Rodriguez, El Salvador Student Affiliates Christopher Bonilla de la Plata, France Lisa Chatellier, France Mathilde Riot, France Romain Vany, France Emily Ekstrand-Brummer, Canada IFLA Conferences and Meetings Singapore 2013 The World Library and Information Congress: 78th IFLA General Conference and Assembly, will take place in Singapore from 17–23 August 2013. Theme: Future Libraries: Infinite Possibilities More information regarding the 79th IFLA General Conference and Assembly are available at http://conf erence.ifla.org/sites/default/files/files/wlic2013/ifla2013-final-announcement.pdf and at http://conferen ce.ifla.org/ifla79 Singapore Satellite Meetings Workshop on User Interaction Built on Library Linked Data (UILLD). Pre-conference to the 79th World Library and Information Conference. Jurong East Regional Library, Singapore, 16 August 2013. The main objective of this workshop/pre-conference is to provide a platform for discussion of deployed services, concepts, and approaches for consuming Linked Data from libraries and other cultural heritage institutions. Special attention will be given to presenting working end user interfaces using Linked Data from both cultural heritage institutions (including libraries) and other datasets. For further information about the workshop, please contact the workshops chairs at uilld2013@ gmail.com Website: http://uilld2013.linkeddata.es/ Newspapers/ Genealogy and Local History (GENLOC) Sections Pre-conference Satellite Meeting. Singapore, 14–15 August 2013. Theme: Newspapers to the People. This Pre-conference Satellite Meeting is jointly organised by the National Library of Singapore, the IFLA Newspapers Section, and the IFLA Genealogy and Local History Section. More information: Frederick Zarndt, Chair, IFLA Newspapers Section. Tel. þ1.801.361.3204. Fax þ1.888.723.3204. Skype: frederickzarndt Email: fred erick@frederickzarndt.com Library Theory and Research Section Satellite Meeting. Singapore, 14–15 August 2013. Theme: How do we fit in the global knowledge environment? Researching the library’s role. Further information: Virginia Chapman, Publisher, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley, BD16 1WA United Kingdom. Tel: 00 44 1274 515667. Fax: 00 44 1274 785200. Email: www.emeraldinsight.com Children and Young Adults and Core Activity Preservation and Conservation Satellite Meeting. Bangkok, 14–15 August 2013. Theme: Creating the future: preserving, digitizing and accessing all forms of children’s and young adults’ cultural heritage. Further information: Viviana Quiñones, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Centre national de la littérature pour la jeunesse – La Joie par les livres, Quai FrançoisMauriac, 75706 Paris cedex 13, France. Tél. þ 33 (0)1 53 79 52 86. Email: viviana.quinones@bnf.fr Welcome to IFLAcamp? Singapore, 15–16 Aug 2013. Following-up the first IFLAcamp in 2012, the New Professionals Special Interest Group and the Asia and Oceania Section welcome you to IFLAcamp?, the WLIC2013 unconference for new and established professionals! What IFLAcamp? is a two-day satellite meeting in the mode of an unconference that provides plenty of space for ad-hoc sessions and group discussions. The participant-driven approach will allow for active involvement of all attendees and including all kinds of topics of interest. Who IFLAcamp? is a joint event by the New Professionals Special Interest Group and the Asia and Oceania Section. When IFLAcamp? will take place from 15–16 August 2013. Where IFLAcamp? We are going to meet in the Li Ka Shing Library of the Singapore Management University. Located in the heart of Singapore, we will not only spend two intensive days of unconferencing, but also have the chance to explore this exciting metropole and enjoy some culinary adventures. Further information: wilke.sebastian@gmail.com Lyon 2014 During the Closing Session in Helsinki Finland on 16 August, IFLA President Ingrid Parent officially announced the host location for the 2014 World Library and Information Congress: Lyon, France. 184 IFLA Journal 39(2) Interlending and Document Supply Conference 2013 13th IFLA Interlending and Document Supply Conference 2013. Peking University, Beijing, China, 16–18 October 2013. The IFLA Document Delivery and Resource Sharing Section is pleased to announce that the China Academic Library and Information System (CALIS) has been selected to host the 13th IFLA Interlending and Document Supply Conference in 2013. More information: Mary A. Hollerich, Co-Editor, Interlending & Document Supply, 1118 W. Washington Blvd., #3A, Oak Park, IL 60302, USA. Email: mary.hollerich@gmail.com Tel. þ1 847-275-0666 (cell) IFLA Publications Ambassadors of the book: competences and training for heritage librarians. Edited by: Raphaële Mouren, Berlin/Munich: De Gruyter Saur, 2012. ISBN 978-3-11-030127-4. (IFLA Publications; Nr 160) Euro 99,95 / for USA, Canada, Mexico US$ 140.00. Special price for IFLA members Euro 79,95 / for USA, Canada, Mexico US$ 112.00. What competences are needed for heritage librarians, and how can they be taught? The management of heritage collections requires a unique mix of knowledge and skills, including expertise in preservation and conservation; heritage policies; acquisitions and collection management; bibliographic description; the materiality of books and other collection objects; and the history of libraries. Librarians must also understand the need for open access, the importance of marketing, and the challenges posed by digitization. Guidelines for Subject Access in National Bibliographies. Edited by Yvonne Jahns. Berlin/ Munich: De Gruyter Saur, 2012. ISBN 978-3-11028089-0. (IFLA Series on Bibliographic Control; Nr 45)Euro 59.95 / for USA, Canada, Mexico US$ 84.00. Special price for IFLA members Euro 49.95 / for USA, Canada, Mexico US$ 70.00 In a networked and globalized world of information the form of national bibliographies may have changed, however their major function remains unchanged: to inform about a country’s publication landscape, its cultural and intellectual heritage. Subject access offers a major route into this landscape providing information about the dispersion of publications in specific fields of knowledge and topics contained in a particular national publishing output. The Guidelines for Subject Access in National Bibliographies give graded recommendations concerning subject indexing policies for national bibliographic agencies and illustrating various policies by providing best practice examples. ‫‪I F LA‬‬ ‫‪Abstracts‬‬ ‫‪International Federation of‬‬ ‫‪Library Associations and Institutions‬‬ ‫‪39(2) 185–200‬‬ ‫‪ªThe Author(s) 2013‬‬ ‫‪Reprints and permission:‬‬ ‫‪sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav‬‬ ‫‪DOI: 10.1177/0340035213490854‬‬ ‫‪ifla.sagepub.com‬‬ ‫ﺍﻹﺭﺙ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺛﺮﺍﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﻤﻮﺣﺎﺕ ﻣﻬﻨﺔ ﺃﻣﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻣﻨﻮﻟﺚ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻗﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻭﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ‪:‬‬ ‫‪Petra Düren‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ‪ (2013) 39‬ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻓﻼ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‪ ،‬ﺭﻗﻢ ‪ ،2‬ﺹ‪139–134:.‬‬ ‫ﻳﺘﻮﺟﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻣﻮﺍﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ‪ُ .‬ﻳﻠﻘﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻧﻈﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﻫﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ‬ ‫ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﺳﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ُﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺑﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺨﺮﺝ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻟﻴﺴﺎﻧﺲ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻭُﻳﻤﻜﻦ‬ ‫ﺃﻥ ﻧﺄﺧﺬ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻫﺎﻣﺒﻮﺭﺝ ﻟﻠﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﻴﺔ ﻣﺜﺎ ًﻻ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ‪ .‬ﻭُﺗﺸﻜﻞ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺻﻞ ﻭﺍﻟ ُﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ ﺃﻫﻢ ﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﻧﺠﺎﺡ ﻛﻞ ﻣﺸﺮﻭﻋﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ‪ .‬ﺗﺆﻛﺪ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺘﺎﻥ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺘﺎﻥ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻭﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﺆﻛﺪ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ُﺃﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺇﺣﺪﻯ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻭﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﻱ ﺍﻷﻭﺳﻂ ﻭﻓﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻭﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﺫﻛﺮﻫﺎ ﻭﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺩﺓ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺻﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻭﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺗﺒﻌﺚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺣﺎﺏ‪ ،‬ﺗﺘﺴﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺮﻭﻧﺔ‪ ،‬ﺣﺪﻳﺜﺔ‪ :‬ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﻓﻖ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ‪:‬‬ ‫‪Abstracts‬‬ ‫ﻗﺘﻄﻔﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﻣﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺳﻨﻐﺎﻓﻮﺭﺓ‪ :‬ﻣﻦ ُﻣﺠﺮﺩ ﻣﺒﺎﻧﻲ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻜﺎﻥ‪:‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ‪ Esther Ong :‬ﻭ‪Julie S Sabaratnam‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ‪ (2013) 39‬ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻓﻼ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‪ ،‬ﺭﻗﻢ ‪ ،2‬ﺹ‪120–103:.‬‬ ‫ُﻳﻠﻘﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻝ ﻧﻈﺮﺓ ﺷﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺸﻬﺪ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻨﻐﺎﻓﻮﺭﺓ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻓﻘﺪ ﻟﻌﺒﺖ ﻣﻜﺘﺒﺔ ﺳﻨﻐﺎﻓﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﻃﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺳﻨﻐﺎﻓﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻮﻃﻨﻴﺔ ﺩﻭ ّﺭﺍ ﻫﺎ ّﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﺗﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﻮﺏ ﺁﺳﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﻣﻨﺬ ‪ 190‬ﺳﻨﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻭﺷﻬﺪﺕ ﺳﻨﻐﺎﻓﻮﺭﺓ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻦ ﺯﻳﺎﺩًﺓ ﻛﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻇﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻹﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ‪ُ ،‬ﻣﻬﻤ ًﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻐﺎﻓﻮﺭﻱ‪ .‬ﻭﻛﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻣﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺒﺘﻜﺮ ﻃﺮﻕ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ُﻣﻘﺘﻨﻴﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮﺭ؛ ﻛﻲ ﺗﻮﺍﻛﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻐﻴﺮ ُﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻳﺴﺘﻌﺮﺽ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻨﻐﺎﻓﻮﺭﺓ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺑﺪﺀ ﺍﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﻟ ُﻤﺒﺘﻜﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻬﺘﻢ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟ ُﻤﻌﺪﺍﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺻﻞ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺬﺏ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻴﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻣﻨﻮﻟﺚ‪ :‬ﻛﻴﻒ ﺷﻜﻠﺖ ﻧﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﻌﻤﺮﺍﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‪:‬‬ ‫‪Charles Forrest, Sharon L. Bostick‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ‪ (2013) 39‬ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻓﻼ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‪ ،‬ﺭﻗﻢ ‪ ،2‬ﺹ‪150–140:.‬‬ ‫‪Mary Carroll, Paulette Kerr, Abdullahi I. Musa,‬‬ ‫‪Waseem Afzal‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ‪ (2013) 39‬ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻓﻼ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‪ ،‬ﺭﻗﻢ ‪ ،2‬ﺹ‪133–121:.‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻇﻞ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﻭﺗﺴﺎﺭﻉ ﺗﺪﺍﻭﻝ ﻛﻞ ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺻﻮﺭﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻐﻴﺮ ﺩﻭﺭﻫﺎ‬ ‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﺪﻣﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﺩﻋﻤﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﺗﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺎﺕ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺪﺧﻮﻝ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺍﻋﺘﺎﺩ ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﻬﺎﺗﻒ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻱ ﻭﻗﺖ ﻭﻣﻜﺎﻥ‪ ،‬ﻭﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﻗﻠﺐ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮﻩ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﻱ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﻳﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺩﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﺩﺍﺋ ّﻤﺎ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ُﺗﺮﺳﺦ ﺍﻟﺮﻏﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﻟ ُﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ‪ .‬ﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺃﻣﺮﻳﻜﺎ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻄﺎﻕ ﻭﺍﺳﻊ؛ ﻟﻠﺘﻮﺳﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﻓﻖ ﻭﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮﻫﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﻛﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺟﻪ ﻟﻠﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﺩﻱ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﻦ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻱ ﻭﻗﺖ‬ ‫ﻣﻀﻰ‪ ،‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻗﺪﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻮﻳﻞ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﻤﺎ ﺯﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎﺕ؛ ﻛﻲ‬ ‫ُﺗﻘﻠﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺪﺓ ﺩﻭﺭﺗﻬﺎ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﻟﺘﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﻊ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻮﻗﻌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻣﻬﻨﺔ ﺃﻣﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺩﺍﺋ ّﻤﺎ ﻣﺤﻮﺭ‬ ‫ُﻣﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ ﺍﻷﺟﻨﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺳﺎﻫﻤﺖ ﺑﺪﻭﺭﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻨﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻨﺬ ﺃﻭﺍﺧﺮ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺳﻊ ﻋﺸﺮ ﻭﺣﺘﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ‪ ،‬ﻛﺎﻧﺖ‬ ‫ﺗﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺛﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺎ ﻣﻀﻰ ﺿﻤﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﻌﻤﺮﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﺭﺍﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺿﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ )ﻭُﺗﻌﺪ ﺍﻵﻥ ﺿﻤﻦ‬ ‫ﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻣﻨﻮﻟﺚ(‪ ،‬ﻣﺆﺛﺮﺍﺕ ﺗﻨﺘﻤﻲ ﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺘﻴﻦ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﺃﻻ ﻭﻫﻤﺎ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﻤﺎ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺇﻟﻰ ُﻣﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ ﺑﻞ‬ ‫ﻭﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﺣﻴﺎﻥ ﺗﻨﺎﻗﺾ ﺃﺻﻮﻝ ﺗﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ُﺃﻃﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ”ﻧﻤﺎﺫﺝ“ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻳﻄﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻠﻌﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺀ‬ ‫ﻫﺬﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺛﺮﺍﻥ ﺩﻭ ّﺭﺍ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻋﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺗﺎﺭ ّﻛﺎ‬ ‫ﻭﺭﺍءﻪ ﺇﺭﺛّﺎ ُﻣﻌﻘ ّﺪﺍ‪ .‬ﺗﺴﺘﻜﺸﻒ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻮﺭﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻫﺬﺍ‬ ‫ﺍﻹﺭﺙ ﻓﻲ ﻭﺿﻊ ﺃﺟﻨﺪﺓ ﻃﻤﻮﺣﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻬﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ‬ ‫ﻭُﺗﻨﺎﻗﺶ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺃﻣﺎﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺗﻘﺪﻳﻤﻪ‪ .‬ﺳﻴﺘﻨﺎﻭﻝ‬ ‫ﻀﺎ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻛﻴﻒ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ‬ ‫ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺃﻳ ّ‬ ‫‪186‬‬ ‫)‪IFLA Journal 39(2‬‬ ‫ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﺗﺒﺎﻉ ﻭﺗﻌﺪﻳﻞ ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﺗﺮﺟﻊ ﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻐﺮﺍﻓﻴﺎ ﺍﻹﺛﻨﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ُﺗﻄﺒﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮﺍﺋﺢ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﻲ‪ .‬ﺗﺒﺪﺃ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﻄﺮﺡ‬ ‫ﺳﺆﺍﻝ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ‪“ :‬ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻔﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺗﻜﻠﻴﻔﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻭﺇﺗﻤﺎﻣﻪ؟"‪،‬‬ ‫ﺛﻢ ﺗﻮﺿﻊ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺎﻫﺞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻻﺳﺘﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﺴﺆﺍﻝ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻣﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻫﺞ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺟﻤﻊ‬ ‫ﺑﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ُﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺻﻮﺭﻫﺎ‪ :‬ﺻﻮﺭ‪ ،‬ﺭﺳﻮﻡ‪ ،‬ﺳﺠﻼﺕ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﻘﺎﺑﻼﺕ‪،‬‬ ‫ﺍﻷﻭﺻﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﻸﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﻣﺎﻛﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﺗﻌﻜﻒ‬ ‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ُﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﻭﺗﺤﻠﻴﻠﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻳﻠﺰﻡ ﺗﺠﺎﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﻣﻊ ﻫﺬﻩ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﻹﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻳﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﺗﺴﻮﻳﻘﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺮﺍﻓﻖ‬ ‫ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﺃﻭ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺧﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻭﺃﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﺇﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﻭﺿﺢ ﻧﺠﺎﺡ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺃﻥ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻌﻲ ﻟﻔﻬﻢ ﻭﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺍﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻴﻦ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻌﻮﺑﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻠﻔﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ‬ ‫ﻣﻦ ﻣﻼﺋﻤﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻭﺻﻠﺖ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺭﻭﺷﺴﺘﺮ ﻣﻊ ﺍﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎﺗﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ُﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺑﻞ ﺗﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻌﻞ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻬﺎ ﻭﺑﻨﺠﺎﺡ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺎﺕ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﻴﺔ‪ :‬ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺑﺤﺚ ﻣﻨﻬﺠﻲ‪:‬‬ ‫‪Frank Huysmans, Marjolein Oomes‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ‪ (2013) 39‬ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻓﻼ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‪ ،‬ﺭﻗﻢ ‪ ،2‬ﺹ‪177–168:.‬‬ ‫ﺳﺮﻳﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ‪ .‬ﻭُﺗﻌﺪ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻣﺸﺮﻭﻉ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻟﺪﻭﺭﺓ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﻘﺒﻠﺔ‪ .‬ﺗﺴﺘﻜﺸﻒ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻮﺭﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ ﻭُﺗﻨﺎﻗﺶ ﺟﻬﻮﺩ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺛﻨﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻛﺒﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ‬ ‫ﺻﺎ؛ ﻛﻲ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ‬ ‫ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺗﺘﻠﻘﻰ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﺗﻤﻮﻳ ًﻼ ﻋﺎ ّﻣﺎ ﻭﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﺗﻤﻮﻳ ًﻼ ﺧﺎ ّ‬ ‫ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺎﺕ ﻭﻭﻇﺎﺋﻒ ﻭﺧﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ‬ ‫ﻭﺻﻴﺎﻧﺘﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻭُﻳﻠﻘﻲ ﺃﺻﺤﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺍﻟﻀﻮﺀ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻬﺪﻑ‬ ‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﺗﻔﻌﻴﻞ ﺍﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭ ﺭﺅﻭﺱ ﺍﻷﻣﻮﺍﻝ ﻭﺗﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﺪﺓ ﺩﻭﺭﺓ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎﺭ‬ ‫ﻭﻭﺿﻊ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﺗﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻭﺍﺳﻊ ﻭﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻨﻪ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ُﻣﻌﺪﻻﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻹﺷﻐﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻟ ُﻤﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮﺍﺀ ﻭﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ‪ :‬ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﻭﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻭﻧﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺤﺎﻛﺎﺓ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ‬ ‫ﺇﻧﺸﺎﺀ ﻣﺸﺮﻭﻋﺎﺕ ﻭ ُﻣﺒﺎﺩﺭﺍﺕ ﺗﺘﺠﺎﻭﺏ ﻣﻊ ﺍﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﻭﺗﻌﻤﻞ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﻓﻖ ﺑﻬﺪﻑ ﺗﺠﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﺗﺪﻋﻢ‬ ‫ﻭﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠّﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻭﺗُﺘﺸﺠﻊ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎﺕ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ :UNIMARC‬ﻓﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ ﻟﺘﺼﻮﺭ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‪:‬‬ ‫‪Rosa Maria Galvão and Maria Inês Cordeiro‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ‪ (2013) 39‬ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻓﻼ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‪ ،‬ﺭﻗﻢ ‪ ،2‬ﺹ‪161–151:.‬‬ ‫ﻳﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺼﻮﺭ ﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻳﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﺒﻠﻴﻮﻏﺮﺍﻓﻴﺔ ﺗﻔﻜﻴ ّﺮﺍ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺭﻙ ﻭﻣﺪﻯ ﻣﻼءﻤﺘﻪ ﻟﺪﻣﺞ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻜﺸﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﺒﺒﻠﻴﻮﻏﺮﺍﻓﻲ ﻣﻊ‬ ‫ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﺷﺒﻜﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨ ُﻈﻢ‪ .‬ﻳﻨﻄﻠﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﻟُﻴﻠﻘﻲ‬ ‫ﻧﻈﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻄﻮﺭ ‪ UNIMARC‬ﻭﺍﻟﺤﻔﺎﻅ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﺳﺘﻤﺮﺍﺭﻳﺘﻪ ﻭﺟﻤﻊ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ُﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻹﺳﻬﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ‬ ‫ﻟﺨﻄﻮﺍﺕ ُﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻳﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﺒﻠﻴﻮﻏﺮﺍﻓﻴﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮﺍﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﻫﻮﻟﻨﺪﺍ ﺗﺸﻜﻴ ّﻜﺎ ُﻣﺘﺰﺍﻳ ّﺪﺍ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺎ ُﺗﻤﺜﻠﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ‬ ‫ﻟﻠ ُﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﻓُﻴﺜﻴﺮ ﺗﻮﻓﺮ ﻭﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺍﻹﻋﻼﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺻﻞ ﻭﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺗﺴﺎﺅﻻﺕ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻓﻬﻲ ﻣﺎﺯﺍﻟﺖ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻤﻮﺳﺔ‪ .‬ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺑﺤﺚ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﺗﺪﻗﻴﻘﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻧﻔﺎﻕ‬ ‫ﺃﻳﺔ ﺃﻣﻮﺍﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ ﻇﻞ ﻣﺎ ُﻧﻌﺎﻧﻴﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺴﺎﺩ‬ ‫ﺍﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ‪ .‬ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﺟﻮﺍﺀ‪ ،‬ﺗﺘﺰﺍﻳﺪ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺇﻇﻬﺎﺭ ﻗﻴﻤﺘﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻀﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻊ ﻗﺼﻮﺭ‬ ‫ﻟﻴﺲ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻱ ﻓﺤﺴﺐ ﺑﻞ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﺃﻳ ّ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻳﻴﺮ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺤﺪﺩﺓ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﻢ‪ ،‬ﺗﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﺪﺀ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺑﺤﺜﻲ ﻟﻮﺿﻊ‬ ‫ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻳﻴﺮ‪ .‬ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺃﺳﺒﺎﺏ ﺇﻧﺸﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﻄﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﺗﺄﺧﺬﻫﺎ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﻫﻮﻟﻨﺪﺍ ﻟﻠﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﺃﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﺿﺤﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﻮﺛﻮﻕ ﺑﻬﺎ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ‪ .‬ﺳُﺘﻌﺮﺽ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻲ‪ :‬ﺍﻹﻃﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻱ ﻟﻸﺛﺮ )ﺍﻟ ُﻤﻤﻜﻦ(‬ ‫ﻟﻠﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻬﻮﻟﻨﺪﻱ ﺑﻨﺎ ّﺀ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺜﻴﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ُﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪﻧﺎ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺧﻤﺲ ﻣﺠﺎﻻﺕ ُﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺇﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﺑﻞ ﻭﺇﺛﺮﺍءﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﺎﻻﺕ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻛﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ‪،‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻮﺟﺪﺍﻧﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺳﻴﻮﺟﻪ ﺍﻹﻃﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻭﺿﻌﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻭﺿﻌﺘﻬﺎ ﻣﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺷﺴﺘﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﻻﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺤﺪﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺣﻘﻘﺖ ﺍﺗﺴﺎ ّﻗﺎ ﻛﺒﻴ ّﺮﺍ ﺑﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟ ُﻤﻘﺘﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺮﺍﻓﻖ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﻤﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺎﺕ ؛ ﻟﺘﻠﺒﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻻﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻄﻼﺏ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻭﻓﻲ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺘﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺟﺴﺘﻴﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮﺭﺍﻩ‪ .‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﻹﻳﻤﺎﻥ ﺑﺄﻥ ُﻣﻤﺎﺭﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻠﻴﺎﺕ ُﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻋﺪﻡ ﺍﻻﺗﺴﺎﻕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮﺩ ﺑﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺧﺪﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺘﻴﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ‪ُ ،‬ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ُﻟﺐ ﻣﺎ ُﻳﺪﻋﻰ ﺍﻵﻥ “ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ‬ ‫ﺭﻭﺷﺴﺘﺮ"‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺹ ﺍﻟﻀﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺘﺒﺔ ﻟﺘﻘﺪﻳﻢ ﺧﺪﻣﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ‪ .‬ﻟﻘﺪ ﺗﻤﺖ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ُﻣﻤﺎﺭﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﻳﻤﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫‪Library of Singapore)和新加坡国立大学图书馆‬‬ ‫‪摘要‬‬ ‫‪(National University of Singapore Library)的‬‬ ‫‪成立为新加坡这个东南亚岛国的图书馆建设打下‬‬ ‫ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﻓﻬﻢ ﺣﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻴﻦ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮﺓ‪:‬‬ ‫‪Susan Gibbons‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺪﺩ ‪ (2013) 39‬ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻠﺔ ﺍﻹﻓﻼ ﺍﻟ ُﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‪ ،‬ﺭﻗﻢ ‪ ،2‬ﺹ‪167–162:.‬‬ ‫‪新加坡图书馆：从泥瓦房到信息中心‬‬ ‫‪了坚实的基础。自此，包括公共图书馆、学术图‬‬ ‫‪编辑： Julie S Sabaratnam，Esther Ong‬‬ ‫‪书馆和特色图书馆在内的各类型图书馆在新加坡‬‬ ‫‪国际图联杂志 39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 103–120‬‬ ‫‪如雨后春笋般涌现。在政府的政策与战略支持‬‬ ‫‪下，图书馆在新加坡人的生活中扮演了十分重要‬‬ ‫。‪本文对新加坡的图书馆发展史进行了全面展示‬‬ ‫‪的角色。为适应技术发展及用户需求与行为的变‬‬ ‫‪大 约1 9 0年 前 ，新 加 坡国 家图 书 馆( N a t i o n a l‬‬ 187 Abstracts 化，新加坡的各类图书馆都在寻求馆藏管理与用 力和时代变革中的学术与公共图书馆领导力的定 户服务的新方式。本文首先回顾了新加坡图书馆 性研究，以及一项在学术图书馆中关于改革型与 的发展史，之后特别针对图书馆创新、数字产品 务实型高层领导对中层及团队(包括组织文化)影 与服务(包括图书馆管理系统、电子资源、数字设 响的定性研究。 备)以及通过社会媒体吸引用户等方面提出了几点 见解。 舒适、灵活、艺术：提升设备能力的举措 举棋不定的联邦国家：英美图书馆专业模型对原 查尔斯·弗里斯特(Charles Forrest)，沙龙·L·博斯 英属殖民地及领地图书馆学教育的影响 蒂克(Sharon L. Bostick) 玛丽·卡罗尔(Mary Carroll)，波莱特·克尔(Paul- 国际图联杂志 39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 140–150 ette Kerr)，阿卜杜拉希·I·穆萨(Abdullahi I. 随着信息数字化的迅猛发展，各国的图书馆都在 Musa)，瓦西姆·阿夫扎尔(Waseem Afzal) 积极转型以适应其在社区服务与支持工作中的角 国际图联杂志 39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 121–133 色转变。高校图书馆尤其要面临这样的挑战，因 从世界范围来看，图书馆与情报专业向来是社会 与政治事务的关注焦点并深受二者的影响。自19 世纪末至今，原英属殖民地与领地(即现在的部分 英联邦国家)主要受到来自英美两国的文化影响。 这种影响导致在许多英联邦国家中出现了两种相 互竞争甚至有时是冲突的图情教学模型，并且被 分别贴上了英式和美式教育“模型或方式”的标 签。这两种影响力的交叉作用对图情教育模式的 塑造产生了重要影响，但同时也导致了一个复杂 的问题。本文将研究这一问题会对本地专业群体 的未来事务产生何种持续影响，及其对图书馆技 能的传播与教学模型产生的既定影响。文章将通 过几个英联邦国家的系列案例探讨这种文化交集 如何塑造图情专业未来导向及其对图书馆技能的 传播与教育模型产生的影响。 时代变革中的图书馆领导力 为新一代的大学生是在一个能够随时随地获取信 息的网络与移动媒体环境中成长起来的。当今学 术界越来越重视学院与学生间、以及课内外学习 中的学术合作，而身处学术圈中心的21世纪的高 校图书馆必须不断将自身打造为一个能够培养求 知欲、投入力、合作度及终身学习能力的地方。 在美国高校图书馆界，典型的20世纪资本投资路 线是在设备扩充与升级方面的大规模一代性投 资。在21世纪前10年间，对于设备升级的要求远 大于前，而资金供应却无法及时跟进，导致各机 构难以缩短资本投资循环时间，从而无法应对技 术、教学、学术研究与用户需求的迅速变化。任 何一个计划的结束都是下一轮变化和投资评估与 规划的开始。本文将探讨图书馆针对美国国内两 大学术机构(分别由公共基金及私人赞助支持)开展 图书馆空间、职能、服务、运营与维护的创新评 估工作所作的努力。作者将重点介绍关于资本投 资运营、缩短资本循环时间及采取介入措施等方 佩特拉·杜伦(Petra Düren) 面的内容，这些内容都是基于一个宏观规划与具 国际图联杂志 39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 134–139 体实施的大框架提出的。涉及数据包括设备淘汰 当前的学术图书馆和公共图书馆同样都要面临长 期变革。本文概述了在图书馆开展大规模改革所 需的领导能力。从汉堡应用科学大学(University of Applied Sciences Hamburg)例子可以看出， 大部分所需要的领导能力可以在图情专业本科阶 段习得。每一次变革进程的关键因素都包括信 量统计、设备拥有率及同侪比较；数据来源包括 调查问卷、目标群体调研及仿真数据。一些特别 项目和方案将涉及用户需求、创新工程和设备升 级，这些项目方案的宗旨都是为了将图书馆打造 为一个加强学习、激励学术、促进合作的地方。 息、通信与合作，这些影响因素，尤其是领导人 UNIMARC – 回顾历史，展望未来 在变革时代的交际能力的重要性在多项研究成果 罗莎·玛利亚·加尔旺(Rosa Maria Galvão)，玛利 中都予以了强调，包括两项涉及学术图书馆领导 亚·伊内斯·科代罗(Maria Inês Cordeiro) 188 国际图联杂志39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 151–161 IFLA Journal 39(2) 究数据并给出结论。至此，根据这些结论将提出 一个系统性反馈并最终促成切实的改进，这些改 当前业界有一些要求变革书目标准环境的呼吁， 进的方面可以是更好的推广手段、升级的物理设 但这些变革需要考虑MARC的特性与规范，以及 施、新的服务形式或是网络工具。罗切斯特大学 它是否能够适应书目发现系统与网络信息及网络 的成功案例表明，了解并理解图书馆用户的学术 系统的整合。基于此出发点，本文概述了UNIM- 需求并不困难也不必耗费过多财力。虽然罗切斯 ARC的演进、保存与采集方法，这将为今后进一 特案例的结论只是针对罗切斯特大学单一社区的 步完善书目数据标准提供第一手资料。 研究成果，但相关研究方法可以并已经成功应用 于其他校区图书馆用户的研究。 了解图书馆用户的变化需求的方法 苏珊·吉彭斯(Susan Gibbons) 评估公共图书馆社会价值：方法研究项目 国际图联杂志39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 162–167 弗兰克·于斯曼(Frank Huysmans)，马若琳·奥姆 本文介绍了一系列由美国罗切斯特大学(Univer- 斯(Marjolein Oomes) sity of Rochester)里佛校区图书馆(River Cam- 国际图联杂志39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 168–177 pus Libraries)提出的(有关了解用户需求的)方 法，通过结合罗切斯特大学的在校生、毕业生及 荷兰的公共图书馆正面临着越来越多对于其社区 学院的学术需求，这些方法大大加强了图书馆服 与社会价值的质疑。由于图书馆仍然以提供实体 务、传统馆藏、设备及数字文献间的有机结合。 服务为主，因而随着媒体、信息与通讯的数字化 所谓的“罗切斯特方式”的核心理念即：通过深入 进程，也引发了对图书馆功能的讨论。此外，当 了解大学或学院团体的学术工作需求，可以发现 前低迷的经济也使得本地、地区及国家政府部门 非主观造成的图书馆服务未能满足用户需求的问 对用于文化机构的经费更加斤斤计较。面对这样 题，以及被图书馆忽略的创新服务机遇。通过引 的处境，公共图书馆更加需要体现它们的存在价 入人类学与人种论的研究方法并对其做出适度改 值——不仅从经济层面，更要从社会意义层面予 善，已成功吸引了业界对学术工作实践需求的关 以凸显。由于仍缺乏标准化的价值评估方法，目 注与研究，并且这些方法又被应用于大学社区成 前已启动了一个项目进行相关研究。本文将概述 分构成的研究。研究工作通常由一个问题开始， 该项目的基本原理以及荷兰公共图书馆协会为构 例如“从研究报告被布置下来直到完成报告，学生 建能够有效并有力体现公共图书馆社会价值的评 在此期间一般会做什么工作？”接下来研究人员将 估方法所采取的措施。文章将介绍研究项目的第 采取一系列方法来回答问题，比如现场采访、照 一阶段成果：基于文献研究及定性研究结果，提 片引导、开展专家会议以及做学术记录。这些不 出图书馆对荷兰社会的(潜在)影响的理论框架。 同研究方式将收到不同形式的数据，包括相片、 调研结果将有助于认知并从概念上了解5个潜在 图画、采访稿以及对理想化工具、空间、服务的 影响的层面：认知、社会、文化、情感与经济层 设想。接下来来自图书馆的小组成员们将开始研 面。这一框架将可用于指导构建评估方法。 Sommaires Cet article présente une vue d’ensemble de l’évolution du paysage des bibliothèques à Singapour. Il y a près de 190 ans, deux institutions – la Bibliothèque Nationale de Singapour et la Bibliothèque de l’Université Nationale de Singapour – jouèrent un rôle décisif pour jeter les bases des bibliothèques dans cet état insulaire du Sud-est asiatique. Depuis, Singapour a vu proliférer les bibliothèques, qu’elles soient publiques, universitaires Singapore libraries: from bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere [Les bibliothèques de Singapour : depuis les briques et le mortier à l’information toujours et partout] Edited by Julie S Sabaratnam and Esther Ong IFLA Journal 39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 103–120 189 Abstracts ou spécialisées. Soutenues par des politiques et stratégies gouvernementales, les bibliothèques sont demeurées importantes dans la vie des Singapouriens. Pour s’adapter aux développements technologiques ainsi qu’à l’évolution des demandes et des comportements, les bibliothèques du pays ont dû trouver de nouvelles façons de gérer leurs collections et de répondre aux besoins de leurs usagers. Cet article s’intéresse à l’histoire des bibliothèques à Singapour et met ensuite en lumière les innovations bibliothécaires, accordant une attention particulière aux produits et services numériques qui englobent systèmes de gestion bibliothécaire, ressources électroniques et appareils numériques et qui utilisent les médias sociaux pour impliquer les usagers. Commonwealth of uncertainty: How British and American professional models of library practice have shaped LIS Education in selected former British Colonies and Dominions [Un Commonwealth d’incertitude : comment les modèles professionnels britanniques et américains de pratiques bibliothécaires ont donné forme à l’enseignement des Sciences de l'Information et des Bibliothèques dans d’anciennes colonies et dominions britanniques sélectionnés] Mary Carroll, Paulette Kerr, Abdullahi I. Musa, Waseem Afzal IFLA Journal 39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 121–133 Dans le monde entier, la profession des Sciences de l’Information et des Bibliothèques (SIB) a été le sujet principal d’agendas sociaux et politiques concurrentiels qui ont contribué à lui donner forme. Depuis la fin du 19e siècle jusqu’à présent, dans des pays issus des anciens dominions et colonies britanniques (qui font aujourd’hui partie du Commonwealth des Nations), ces influences extérieures provenaient essentiellement de deux arènes culturelles, à savoir du Royaume-Uni (UK) et des États-Unis (USA). Dans de nombreux pays du Commonwealth, cela a donné lieu à deux modèles concurrentiels et parfois contradictoires de pédagogie des SIB, qui ont été intitulés « modèles ou structures » d’enseignement britannique et américain. La convergence de ces deux influences a joué un rôle dans l’élaboration de l’enseignement des SIB et a légué un héritage complexe. Cet article examine comment l’héritage de cette convergence continue à exercer une influence sur l’agenda des communautés professionnelles locales et aborde la façon dont cela a influencé l’enseignement des professions bibliothécaire mis en place et son modèle. À l’aide d’une série d’études de cas, cet article examine également comment l’héritage de cette convergence a donné forme aux idéaux de la profession des SIB et influencé l’enseignement des professions bibliothécaires et son modèle dans divers pays du Commonwealth. Leadership in libraries in times of change [Diriger les bibliothèques en période de changement] Petra Düren IFLA Journal 39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 134–139 Aujourd’hui, les bibliothèques aussi bien universitaires que publiques sont confrontées à des changements constants. Cet article donne une vue d’ensemble des compétences nécessaires en matière de leadership pour parvenir à opérer des changements radicaux et délibérés au sein des bibliothèques. La plupart des compétences requises peuvent être déjà transmises au cours du premier cycle d’études universitaires menant à une Licence en Sciences de l’Information et des Bibliothèques, comme on peut le voir dans l’exemple de l’Université des Sciences appliquées de Hambourg. Dans tout projet de changement, les facteurs critiques de succès sont l’information, la communication et la participation. Deux études qualitatives portant sur les compétences de direction dans les bibliothèques universitaires et publiques en période de changement, ainsi qu’une étude quantitative dans une bibliothèque universitaire portant sur l’influence d’un style de leadership transformationnel et transactionnel de la part des dirigeants à l’égard des cadres moyens ainsi que des membres de l’équipe, y compris l’influence de la culture organisationnelle, mettent l’accent sur l’importance de ces facteurs de succès, spécialement l’aptitude des dirigeants à communiquer en période de changement. Welcoming, flexible, and state-of-the-art: Approaches to continuous facilities improvement [Accueillants, flexibles et ultramodernes : différentes approches pour améliorer constamment les équipements] Charles Forrest, Sharon L. Bostick IFLA Journal 39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 140–150 Alors que l’accès numérique à toutes les sources d’information se développe à un rythme qui va en s’accélérant, les bibliothèques à travers le monde s’emploient à se transformer, en réaction à l’évolution de leur rôle au sein des communautés qu’elles desservent et soutiennent. Les bibliothèques universitaires sont confrontées à des défis particuliers, dans la mesure où une génération d’étudiants qui s’est appropriée l’accès à l’information en ligne, mobile, à tout moment et partout, arrive à l’université. Au centre d’une communauté universitaire qui apprécie de plus en plus la collaboration intellectuelle 190 entre le corps enseignant et les étudiants ainsi que l’apprentissage aussi bien au sein des classes qu’en-dehors, la bibliothèque universitaire du 21e siècle doit se réinventer en permanence en tant que lieu favorisant la curiosité, l’engagement, la collaboration et l’apprentissage tout au long de la vie. Au 20e siècle, les cycles typiques d’investissements de capitaux dans des bibliothèques universitaires aux États-Unis se composaient d’investissements à grande échelle une fois par génération visant à étendre et améliorer les équipements. Au cours de la première décennie du 21e siècle, le désir de transformation est plus grand que jamais, mais il y a moins de fonds disponibles, les institutions subissant une pression accrue pour réduire la durée du cycle d’investissement de capitaux afin de pouvoir réagir aux changements rapides sur le plan des technologies, de la pédagogie, des études et des attentes des usagers. La fin de tout projet est le début d’une évaluation et de la planification du cycle suivant de changement et d’investissement. Cet article s’intéresse aux efforts des bibliothèques au sein de deux institutions universitaires de premier plan aux États-Unis, l’une financée par des fonds publics et l’autre privée, en vue de développer des méthodes innovantes servant à évaluer les espaces, les fonctions, les services, le fonctionnement et la maintenance des bibliothèques. Les auteurs mettent en lumière des projets ayant pour but de rendre opérationnel l’investissement de capitaux, raccourcir les durées des cycles et permettre des interventions progressives, dans un contexte général de planification à grande échelle et de réalisation à petite échelle. Les données englobent décomptes des sorties, taux d’occupation et comparaisons avec d’autres établissements ; les sources de données comprennent enquêtes, groupes de discussion et simulations. Des initiatives et projets particuliers s’intéressent aux besoins des usagers, aux innovations en matière de programmes et aux améliorations des équipements, dans le but de moderniser et rénover en permanence les espaces bibliothécaires permettant de favoriser l’apprentissage, inciter à l’étude et stimuler la communauté. UNIMARC – Understanding the past to envision the future [UNIMARC – Comprendre le passé pour concevoir l’avenir] Rosa Maria Galvão and Maria Inês Cordeiro IFLA Journal 39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 151–161 Le contexte des changements importants envisagés en matière de normes bibliographiques exige une réflexion sur la nature et la spécification de MARC et sur son adéquation pour intégrer des systèmes de découverte bibliographique dans l’univers plus large des informations et systèmes organisés en réseaux. En partant de là, cet IFLA Journal 39(2) article propose une vue d’ensemble de l’évolution d’UNIMARC et des pratiques relatives à sa gestion, rassemblant des connaissances qui peuvent servir de première contribution en vue de mesures futures visant à remanier les normes de données bibliographiques. Techniques to understand the changing needs of library users [Techniques pour comprendre l’évolution des besoins des usagers des bibliothèques] Susan Gibbons IFLA Journal 39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 162–167 Cet article présente divers types de développement des techniques mis en place par les bibliothèques du River Campus à l’Université de Rochester (USA). Ils ont permis d’aligner parfaitement les services, les collections, les équipements et la présence numérique des bibliothèques sur les besoins académiques des étudiants de premier cycle, des étudiants des cycles supérieurs et du corps enseignant de l’Université de Rochester. Au cœur de ce que l’on appelle maintenant « la méthode Rochester » est la conviction qu’une meilleure compréhension des pratiques de travail académique d’une communauté universitaire peut révéler des décalages involontaires entre les services d’une bibliothèque et les besoins des usagers, ainsi que des possibilités inexploitées par une bibliothèque de fournir de nouveaux services. L’observation et l’étude des pratiques académiques de travail ont lieu grâce à l’adoption et à l’adaptation de méthodes venues de l’anthropologie et de l’ethnographie, qui sont ensuite appliquées à l’étude de segments d’une communauté universitaire. Le processus commence avec la formulation d’une question, par exemple : « Que fait un étudiant entre le moment où il reçoit l’ordre de rédiger un document de recherche et le moment où il en a terminé la rédaction ? ». Un ensemble de méthodes de recherche est ensuite développé pour examiner cette question, notamment interview sur place, exercices d’interviews basées sur des photos, charrettes de conception et tenue de journaux d’études. L’application de ces méthodes d’études fournit des données sous différentes formes, y compris photos, dessins, transcriptions d’interviews et descriptions fondamentales d’outils, d’espaces et de services idéaux. Diverses équipes constituées d’employés de l’ensemble de la bibliothèque étudient les données et en tirent des conclusions. À ce point du cycle, ces conclusions nécessitent une réaction de la part de l’organisation pour résulter en un véritable changement, qui peut aller de l’amélioration du marketing à la modification des équipements ainsi qu’à de nouveaux services et outils Web. Le succès de l’Université de Rochester a démontré qu’une meilleure compréhension et appréciation des besoins académiques des usagers de la bibliothèque n’est Abstracts ni trop compliquée ni trop coûteuse à atteindre. Bien que les conclusions des études Rochester concernent uniquement la communauté unique en son genre de l’Université de Rochester, les méthodes d’étude peuvent être appliquées à l’étude des usagers des bibliothèques sur d’autres campus et l’ont été avec succès. Measuring the public library’s societal value: a methodological research program [Mesurer la valeur sociétale de la bibliothèque publique : un programme de recherche méthodologique] Frank Huysmans, Marjolein Oomes IFLA Journal 39 (2013) No. 2 pp. 168–177 Les bibliothèques publiques aux Pays-Bas sont confrontées à un scepticisme grandissant en ce qui concerne leur valeur pour les communautés et la société dans son ensemble. La numérisation des médias, des informations et de la communication suscite des questions sur la fonction de la bibliothèque, dans la mesure où elle est encore principalement basée sur la fourniture de services physiques. En outre, la récession économique actuelle incite les Zusammenfassungen Singapore libraries: from bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere [Bibliotheken in Singapur: von konventionellen Konzepten bis hin zum allzeitigen und ortsunabhängigen Informationszugriff] Herausgegeben von Julie S Sabaratnam und Esther Ong IFLA-Journal 39 (2013) Nr. 2 S. 103–120 Dieser Artikel bietet einen umfassenden Einblick in die sich entfaltende Landschaft der Bibliotheken in Singapur. Vor etwa 190 Jahren haben zwei Institutionen – die National Library of Singapore und die National University of Singapore Library – maßgeblich dazu beigetragen, den Grundstein für die Bibliotheken in diesem Inselstaat Südostasiens zu legen. Seitdem sind sehr viele weitere Bibliotheken in Singapur hinzugekommen; dabei sind öffentliche sowie wissenschaftliche Bibliotheken und Spezialbibliotheken entstanden. Dank der Unterstützung der Regierungspolitik und der Regierungsstrategien spielen die Bibliotheken weiterhin eine wichtige Rolle im Leben der Bewohner von Singapur. Um mit den technologischen Entwicklungen mitzugehen und sich auf die modernen Anforderungen und das geänderte 191 gouvernements locaux, régionaux et nationaux à remettre en question chaque euro dépensé pour des institutions culturelles. Dans ce climat, les bibliothèques doivent de plus en plus démontrer leur valeur – pas seulement au sens économique, mais aussi dans un sens plus sociologique. Dans la mesure où il n’y a toujours pas de mesures standardisées de ces valeurs, un programme de recherche a été lancé pour développer ces mesures des résultats. Dans cet article, nous évoquons les raisons ayant motivé ce programme et les dispositions prises par l’Institut néerlandais des bibliothèques publiques pour développer un instrument de mesure visant à démontrer de façon valable et fiable la valeur sociétale des bibliothèques publiques. Les résultats des premiers stades de ce programme de recherche vont être présentés : un cadre théorique concernant l’impact (possible) des bibliothèques sur la société néerlandaise, basé sur les conclusions d’une étude de documents et d’une recherche qualitative. Les conclusions nous aident à identifier et enrichir conceptuellement cinq domaines d’impact possible : cognitif, social, culturel, affectif et économique. Le cadre ainsi obtenu servira à développer un instrument de mesure. Verhalten der Nutzer einzustellen, mussten die Bibliotheken des Landes neue Wege finden, um ihre Kollektionen zu managen und den Bedürfnissen ihrer Nutzer gerecht zu werden. Der vorliegende Beitrag analysiert die Geschichte der Bibliotheken in Singapur und richtet dann die Scheinwerfer auf die Innovationen in den Bibliotheken. Dabei liegt der Schwerpunkt insbesondere auf den digitalen Produkten und Dienstleistungen mit den Bibliotheksmanagementsystemen, den E-Ressourcen, den Digitalgeräten sowie der Nutzung der Social Media zur Einbindung der Anwender. Commonwealth of uncertainty: How British and American professional models of library practice have shaped LIS Education in selected former British Colonies and Dominions [Commonwealth der Unsicherheit: Wie professionelle Modelle der Bibliothekspraxis aus Großbritannien und den USA die Ausbildung im I&B-Bereich in einigen früheren britischen Kolonien und dem vormaligen britischen Herrschaftsgebiet gestaltet haben] Mary Carroll, Paulette Kerr, Abdullahi I. Musa, Waseem Afzal IFLA-Journal 39 (2013) Nr. 2 S. 121–133 192 Weltweit hat der Berufsstand der Bibliotheks- und Informationsfachleute im Brennpunkt der miteinander konkurrierenden sozialen und politischen Entwicklungen gestanden, die diesen Berufszweig mitgestaltet haben. Seit dem späten 19. Jahrhundert bis heute entstammten diese äußeren Einflüsse in den Ländern des früheren britischen Herrschaftsgebietes und der britischen Kolonien (die heute zum Commonwealth of Nations gehören) in erster Linie zwei Kulturkreisen – dem des Vereinigten Königreiches (UK) beziehungsweise dem der Vereinigten Staaten (US). In vielen Ländern des Commonwealth sind daraus zwei rivalisierende und zeitweise sogar widersprüchliche Modellen für die Pädagogik im I&BBereich erwachsen, die demgemäß als britische beziehungsweise amerikanische Bildungsmodelle oder Ausbildungsprogramme bezeichnet wurden. Das Aufeinanderprallen dieser beiden Einflüsse hat zur Gestaltung der I&B-Ausbildung in ihrer heutigen Form beigetragen und ein komplexes Vermächtnis hinterlassen. Der vorliegende Beitrag untersucht, in welcher Weise das Vermächtnis dieser zweigleisigen Entwicklung die angestrebten Ziele der Berufsgemeinschaften vor Ort auch weiterhin definiert und die Autoren legen dar, in welcher Weise diese Vorgeschichte die tägliche Praxis und das Ausbildungsmodell für das Bibliothekswesen beeinflusst hat. Eine Reihe von Fallstudien soll aufzeigen, wie das Vermächtnis dieses Aufeinandertreffens zweier Kulturen die Ziele des I&B-Berufsstands gestaltet hat und auch weiterhin die heutige tägliche Praxis und das Ausbildungsmodell für das Bibliothekswesen in vielen Ländern des Commonwealth beeinflusst. Leadership in libraries in times of change [Führungsqualitäten in den Bibliotheken in Zeiten des Wandels] Petra Düren IFLA-Journal 39 (2013) Nr. 2 S. 134–139 Die wissenschaftlichen wie auch die öffentlichen Bibliotheken werden heutzutage mit ständigen Veränderungen konfrontiert. Dieser Beitrag bietet einen Überblick über die Führungsqualitäten, die benötigt werden, um die beabsichtigten groß angelegten Veränderungen in den Bibliotheken auch erfolgreich durchführen zu können. Die meisten der erforderlichen Kompetenzen können bereits im Lauf des Grundstudiums der Bibliotheks-und Informationswissenschaften mit Bachelor-Abschluss erworben werden. Die Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften in Hamburg verdeutlicht dies beispielhaft. Die kritischen Erfolgsfaktoren aller Änderungsprojekte sind Informationen, Kommunikation und Teilnahme. Zwei qualitative Studien über die Führungsqualitäten in IFLA Journal 39(2) wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken und in öffentlichen Bibliotheken in Zeiten des Wandels sowie eine quantitative Studie in einer wissenschaftlichen Bibliothek, die sich mit dem Einfluss eines transformatorischen beziehungsweise transaktionsorientierten Führungsstils der Führungsspitze auf das mittlere Management sowie auf die Teammitglieder befasst, wobei auch den Auswirkungen der Organisationskultur Rechnung getragen wird, unterstreichen die Bedeutung dieser Erfolgsfaktoren, insbesondere der Kommunikationskompetenz der Führungskräfte in Umbruchzeiten. Welcoming, flexible, and state-of-the-art: Approaches to continuous facilities improvement [Einladend, flexibel und hochmodern: Strategien zur ständigen Verbesserung der Einrichtungen] Charles Forrest, Sharon L. Bostick IFLA-Journal 39 (2013) Nr. 2 S. 140–150 Angesichts der Tatsache, dass der digitale Zugang zu allen Informationsquellen zunehmend an Bedeutung gewinnt, arbeiten die Bibliotheken in der ganzen Welt am eigenen Wandel als Reaktion auf die sich ändernde Rolle in den Gemeinschaften, denen sie dienen und die sie unterstützen. Die wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken werden mit besonderen Herausforderungen konfrontiert, da nun eine Generation von Studenten an die Universitäten kommt, die an den allzeitigen und ortsunabhängigen mobilen Online-Informationszugang gewöhnt ist. Im Mittelpunkt einer akademischen Gemeinschaft, die zunehmend mehr Wert auf die intellektuelle Zusammenarbeit zwischen dem Lehrköper und den Studenten legt, wobei nicht nur im Klassenraum, sondern auch außerhalb der Universität gelernt wird, muss sich die wissenschaftliche Bibliothek des 21. Jahrhunderts ständig neu selbst als ein Ort definieren, der Neugier, Engagement, Zusammenarbeit und das lebenslange Lernen begünstigt. Typische Investitionszyklen in den wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken des 20. Jahrhunderts in den Vereinigten Staaten zeichneten sich durch erhebliche Investitionen in die Erweiterung und Modernisierung der Einrichtungen aus, die nur einmal pro Generation getätigt wurden. Im ersten Jahrzehnt des 21. Jahrhunderts hingegen ist der Wandlungswille stärker als jemals zuvor; gleichzeitig sind jedoch weniger Geldmittel verfügbar. Damit erhöht sich der Druck auf die Institutionen, die Laufzeiten der Kapitalinvestitionen zu verkürzen, um sich schnell auf die Veränderungen in der Technologie, Pädagogik und Wissenschaft sowie auf die Erwartungen der Nutzer einstellen zu können. Das Ende jedes einzelnen Projekts gilt gleichzeitig als Beginn der Evaluierung und Planung für den nächsten Wandlungs- und Abstracts Investitionszyklus. Der vorliegende Beitrag untersucht und bespricht die Bemühungen der Bibliotheken bezüglich der Entwicklung innovativer Verfahren zur Evaluierung der Bibliotheksräumlichkeiten, Funktionen, Dienstleistungen, des Betriebs und der Instandhaltung an zwei führenden akademischen Institutionen in den Vereinigten Staaten, von denen eine öffentliche Fördermittel erhält und eine privat finanziert wird. Dabei stellen die Referenten Projekte in den Mittelpunkt, die darauf abzielen, das Investitionskapital zu operationalisieren, die Zykluszeiten zu verkürzen und inkrementelle Interventionen zu bieten, und zwar innerhalb eines allgemeinen Rahmenkonzepts der großen Pläne und der Implementierung in kleinen Schritten. Die entsprechenden Daten beinhalten Zählungen der die Räumlichkeiten verlassenden Personen, der Ausnutzungsgrade und Branchenvergleiche; zu den Datenquellen zählen Umfragen, Fokusgruppen und Simulationen. Spezielle Projekte und Initiativen werden sich mit den Bedürfnissen der Benutzer, der Programminnovation und der Modernisierung der Einrichtungen befassen, um die Bibliotheksräumlichkeiten, die dem Lernen und der Wissenschaft zuträglich sind und den Gemeinschaftssinn fördern, ständig aufzufrischen und zu erneuern. UNIMARC – Understanding the past to envision the future [UNIMARC – Das Verständnis der Vergangenheit erlaubt einen Blick in die Zukunft] Rosa Maria Galvão und Maria Inês Cordeiro IFLA-Journal 39 (2013) Nr. 2 S. 151–161 Der Kontext der eingreifenden Veränderungen, die für die Bibliographic Standards Environment [die internationale Standardumgebung zur Beschreibung bibliographischer Daten] vorgesehen sind, erfordert eine Analyse der Art und Spezifikation von MARC und ihrer Zweckdienlichkeit zur Integration der bibliographischen Abrufsysteme in den größeren Kontext der vernetzten Informationssysteme. Auf der Grundlage dieses Ausgangspunkts bietet der vorliegende Beitrag einen Überblick über die Entwicklung von UNIMARC und die Praxis ihrer Instandhaltung, wobei Kenntnisse gesammelt werden, die möglicherweise als ein erster Beitrag für zukünftige Schritte bei der Neugestaltung der bibliographischen Datenstandards hilfreich sein können. Techniques to understand the changing needs of library users [Techniken zur Verbesserung des Verständnisses der sich wandelnden Bedürfnisse der Bibliotheksbesucher] Susan Gibbons IFLA-Journal 39 (2013) Nr. 2 S. 162–167 193 Der vorliegende Beitrag zeigt eine Reihe von Techniken auf, die von den River Campus Libraries an der University of Rochester (USA) entwickelt wurden und ein guter Abgleich zwischen den Servicedienstleistungen, den Kollektionen, den Einrichtungen und der digitalen Präsenz der Bibliotheken und den akademischen Bedürfnissen der Studienanfänger, der Doktoranden und des Lehrkörpers an der University of Rochester ermöglicht haben. Kern dessen, was heute als „Rochester-Methode” bezeichnet wird, ist die Überzeugung, dass ein besseres Verständnis der akademischen Arbeitsabläufe an einer Universität oder einer Hochschul- beziehungsweise Fachhochschulgemeinschaft unbeabsichtigte Klüfte zwischen den Services der Bibliothek und den Bedürfnissen der Nutzer aufdekken und zudem auch bisher übersehene Möglichkeiten für die Bibliothek aufzeigen kann, neue Dienstleistungen anzubieten. Der Fokus und das Studium der wissenschaftlichen Arbeitspraktiken stützten sich auf die Anwendung und Umstellung von Verfahren aus der Anthropologie und Ethnographie, die dann für das Studium gewisser Teile der akademischen Gemeinschaft an einer Universität angewendet wurden. Dieser Prozess beginnt mit der Identifizierung einer Frage, beispielsweise „was tut der Student zwischen dem Zeitpunkt, wo er den Auftrag zu einer Forschungsarbeit erhält und dem Zeitpunkt, wo der entsprechende Bericht fertig ist?“ Daraufhin wird eine Reihe von Forschungsverfahren entwickelt, um diese Frage zu klären, beispielseiweise in situ-Interviews, Anforderungen durch Foto-Übungen, Design-Charettes und wissenschaftliche Journale. Aus diesen Forschungsverfahren ergeben sich dann Daten in diversen Formaten, beispielsweise Fotografien, Zeichnungen, Protokolle von Interviews sowie Blue-Sky-Beschreibungen der idealen Tools, Räumlichkeiten und Services. Diverse Mitarbeiterteams aus dem gesamten Bibliothekskontext studieren die Daten und entwickeln daraus ihre Schlussfolgerungen. An diesem Punkt in dem Zyklus bedürfen die Befunde einer organisatorischen Reaktion mit nachfolgender realer Veränderung, die vom verbesserten Marketing und geänderten physischen Einrichtungen bis hin zu neuen Services und Web Tools reichen können. Die an der University of Rochester verbuchten Erfolge haben gezeigt, dass ein besseres Verständnis und eine bessere Bewertung der akademischen Bedürfnisse der Bibliotheksbenutzer nicht besonders schwierig oder kostenintensiv sind. Obwohl die Ergebnisse der Rochester-Studien speziell auf die besondere Gemeinschaft an der University of Rochester zugeschnitten sind, können und sind die Untersuchungsverfahren durchaus auch erfolgreich zum Studium der Bibliotheksbenutzer an anderen Universitäten verwendet worden. 194 Measuring the public library’s societal value: a methodological research program [Messung des gesellschaftlichen Werts der öffentlichen Bibliotheken: ein methodologisches Forschungsprogramm] Frank Huysmans, Marjolein Oomes IFLA-Journal 39 (2013) Nr. 2 S. 168–177 Die öffentlichen Bibliotheken in den Niederlanden sehen sich mit zunehmender Skepsis konfrontiert, was ihren Wert für die einzelnen Gemeinschaften sowie die Gesellschaft im Allgemeinen betrifft. Die Digitalisierung der Medien, der Informationen und der Kommunikation werfen eine Reihe von Fragen bezüglich der Funktion der Bibliothek auf, da sich diese im Wesentlichen immer noch auf das Angebot physischer Servicedienstleistungen stützt. Außerdem drehen die lokalen, regionalen und nationalen Regierungen, bedingt durch die aktuelle Wirtschaftskrise, jeden Euro zweimal um, bevor sie ihn für Kulturinstitute ausgeben. In diesem Klima wird es zunehmend wichtig, dass die öffentlichen Bibliotheken ihren Wert zeigen – und das nicht nur Pефераты статей Библиотеки Сингапура: от кирпичей и строительного раствора до предоставления информации в любое время в любом месте Под редакцией Джули С Сабаратнам и Эстер Онг IFLA Journal 39 (2013) № 2 стр. 103–120 В данной статье представлен широкий обзор эволюции библиотечной системы Сингапура. Около 190 лет назад решающую роль в формировании основ библиотечной системы этого государства, расположенного на островах в Юго-Восточной Азии, сыграли два учреждения: Национальная библиотека Сингапура и Библиотека Национального университета Сингапура. С тех пор в Сингапуре наблюдается бурное развитие различных видов библиотек, включая публичные, научные и специальные библиотеки. Политика и стратегия правительства предусматривают оказание поддержки библиотекам, и последние продолжают играть важную роль в жизни жителей Сингапура. Чтобы идти в ногу с техническим прогрессом, а также адаптироваться к изменяющимся интересам и моделям поведения посетителей, библиотекам страны пришлось внедрять новые методы управления своими фондами и способы удовлетворения IFLA Journal 39(2) im wirtschaftlichen, sondern auch in einem stärker soziologischen Sinn. Da immer noch keine standardisierten Messungen dieser Werte vorliegen, wurde ein Forschungsprogramm ins Leben gerufen, um geeignete Messverfahren für die Ergebnisse zu entwickeln. In diesem Beitrag skizzieren wir das Grundprinzip hinter diesem Programm sowie die Schritte, die das niederländische Institut für Öffentliche Bibliotheken in die Wege leitet, um ein Messinstrument zu entwickeln, das dazu dienen soll, den gesellschaftlichen Wert der öffentlichen Bibliotheken in gültiger und verlässlicher Weise zu quantifizieren. Dabei werden auch die Ergebnisse aus den ersten Phasen des Forschungsprogramms präsentiert - ein theoretischer Rahmen für die (möglichen) Auswirkungen der Bibliotheken auf die niederländische Gesellschaft auf Basis der Befunde einer Literaturstudie und der qualitativen Forschung. Diese Befunde helfen uns dabei, fünf mögliche Einflussbereiche zu identifizieren und konzeptionell auszufüllen: kognitive, soziale, kulturelle, gefühlsbedingte und wirtschaftliche Faktoren. Auf der Basis dieses Ergebnisgerüsts wird dann ein entsprechendes Messinstrument entwickelt. потребностей пользователей. В данной работе приведен анализ истории библиотек в Сингапуре, после чего отдельно говорится об инновациях в библиотечном деле, при этом особое внимание уделяется цифровым продуктам и услугам, к которым относятся системы управления библиотекой, электронные ресурсы, цифровые устройства, а также использование социальных сервисов для привлечения пользователей. Содружество неопределенности: как профессиональные модели практических методов работы библиотек Великобритании и Америки сформировали систему обучения науке о библиотечно-информационном деле в отдельных Британских колониях и доминионах Мери Керролл, Полетт Керр, Абдуллахи И. Муса, Васим Афзал IFLA Journal 39 (2013) № 2 стр. 121–133 Во всем мире профессия специалиста в области библиотечно-информационного дела представляла собой ключевой результат социальной и политической программ, которые внесли свой вклад в формирование профессии как таковой. С конца 195 Abstracts 19-го века и до настоящего времени в странах, относящихся к бывшим Британским доминионам и колониям (сегодня входящих в Содружество Наций), источниками таких внешних влияний являлись два культурных поля: Соединенное Королевство (Великобритания) и Соединенные Штаты (США). В результате во многих странах Содружества существовали две конкурирующие и подчас противоречащие друг другу модели преподавания библиотечно-информационной науки, которые назывались соответственно британской и американской “моделями или системами” обучения. Взаимное воздействие двух указанных факторов влияния сыграло свою роль в формировании системы обучения библиотечно-информационной науке и оставило непростое наследие. В настоящей работе исследуется, как наследие этого воздействия продолжает формировать амбициозную программу местных профессиональных сообществ, и обсуждается его влияние на способ реализации и образовательную модель библиотечного дела. В данной работе на ряде практических примеров выполнен анализ того, как наследие этого взаимодействия сформировало ожидания профессии специалиста в области библиотечно-информационной науки и повлияло на способ реализации и образовательную модель библиотечного дела в некоторых странах Содружества. Лидерство в библиотеках во времена перемен Петра Дюрен IFLA Journal 39 (2013) № 2 стр. 134–139 Академические, а также общественные библиотеки в наше время постоянно сталкиваются с переменами. В данной работе приводится обзор лидерских способностей, необходимых для достижения успеха в реализации тщательно спланированных крупномасштабных перемен в библиотеках. Большинству необходимых для этого навыков можно обучить на этапе подготовки бакалавров в области библиотечного дела и науки об информации, что подтверждается на примере Университета прикладных наук Гамбурга. Определяющими факторами успеха любого проекта, связанного с осуществлением перемен, являются информация, коммуникация и соучастие. Два качественных исследования в отношении лидерства в академических библиотеках, а также лидерства в академических библиотеках во времена перемен, и количественное исследование в академической библиотеке, касающееся влияния трансформационного и транзакционного стилей руководства высшего руководящего состава по отношению к руководящему составу среднего звена, а также к членам команды, включая факторы воздействия организационной культуры, подчеркивают значение указанных факторов успеха, и в особенности, коммуникативных навыков лидеров во времена перемен. Приветливые, гибкие и прогрессивные: подходы к постоянному совершенствованию технических средств Чарльз Форрест, Шерон Л. Бостик IFLA Journal 39 (2013) № 2 стр. 140–150 Поскольку скорость увеличения объема цифрового доступа ко всем источникам информации продолжает расти, библиотеки по всему миру работают над вопросом своей трансформации, цель которой - успешно играть свою изменяющуюся роль в обществе, которому они служат и которое они поддерживают. Перед научными библиотеками встали особые задачи с поступлением в университеты студентов нового поколения, исповедующих доступ к информации в постоянном, мобильном режиме, всегда и везде. Находясь в сердце академического сообщества, для которого все более значима роль интеллектуального сотрудничества между преподавателями и студентами, и зная все тонкости учебного процесса, научная библиотека 21-го века должна непрестанно обновляться, играя роль заведения, возбуждающего любопытство, призывающего к участию, сотрудничеству и непрерывному обучению. Типичные циклы капиталовложений 20-го века в научные библиотеки Соединенных Штатов характеризовались разовыми крупномасштабными инвестициями в расширение и модернизацию средств для приведения их в соответствие с требованиями времени. В первом десятилетии 21-го века необходимость перемен актуальна, как никогда ранее, однако ограничен объем доступных финансовых средств, что увеличивает давление на учреждения, которым необходимо сократить время цикла капиталовложений, чтобы сохранить способность оперативно реагировать на быстрые изменения в технологии, педагогике, образовании и ожиданиях пользователей. Окончанием любого проекта является начало оценки и планирования следующего цикла перемен и инвестиций. В данной работе рассматриваются и обсуждаются действия в области библиотечного дела двух крупнейших научных учреждений Соединенных Штатов, одно из которых финансируется государством, а второе за счет частных средств, с целью разработки 196 передовых способов оценки площадей, функций, услуг, эксплуатации и технического обслуживания библиотек. Докладчики сообщат о проектах, направленных на привлечение капиталовложений, сокращение времени цикла и проведение дополнительных оперативных мероприятий, в общих рамках планирования в крупных, а реализации в мелких масштабах. Данные включают в себя опросы на выходе, коэффициент заполнения и сравнение конкурентов; источниками информации являются опросы, фокус-группы и моделирование. Конкретные проекты и инициативы будут направлены на удовлетворение потребностей пользователей, развитие программ и расширение технического оснащения, их целью является постоянная модернизация и обновление библиотечных площадей, что способствует повышению качества обучения, вдохновляет студентов и содействует развитию общества. UNIMARC - понять прошлое, чтобы представить будущее Роза Мария Галвао и Мария Инес Кордеиро IFLA Journal 39 (2013) № 2 стр. 151–161 Контекст серьезных изменений, которые представляются возможными в области библиографических стандартов, требует отражения в характере и технических характеристиках формата MARC, а также его соответствия для интеграции библиографических систем обнаружения в глобальный мир сетевых систем и информации. В настоящей работе представлен обзор эволюции формата UNIMARC, начиная с момента его возникновения, а также описаны методы его сопровождения, сбора информации, которая может быть полезна в качестве первого вклада с целью предвидения будущих шагов в деле переработки библиографических стандартов данных. Приемы, помогающие понять меняющиеся потребности пользователей библиотек Сьюзан Гиббонс IFLA Journal 39 (2013) № 2 стр. 162–167 В данной работе описан набор приемов, разработанных библиотеками River Campus Libraries Рочестерского университета (США), которые способствовали созданию четкого взаимодействия услуг, фондов, технических средств, а также присутствия библиотек в цифровой среде с академическими потребностями студентов, аспирантов и преподавателей IFLA Journal 39(2) Рочестерского университета. В основе того, что стали называть “Рочестерским методом", лежит убеждение, что более четкое понимание методов академической работы в университете или колледже может выявить неумышленные несоответствия между услугами библиотеки и потребностями пользователя, а также упущенные возможности библиотеки в предоставлении новых услуг. Для концентрации внимания и изучения академических методов работы применялись и адаптировались антропологические и этнографические приемы, которые затем использовались для изучения сегментов университетского сообщества. Процесс начинается с постановки вопроса, как, например: “что делает студент с момента получения задания написать научную работу до момента, когда эта работа завершена?” Затем разрабатывается набор исследовательских приемов с целью изучения вопроса, таких, как интервью на месте, выполнение заданий с использованием фотографий, «командный штурм», а также академические дневники. В результате применения указанных исследовательских приемов собирается информация в различных формах, включая фотографии, рисунки, записанные интервью, а также сказочные описания идеальных инструментов, мест и услуг. Различные группы сотрудников библиотеки изучают полученные данные и разрабатывают решения. На данном этапе цикла эти решения должны получить отражение в организационном плане, которое приведет к реальным изменениям, которые могут быть различными и включать в себя улучшение маркетинговой политики, изменение материально-технической базы, внедрение новых услуг и сетевых инструментов. Успех Рочестерского университета показал, что для достижения лучшего понимания и высокой оценки академических потребностей пользователей библиотеки не требуется ни чрезмерных усилий, ни больших затрат. И хоть результаты исследований в Рочестере уникальны и отвечают требованиям уникального сообщества Рочестерского университета, использованные методы исследования могут и были успешно применены при проведении исследований среди пользователей библиотек других учебных заведений. Определяем социальную значимость публичных библиотек: методическая программа исследования Франк Гюисманс, Марьёлейн Омес IFLA Journal 39 (2013) № 2 стр. 168–177 Abstracts 197 Публичные библиотеки в Нидерландах сталкиваются с растущим скептицизмом относительно их значения в жизни локальных сообществ и общества в целом. Переход средств массовой информации, собственно, информации и коммуникации в цифровой формат вызывает вопрос о роли библиотеки, поскольку здесь все по-прежнему основано преимущественно на оказании услуг в традиционном виде. Кроме того, в условиях текущего экономического спада местные, региональные и государственные органы управления вынуждены критически оценивать каждый евро, потраченный на учреждения культуры. В таких условиях усиливается необходимость продемонстрировать публичными библиотеками свою значимость, не только в экономическом, но и в более широком социальном смысле. Поскольку пока еще отсутствуют стандартные методы измерения таких значений, была начата исследовательская программа, направленная на разработку таких критериев результата. В данной работе мы предлагаем краткое обоснование целесообразности реализации этой программы, а также перечисляем меры, которые предпринимает Нидерландский институт публичных библиотек для разработки методики, позволяющей правомерно и достоверно продемонстрировать социальную значимость публичных библиотек. Представлены результаты реализации первых этапов программы исследований: теоретические основы (вероятного) влияния библиотек на общество Нидерландов, по результатам изучения литературы и исследования качественных показателей. Эти результаты помогают нам определить и принципиально обогатить пять сфер возможного воздействия: познавательную, социальную, культурную, эмоциональную и экономическую. Полученные результаты будут положены в основу разработки необходимой методики определения. Resúmenes sistemas de gestión, recursos en línea, dispositivos digitales y el uso de las redes sociales para captar usuarios. Singapore libraries: from bricks and mortar to information anytime anywhere [Bibliotecas de Singapur: de los ladrillos y el cemento a la información en cualquier momento y lugar] Publicado por Julie S Sabaratnam y Esther Ong Revista IFLA Journal 39 (2013) Nº 2 pp. 103–120 Este artículo presenta una visión amplia del panorama cambiante de las bibliotecas en Singapur. Hace unos 190 años, hubo dos instituciones que resultaron decisivas a la hora de sentar las bases de la infraestructura bibliotecaria en este país insular del sudeste asiático: la Biblioteca Nacional de Singapur y la Biblioteca de la Universidad Nacional de Singapur. Desde entonces, Singapur ha asistido a una proliferación de bibliotecas, tanto públicas y académicas como especializadas. Gracias al apoyo de políticas y estrategias gubernamentales, las bibliotecas han mantenido su importante papel en las vidas de los singapurenses. Con el fin de adaptarse a los avances tecnológicos y a la evolución de las demandas y hábitos de los usuarios, las bibliotecas del país han tenido que desarrollar nuevos modos de gestionar sus colecciones para responder a las necesidades de aquéllos. Este artículo analiza, en primer lugar, la historia de las bibliotecas en Singapur y termina centrándose en las innovaciones del ámbito bibliotecario, dedicando especial atención a los productos y servicios digitales, entre los que se incluyen: Commonwealth of uncertainty: How British and American professional models of library practice have shaped LIS Education in selected former British Colonies and Dominions [La “Commonwealth” de la incertidumbre: contribución de los modelos profesionales de biblioteconomía británicos y estadounidenses a la conformación de los Estudios Académicos de Biblioteconomía y Documentación en determinadas colonias y dominios británicos] Mary Carroll, Paulette Kerr, Abdullahi I. Musa, Waseem Afzal Revista IFLA Journal 39 (2013) Nº 2 pp. 121–133 El ámbito profesional de la Biblioteconomía y Documentación ha sido objeto, en todo el mundo, de la aplicación de diferentes programas sociales y políticos que, compitiendo entre sí, han contribuido a conformar la profesión. En el caso de los países que anteriormente constituyeron dominios y colonias bajo soberanía británica (y que actualmente forman parte de la “Commonwealth” o Mancomunidad de Naciones), dichas influencias externas han procedido, desde finales del siglo XIX hasta hoy, fundamentalmente de dos entornos culturales: Reino Unido y Estados Unidos. El resultado en muchos países de la “Commonwealth” ha sido la coexistencia competitiva, y en ocasiones 198 contradictoria, de dos modelos pedagógicos de las Ciencias de Biblioteconomía y Documentación que reflejan la impronta de “las pautas o los modelos” educativos británicos y estadounidenses. La convergencia de ambas influencias ha desempeñado un importante papel a la hora de conformar los planes de estudios de Biblioteconomía y Documentación y ha constituido una herencia compleja. Este artículo analiza la contribución que la herencia derivada de dicha confluencia de enfoques ha supuesto a la hora de definir los objetivos de los programas llevados a cabo por las comunidades profesionales de cada país; asimismo, plantea un debate sobre la manera en que este hecho ha influido en el modelo que sirve de base a la formación y la prestación de servicios relacionados con la biblioteconomía. Por otro lado, se analizará, a través del estudio de casos, el modo en que la herencia derivada de dicha coexistencia de enfoques ha conformado los objetivos de los profesionales de las Ciencias de Biblioteconomía y Documentación, así como la influencia ejercida sobre los modelos educativos y de prestación de servicios de biblioteconomía en varios países miembros de la “Commonwealth”. Leadership in libraries in times of change [El liderazgo en las bibliotecas en tiempos de cambio] Petra Düren IFLA Journal 39 (2013) Nº 2 pp. 134–139 En la actualidad, tanto las bibliotecas públicas como las académicas se enfrentan al cambio constante. Este artículo proporciona una visión general de las competencias de liderazgo necesarias para afrontar con éxito aquellos cambios a gran escala introducidos en las bibliotecas de forma intencional. La mayoría de las competencias requeridas pueden adquirirse durante los estudios universitarios conducentes a la obtención del grado en Biblioteconomía y Documentación, tal como puede observarse en el ejemplo de la Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas de Hamburgo. Los factores clave en el éxito de cada proyecto de cambio son la información, la comunicación y la participación. La importancia de estos factores de éxito, especialmente de la competencia comunicativa de los líderes en tiempos de cambio, se ilustra mediante dos estudios cualitativos sobre liderazgo en bibliotecas académicas y liderazgo en bibliotecas tanto académicas como públicas en tiempos de cambio, así como por medio de un estudio cuantitativo, llevado a cabo en una biblioteca académica, en torno a la influencia de los estilos de liderazgo transformacional y transaccional aplicados por la alta dirección sobre los mandos medios y los miembros del equipo, teniendo en cuenta asimismo la influencia de la cultura organizativa. IFLA Journal 39(2) Welcoming, flexible, and state-of-the-art: Approaches to continuous facilities improvement [Acogedoras, flexibles y de última generación: enfoques relativos a la mejora continua de instalaciones] Charles Forrest, Sharon L. Bostick Revista IFLA Journal 39 (2013) Nº 2 pp. 140–150 Dado que el acceso a todas las fuentes de información en formato digital continúa desarrollándose a un ritmo vertiginoso, las bibliotecas de todo el mundo trabajan para transformarse y poder cumplir con su papel cambiante dentro de las comunidades a las que prestan servicio. Las bibliotecas académicas se enfrentan a nuevos retos específicos, como el que supone que los estudiantes que ingresan en la universidad lo hagan hoy habiendo interiorizado el concepto de acceso a la información en línea, en situación de movilidad, en cualquier momento y en cualquier lugar. La biblioteca académica del siglo XXI constituye el centro de la comunidad académica, ya que contribuye cada vez en mayor medida a la colaboración intelectual entre los estudiantes y el profesorado, así como al aprendizaje dentro y fuera de las aulas; esta institución debe continuar reinventándose a sí misma en su papel de fomento de la curiosidad, el compromiso, la colaboración y el aprendizaje a lo largo de toda la vida. Durante el siglo XX, los ciclos de inversión de capital en bibliotecas académicas que solían realizarse en Estados Unidos se caracterizaban por tratarse de inversiones a gran escala en ampliación y mejora de instalaciones, realizadas una vez por generación. En la primera década del siglo XXI, este impulso de transformación es mayor que nunca, pero se cuenta con menor capital disponible, lo que aumenta la presión sobre las instituciones para que reduzcan el ciclo temporal de inversión de capital, con el fin de poder reaccionar ante los rápidos avances de la tecnología, la pedagogía, el conocimiento y las expectativas del usuario. El final de cada proyecto constituye el comienzo de la evaluación y la planificación del siguiente ciclo de cambio e inversión. Este artículo repasa y analiza los esfuerzos realizados por las bibliotecas de dos importantes instituciones académicas de Estados Unidos, una financiada con fondos públicos y otra privada, a la hora de desarrollar métodos innovadores de evaluación de los espacios, las funciones, los servicios, las operaciones y las tareas de mantenimiento de las bibliotecas. Los entrevistados destacan los proyectos orientados a movilizar la inversión de capital, acortar los ciclos y garantizar el incremento gradual de las intervenciones, dentro de un contexto general basado en la planificación a gran escala y la ejecución a pequeña escala. Los datos abarcan recuento de préstamos, índices de ocupación y comparaciones con instituciones similares. Las fuentes de datos incluyen encuestas, grupos de discusión y simulaciones. 199 Abstracts Las iniciativas y los proyectos específicos abordan las necesidades de los usuarios, los programas de innovación y la mejora de instalaciones, con el objetivo de renovar y actualizar continuamente aquellos espacios de la biblioteca que contribuyen a ampliar el aprendizaje, impulsar el conocimiento y consolidar la comunidad. UNIMARC – UNIMARC – Understanding the past to envision the future [Entender el pasado para poder afrontar el futuro] Rosa Maria Galvão y Maria Inês Cordeiro Revista IFLA Journal 39 (2013) Nº 2 pp. 151–161 En el contexto de los importantes cambios previstos en relación con los estándares del entorno bibliográfico, es necesario reflexionar acerca de la naturaleza y las características específicas de los estándares MARC y su adecuación a la hora de integrar sistemas de localización de recursos bibliográficos dentro del extenso ámbito de los sistemas y la información en red. Partiendo de esta premisa, este artículo proporciona una visión general de la evolución del formato UNIMARC y de las actividades relacionadas con su mantenimiento, recopilando conocimientos que pueden resultar útiles como primera contribución de cara a definir futuros pasos dirigidos a rediseñar los estándares de datos bibliográficos. Techniques to understand the changing needs of library users [Técnicas para comprender las necesidades cambiantes de los usuarios de bibliotecas] Susan Gibbons Revista IFLA Journal 39 (2013) Nº 2 pp. 162–167 Este artículo expone una serie de técnicas, desarrolladas por las Bibliotecas del River Campus de la Universidad de Rochester (EE. UU.), que han facilitado que los servicios, las colecciones, las instalaciones y la presencia de las bibliotecas en el entorno digital sean capaces de responder a las necesidades académicas de los estudiantes de grado y de posgrado de dicha universidad, así como de su profesorado. El núcleo de lo que se ha dado en llamar “método Rochester” es la premisa de que una mayor comprensión de las prácticas laborales académicas existentes dentro de la comunidad de una universidad o facultad permite detectar desajustes involuntarios entre los servicios bibliotecarios y las necesidades de los usuarios, así como oportunidades para que la biblioteca ofrezca nuevos servicios que previamente se habían ignorado. La atención dedicada a las prácticas laborales académicas y su correspondiente estudio se han basado en la adopción y adaptación de métodos antropológicos y etnográficos, que posteriormente se han aplicado al estudio de diversos segmentos de la comunidad universitaria. El proceso comienza con el planteamiento de una pregunta, como por ejemplo, “¿qué hace un alumno en el tiempo que transcurre entre el encargo de un trabajo y la finalización del mismo?”. Posteriormente se plantean diversos métodos de investigación para responder a dicha pregunta, como entrevistas in situ, ejercicios de evocación a través de imágenes, talleres intensivos de diseño y diarios académicos. La aplicación de los mencionados métodos de estudio arroja una serie de datos en diversos formatos: fotografías, dibujos, transcripciones de entrevistas y descripciones creativas de herramientas, espacios y servicios ideales. Diversos equipos formados por empleados de la biblioteca analizan los datos y formulan conclusiones. Una vez realizado este trabajo, dichas conclusiones se plasman en una respuesta desde el punto de vista organizativo capaz de inducir cambios reales, la cual puede ir desde mejorar la promoción de los servicios o reformar las instalaciones físicas, hasta ofrecer nuevos servicios y herramientas web. El éxito logrado en la Universidad de Rochester constituye una prueba de que una mayor comprensión y evaluación de las necesidades académicas de los usuarios de bibliotecas no tiene por qué resultar excesivamente difícil ni costosa. A pesar de que los resultados obtenidos en los mencionados estudios sean específicos para la comunidad concreta de la Universidad de Rochester, los métodos de estudio pueden aplicarse y se han aplicado con éxito a usuarios de bibliotecas de otros campus. Measuring the public library’s societal value: a methodological research program [Medición del valor social de las bibliotecas públicas: un programa de investigación metodológica] Frank Huysmans, Marjolein Oomes Revista IFLA Journal 39 (2013) Nº 2 pp. 168–177 Las bibliotecas públicas de Holanda se enfrentan actualmente a un escepticismo cada vez mayor en torno al valor que éstas aportan a la comunidad y a la sociedad en general. La digitalización de los medios de comunicación, de la información y de la comunicación suscita preguntas acerca de la función de las bibliotecas, dado que estas instituciones todavía se basan principalmente en proporcionar un servicio físico. Más aún, la recesión económica actual hace que los gobiernos municipales, regionales y nacionales cuestionen de forma crítica cada euro que se invierte en instituciones culturales. En este contexto, existe una necesidad cada vez mayor de que las bibliotecas públicas demuestren su valor, 200 desde el punto de vista no solamente económico, sino también sociológico. Puesto que aún no existen medidas estandarizadas al respecto, se ha puesto en marcha un programa de investigación para definir los índices correspondientes. El presente artículo resume los fundamentos que sustentan dicho programa y los pasos que el Instituto Holandés de Bibliotecas Públicas está dando con el fin de crear instrumentos de medida destinados a probar de forma válida y fiable el valor social de las bibliotecas públicas. Se exponen los resultados de las IFLA Journal 39(2) primeras fases del programa de investigación: un marco teórico de estudio de la (posible) influencia de las bibliotecas en la sociedad holandesa, basado en las conclusiones extraídas de la revisión de la literatura existente y la investigación cualitativa. Los resultados nos permiten identificar y definir con mayor precisión cinco posibles ámbitos de influencia: cognitivo, social, cultural, afectivo y económico. Este marco resultante servirá de base para la creación de instrumentos de medida.